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Universidad de Santiago

Fallon Quintana

facultad de Humanidades

Lingstica y Literatura

Beyond Methods Macro strategies for language teaching

kumaradivelu B. Yale University Press, New heaven and London.

C ! "eaching #y $rinci$les. "eaching #y $rinci$les. %n

interactive a$$roach to language $edagogy, douglas. &nd'd.

Longman.

C ( intrinsic motivation in the classroom. "eaching #y

$rinci$les. %n interactive a$$roach to language $edagogy,

douglas. &nd'd. Longman.

C ) learner varia#les *+ teaching across age levels. "eaching #y

$rinci$les. %n interactive a$$roach to language $edagogy,

douglas. &nd'd. Longman.

C Learners -aria#les **+ teaching across $roficiency levels.

"eaching #y $rinci$les. %n interactive a$$roach to language

$edagogy, douglas. &nd'd. Longman.

C & Learner %utonomy+ Learning to Learn. "he $ractice of

'nglish language taching, amer /. !th'd. Longman.

Communicative Language teaching today. 0ichards, /.

Practical techni1ues for language teaching. Lewis, M 2 ill,

/immie.

C 3& "eaching Language Construction. "he $ractice of 'nglish

Language teaching, amer, /. !th'd. Longman.

C 4 "echni1ues5correction. Practical techni1ues for language

teaching. Lewis, M 2 ill, /immie.

C 4 Mistakes and 6eed#ack. "he $ractice of 'nglish languageteaching, ammer, /. !th'd. Longman.

Module , $art &, unit 3 correcting learners. "he teaching

knowledge test course, 7$ratt M, Pulverness %, 8illiams M, CUP.

Module , $art &, unit & giving feed#ack. "he teaching

knowledge test course, 7$ratt M, Pulverness %, 8illiams M, CUP.

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C & Counting your teachinr education. 9classroom

:#servation, Classroom 0esearch, critical $edagogy, #rown,

douglas. &nd'd. Longman.

C3( integratiing the four skills. "eaching $rinci$les. %n

interactive %$$roach to language $edagogy. Brown, ;ouglas. &nd

'd. Longman.

C 3) "eaching language skills. "he $ractice of 'nglish language

teaching, amer, /. !th'd. Longman

TKT

Do you agree with these comments

!" # Learning grammar rules is really useful$ %ut learning grammatical

terms isn&t" what do you thin' of this

(n my o)inion$ grammar rules descri%es the way in which languageshould %e used$ %ut it changes with the time so grammar rules are not static"

Thus$ teachers need to %e aware of it and they should not to consider %oo's

that )resent rules as the main source of 'nowledge$ %ecause they are not

always u) to date" *esides$ grammar rules )resented on %oo' mainly descri%e

written language than s)o'en language" Some )eo)le )refer learning

grammatical rules and terms %ecause it ma'es easier for them to learn" *ut

only learning grammatical rules does not give enough hel) with learning how to

communicate that is the main )ur)ose of language

+" # The only way to learn voca%ulary is through reading widely" ,hat do

you thin'

(t is well 'nown that %y reading we are a%le to %road our )ers)ectives$

learn new facts and come to a %etter and dee)er understanding of the world or

facts in life" *ecause of that ( thin' reading increases our voca%ulary

'nowledge" -ertainly 'nowing a word means 'nowing all its meaning

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understanding its form$ )ronunciation and s)elling "furthermore$ te.ts introduce

us to new words$ and in many cases$ we can deduce their meanings from the

written conte.t" /lso we need chances to remem%er this item$ in that sense$

we are a%le to remem%er some of these new meaning associations$ es)ecially if

we continue to read and meet the new items in conte.t again" (t seems to me

reasona%le to assume that this %eneficial"

0" # (t&s not very useful for my learners to learn any of the )honemic

sym%ols" ,hat do you thin'

( disagree" (t is )roved that the use of )honetic sym%ols in foreign

language teaching and learning is )otentially very )ositive for learners"

Therefore$ it is essential to consider the %est way to ta'e advantage of )honetic

sym%ols in the foreign language classroom" The main )rinci)les a%out the

sounds1sym%ols are2 e.)loiting learners3 familiarity with the sym%ol sha)es

and1or the sounds to %e studied" Some consider that teachers should introducefirst sym%ols identical or similar to the e4uivalent letters of the al)ha%et used

in the student3s native language and1or those sym%ols which re)resent sound s

also found in the learners5 native language and ma'e students )erceive the

utility of )honetic notation for the study of )ronunciation" For instance$ students

could %e shown the %enefits of learning )honetic notation for chec'ing

)ronunciation in dictionaries autonomously$ for distinguishing minimal )airs$ for

re)resenting the (f students don&t )erceive the utility of )honetic notation$

)honetic sym%ols may %e considered useless"

6" # Functions contain too much com)licated grammar for %eginner

learners" ,hat do you thin'

Functions are often taught in course%oo's together with the

grammar in their main e.)onents" -om%ining function and grammar

hel)s to give grammar a meaning1conte.t for learners and hel)s them to

learn functions with grammatical structures that they can then use in

other conte.ts"

7" # (f ( don&t correct my students$ they will continue to ma'e the same

mista'es and these will %ecome %ad ha%its" ,hat do you thin'

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( agree" -orrection is essential when learning a second language$

%ecause %y errors is that students reali8e or notice their mista'es" ,hen

they notice the mista'e and correct it$ they learn" (f they do not do so$

)ro%a%ly they will 'ee) on the same mista'e and the learner will %ecome

fossili8ed"

9" # ( cannot thin' of my students&needs when ( have 67 students in a class:

all ( can do is teach the materials in my course%oo'" ,hat do you thin'

*eing aware of students3 needs is )art of %eing a good teacher$ sim)ly

%ecause students have )ersonal learning needs" ;ach learner is

different" (n order to satisfy students needs$ it is im)ortant for educators

to understand the emotional$ social and educational needs that each

child has" ;ducating is more than only teaching reading or writing" (n

that sense$ we as teachers must %e taught different ways1 techni4ues to

hel) our students" Teachers can meet )ersonal needs of learners %y

choosing suita%le materials$ to)ics$ )ace$ activities$ an a))roach to

teaching$ s'ills$ interactions )atterns$ and ty)es of feed%ac'" ;ach class

is different and teachers need to %e a%le to ada)t material from

whatever source so that it is suita%le for their students" / course %oo'

can certainly hel) )lanning$ %ut it cannot re)lace the teacher5s own

ideas for what he or she wants to achieve in a class

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?" # Students don&t li'e doing lots of different activities# it3s confusing" ,hat

do you thin'

(n my )ersonal o)inion$ activities must %e related to the to)ic and must

%e focused on hel)ing students to get the content" So$ when the teacher

)re)ares an activity$ he might %e sure these are )ointed to hel) the

learners and not to distur% the )rocess of learning"

@" # ( often discover what my aims are while ( am teaching the lesson"

Sometimes ( only find out when the lesson is over" ,hat do you thin'

Ane of the most im)ortant reasons to )lan is that the teacher

needs to identify his or her aims for the lesson" Teachers need to 'now

what it is they want their students to %e a%le to do at the end of the

lesson that they couldn5t do %efore" (t also gives the teacher the

o))ortunity to )redict )ossi%le )ro%lems and therefore considersolutions$ ma'es sure that lesson is %alanced and a))ro)riate for class

and )lanning is generally good )ractice and a sign of )rofessionalism

!B"# Lesson )lans don&t hel) me teach %ecause ( always try to res)ond to

learner&s needs during the lesson" ,hat do you thin'

/lso the learning needs can %e meet %y choosing suita%le

materials and to)ics$ activities$ interaction )atterns$ a))roach to

teaching$ level of language and s'ills $ learning strategies and wor'load"

!!"# The course%oo' gives me everything ( need to )lan a se4uence of

lessons" ,hat do you thin'

/ good teacher always have to satisfy the students needs" Sometimes tofollow and cover a %oo' is not that good$ %ecause students are >ustcom)leting a %oo' %ut not learning" (f we$ teachers have to use a %oo'which has features we disli'e$ it may hel) to ma'e your disagreement clearto the students if$ for e.am)le$ you are going to omit )ractices of a certainty)e$ %ut criticism of detail that could affect students3 confidence in the

%oo' should always %e avoided" However$ if it is clear to students that youand the %oo' are going in different directions$ they will %e confused andtheir learning im)eded" *esides$ teachers do not have to %e afraid tochange the order of the material )resented in the %oo'$ omit )articularitems$ or su))lement the %oo' %y )roviding additional )ractice$ or )racticesof a different 'ind" Such changes must$ however$ %e )lanned in advance"

Thus$the %est lessons will usually %e those in which the teacher uses the%oo' as a su))ort for a course which is centred on the students3 needs"

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!+"#Cy learners have regular tests$ so ( don&t need to do much informal

assessment" ,hat do you thin'

/sses formally trough test and e.aminations is im)ortant %ut also

informal assessment is" (t is a way of chec'ing how the learners are

getting on "This 'ind of assessment hel) us to im)rove our )rocedures or

choose different materials or activities for future lessons $to find out how

successful our teaching has %een$ to give feed%ac' to the learners a%out

they can do and what they stull need to wor' on

!0"# ( use all material in every unit in the orden given in the %oo'" ,hat do

you thin'

-ourse%oo' units are often arranged around a s)ecific to)ic $ %ut

it might ma'e students feel that the lessons are re)etitive "For that is

im)ortant to vary $as teachers we should avoid doing the same 'inds of

things in the same order for e.am)le we can vary the )ace$ the

interactions )atternindividual )airs$grou)s$whole classE$ the

s'ill)roductive or rece)tiveE$the level of dificulty $the content$the mood

and e.citing or calming activities" /lso learners might re4uire more

revision than a course%oo' will )rovide"(ncluding regular revision

activities during a se4uence of lesson to recycle language"

!6"# Cy learners s)ea' the sameL! as ( do" So$ it&s much %etter to use the

mother tongue for setting u) activities and chec'ing understanding"

,hat do you thin'

(f the focus of the lesson is to im)rove the L!$ it would %e right to

use the L! for chec'ing understanding or setting u)" However$ when the

aim of the lesson is a%out learning a second language$ students must %e

given a model and when there is no model$ it is im)ossi%le to learn" The

idea is to )rovide learners with as much e.)osure as we can" *esides$

there are other ways to )rovide the same information" / teacher can

convey meaning: modify his1her in)ut$ act$ etc" Finally$ the idea of using

the L! in an ;nglish lesson is only recommenda%le when the teacher

uses all ti)s given %efore and learners do not understood$ in order to

o)timi8e time"

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!7"Learners thing we&re not doing out our >o% if we don&t correct all their

mista'es" ,hat do you thin'

=ro%a%ly most students %elieve so" They want the teacher to %e

there to hel) at any stage of the lesson %ecause $ mainly adults or

%eginners not necessarily young childrenE$ feel afraid of ma'ing

mista'es" *ut the fact is that in a normal lesson$ there are a%out 0B

)eo)le that a teacher has to correct and hel)" So$ clearly in some cases

it would not %e enough and students might %elieve the teacher is not

doing his1her >o% )ro)erly"

!9"#(t&s %est to se)arate wea'1strong or shy1dominant learners into different

grou)s or )airs" ,hat do you thin'

The %est thing a teacher can do is to mi. all students in order to

ma'e them )artici)ate" (f we mi. a tal'ative student and a not thattal'ative student$ )ro%a%ly they will succeed with the tas'$ %ut (f we mi.

two shy students" evertheless$ if a teacher mi.es a wea' with a strong

student$ what is going to ha))en is that the strong student will s)ea' or

do the whole tas' alone and the shy student will not %enefit from that

activity"

!

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Teachers change their roles during a lesson" Those roles will %e

a))ro)riate to the ty)e of lesson$ activities$ lesson aims and the level

and age of the learners" /t different stages of the lesson a teacher might

%e an informer$ a )arent$ a friend$ manager$ monitor$ etc" / teacher$ as it

was said$ can %e a $lanner,and that means that he )re)ares the lesson

in detail %efore teaching it$ so that it has variety and there area))ro)riate activities for different learners in the class" / teacher as an

informer,he gives the learners detailed information a%out the language

or a%out an activity" / manager that organises the learning s)ace$

ma'es sure everything in the classroom is running smoothly and sets u)

the rules and routines" / monitor, that goes around the class during

individual$ )air$ and grou) wor' activities" /n involver$ who ma'es sure

all learners are ta'ing )art in the activities" / $arent< friend$ that

conforts learnes when they are u)set or unha))y" / diagnostician$ who

is a%le to recognise the cause of learners &difficulties" Finally$ a

resource$ who )rovides hel) and advice"

&. 8hat is a function=

/ function is a reason why we communicate" ;very time we s)ea'

or write we do that is with a )ur)ose" For e.am)le$ greeting$ a)ologi8ing$

than'ing$ and agreeing$ among others and the language we use to

e.)ress a function is called exponent. Thus$ for e.am)le$ if I want to

invite my sister to the theatre I would say to my sister lets go to the

theatre tomorrow so, the function here is suggesting. Coreover$

e.)onents e.)ress different levels of formality and when formality suitswith a situation it is called a))ro)riacy"

. 8hat>s the difference #etween echo correction and $eer

correction=

(n one hand$ echo correction is a very )ositive way of correcting

students$ avoiding negative language li'e 5That5s wrongG5 or A G "(t means re)eating %ac' to the student what they said incorrectly$ %ut

this time with the correction or the good way of saying it" on the

other hand$ )eer correction is when students wor' in grou)s or )airs

and they correct themselves the mista'es they hear or read"

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!. ow can you trigger students motivation in the classroom=

/s learning is autonomous$ and motivation is something that

comes from within$ teachers does not motivate students %ut sha)e

motivation" There are many different ways to sha)e motivation such as

)raising$ STT ma.imi8ed$ showing them to find the im)ortance of

;nglish$ %y giving useful1attractive activities or %eing an energetic

teacher among others"

(. 8hat?s the silent $eriod=

The silent )eriod$ is a stage in second language ac4uisitionwhere

learners do not attem)t to s)ea'" Silent )eriods are more common in

children than in adult learners$ as there is often more )ressure on adult

learners to s)ea' during the early stages of ac4uisition" This can %e due

to communication demands such as a language %eing necessary atwor'$ or to mainstream language teaching methods insisting on

)roduction from the very start of instruction" The silent )eriod is often

associated with Ste)hen Krashen5s in)ut hy)othesis$ that learners are

%uilding u) language com)etence during their silent )eriods through

actively listening and )rocessing the language they hear$ and that they

do not need to s)ea' to im)rove in the language" He says that silent

)eriods of u) to si. months are not unusual" /lso$ the silent )eriod has

%een )ut into )ractice in language teaching methodssuch asTotal

=hysical Ies)onse$ the natural a))roach$ the delayed oral res)onse

a))roach$ and the com)rehension method" (n Total =hysical Ies)onseand the natural a))roach$ the instructor is s)ecifically recommended to

wait for students5 s)eech to emerge naturally$ rather than forcing early

out)ut"

). 8hat is interlanguage=

(nterlanguage is a Lerner3s develo)ing second language

'nowledge" (t might have characteristics of the second language$ and

some characteristics that seem to %e very general and tend to occur in

all our most interlanguage systems" (nterlanguages are systematic$ %ut

they are also dynamic" They change as learners receive more in)ut and

revise their hy)otheses a%out second language"

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_language_acquisitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Krashenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Input_hypothesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_teaching_methodshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_Physical_Responsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_Physical_Responsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_approachhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Delayed_oral_response_approach&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Delayed_oral_response_approach&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Comprehension_method&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_language_acquisitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Krashenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Input_hypothesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_teaching_methodshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_Physical_Responsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_Physical_Responsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_approachhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Delayed_oral_response_approach&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Delayed_oral_response_approach&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Comprehension_method&action=edit&redlink=1

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. 8hat is a develo$mental error=

/ develo)mental error is an error in learner language that does

not result from L! influence %ut rather reflects the learner&s gradual

discovery of the L+ system" These errors are often similar to those made%y children learning the language as their mother tongue" Such error can

%e classified as overgenerali@ation when a learner wrongly a))ly a

rule for one item of the language to another item"

4. 8hat>s the difference #etween learning styles and learning

straregies=

Learning styles descri%e an individual&s natural$ ha%itual and

)referred way of a%sor%ing$ )rocessing and retaining new informationand s'ills" (n other words$ learning styles are the way in which a learner

naturally )refers to remem%er information and s'ills" Some learning

styles are visual, auditory, kinaesthetic, grou$, individual,

reflective, etc. *ut$ learning strategies are the ways chosen and used

%y learners to learn language" They include the ways to hel) ourselves

identify what we need to learn$ )rocess new language and wor' with

other )eo)le to learn" Some of them are2 re$eating new words in

your head until you remem#er them, highlighting, etc.

A. ow different are "BL and PPP=

They are totally difference since we consider organi8ation$ %ut

they have some similarities too" (n the following chart it is shown the

main characteristics of each model"

PPP "BL5=resent the language in aconte.t"

5 the lesson has a language aim"The aim of the lesson is tocom)lete a tas'"

# The teacher conte.tuali8ed the

new language"

#The teacher starts %y holding a

discussion on the to)ic of thelesson"

5The teacher ma'es sure thatstudent remem%er )reviouslylanguage needed to )ractise thenew language %y eliciting"

#The teacher then gives thestudent tas' to do"

# The teacher )resents the newlanguage and the students >ust

#Teacher and students discuss anynew or )ro%lematic language they

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listen" controlled )racticeE needed for the tas'"The teacher tell the students a%outthe grammatical use of the newlanguage"

#Students do an e.ercise on thenew language"

The teacher as' students conce)t4uestions"

The students )ractice using theirown ideas" Following the modelgiven"

(n one hand$ a PPPa))roach )resents a new language %y giving the

students an o))ortunity to )ractise the language in a safe learning

environment where it is difficult to ma'e mista'es" "BL a))roach$ on the

other hand$ allows students to find new language when they want to$

and to use the language e.)erimentally and creatively for real

communication"

3. 8hat is feed#ack=

Feed%ac' is give information$ advice or criticism to learners a%out

how good or useful something or some%ody wor's" Feed%ac' can %e

focus on learner&s language or s'ills$ the ideas in their wor'$ their

%ehavior $their attitude to learning or their )rogress "(t can %e give to the

whole class $ to small grou)s or individual learners" (t can %e oral or

written" The )ur)oses of feed%ac' is to motivate learners and to hel)

them to understand what their )ro%lems are and how they canim)rove "(t should %e )ositive$ this is )articularly im)ortant to wea'er or

less confident learners" /lso during feed%ac' we can revisit or recycle

languages that learners are having )ro%lems with"

0'-*7*:N M'":;:L:Y

!?" "he decline of method D ;iana Larsen E 6reeman. ;iscuss in

detail.

Cethods are not considered sim)le$ %ecause they change during

time" ,hen one method is incom)lete$ then other researchers )ostulate

ways to im)rove it and so on" Cethods always change and ada)ts to the

conte.t and the time" ,hat was useful in the )ast )ro%a%ly is not useful

today or in the future and some other waves a))ear to demonstrate it"

in other words$ the %est method is one which you have derived through

your very own )rocess of formulation$ try#out$ revision$ and refinementJ

!@?

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!@" Mention Fumaravadivelu>s main ideas a#out L"2L.

To %egin with$ it is necessary to consider that any method is

)erfect at all$ so Kumaravadivelu aims that the )ost method )edagogy

hel)s teachers to move %eyond methods" However$ he %elieves that the

conce)t of method is critical for language learning and teaching$ and

teacher education" There are three main )arameters in )ost method

)edagogy that indicate2 The social conte.t of the classroom and

teachers3 understanding of what leads to learning in such a classroom"

That is to say$ teachers should )ersuade the students3 social needs:

otherwise$ they can3t satisfy students3 )edagogical needs

Kumaravadivelu$ +BB0E" The three )arameters )ostulated %y

Kumaradivadivelu are2 Particularity2 it means that the sort of

techni4ues teachers use de)ends on where$ when and to whom they are

teaching" *y the notion of )articularity$ Kumaravadivelu suggests$ any

language )edagogy$ to %e relevant must %e sensitive to a )articular

grou) of teachers teaching a )articular grou) of learners )ursuing a)articular set of goals within a )articular institutional conte.t em%edded

in )articular socio#cultural milieu"J Practicality2 *y )racticality he

means that a method should %e a))lica%le in real situation: otherwise$

the )ractice#theory relationshi) can3t %e a))roached: in other words$ a

theory is of no use unless it can %e a))lied in )ractice" /nd finally$

Possi#ility2 which means that the method should %e a))ro)riate

socially$ culturally$ and )olitically" *ecause teachers and students attend

the classroom with all their %eliefs and thoughts and it cannot %e stated

that their )ersonalities inside the classroom is se)arate from their

)ersonalities outside the classroom in their everyday lives"

&. 8hat makes Gs$eakingH difficult according to ;. Brown.

!" -lustering2 fluent s)eech is fluent $ it is not word %y word"

+" Iedundancy2 they may use this feature3 to ma'e their message

clear"

0" Ieduced forms2 contractions and wea' forms

6" =erformance varia%les2 )auses$ hesitations allow )eo)le to thin'

a%out what they are going to say ne.t use of monitorE"

7" -ollo4uial language2 student may not %e familiari8ed with idioms

or )hrases of collo4uial language"

9" Iate of delivery2 to achieve an acce)ta%le s)eed fluencyE

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&3. Mention and discuss in detail the interactive $rinci$les

according to ;. Brown.

!" /utomaticity2 is the su%conscious a%sor)tion of language through

meaningful use the use of monitor$ to thin' of rules while you arewriting o )roducing utterances E"

+" (ntrinsic motivation2 self#reward3" To feel satisfied %ecause of their

im)rovement"

0" Strategic investment2 interaction re4uires the use of strategic

language com)etences" Students must invest time and energy in the

)rocess of learning"

6" Iis'#ta'ing2 students may ta'e ris's" (f they do not do it $

eventually they will learn less and1or slowly than other students"

7" The language#culture connection2 students not only learn a%out

the L+ rules$ they also ac4uire a com)le. system of cultural customs e."ta%oosE

9" (nterlanguage2 errors as )art of the )rocess of learning

develo)mental )rocess of ac4uisitionE"

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ac4uisition$ it conforms more easily to the conce)t of interlanguage

develo)ment$ it allows students to get a communicative feel3 for some

as)ects of language$ it %uild more intrinsic motivation in students" The

Use of e.)lanations and technical terminology2 it must %e a))roach with

care" ;ven though adults may %enefits from e.)lanations$ sometimes

students are too %usy to learn a%out language itself rather than useE"Thus$ e.)lanations must %e %rief and sim)le to do so$ teacher may draw

charts or give clear e.am)lesE" *solated grammar+e.)eriences tell us

that grammar should %e em%edded into general language courses" *ut$

intermediate levels it may %e useful to set grammar aside" So teacher

should consider students3 goal to introduce grammar isolated or in

conte.t" Correction+ Forms of attention to grammar errors have an

im)act on learners" The treatment of grammatical errors in writing is

different from s)ea'ing that has an im)act on fluencyE" (n writing

students ma'e drafts first and then errors that interfere in meaning are

corrected" Coreover$ grammar in a curriculum should %e se4uenced in a

)rogression of easier to difficult items a logical se4uence of %asic

grammatical structuresE" There is a loss of focus on the le.ical forms of

language le.is has %een taught through lists of ver%s$ ad>ectives$ etc

communicative tas'sE" /llocate s)ecific class time to voca%ulary

learning2 without voca%ulary$ we cannot e.)ress our ideas"

Hel) students to learn voca%ulary in conte.t2 the %est internali8ation of

voca%ulary comes from conte.t3" Students may create ma)s with new

voca%ulary" Finally$ )lay down the role of %ilingual dictionaries2 in order

to increase the amount of voca%ulary they infers the meaning of the

wordsE" (t is easier to internali8e and then recall voca%ulary when they

learn in this way"

&. "eaching #y $rinci$les E ;ouglas Brown. ;iscuss in detail+

J Cognitive $rinci$les

!" /utomaticity2 it is the automatic )rocessing of forms and

voca%ulary among othersE to )roduce language3" To decrease the

amount of monitor KrashenE$ in other words$ to avoid overt attention to

language systems"

+" Ceaningful learning2 it leads toward %etter long#term retention" (t

affects students3 motivations" (t is im)ortant to choose interesting to)icsconte.tuali8edE" -onsidering )rior 'nowledge" /void )itfalls of rote

learning"

0" The antici)ation of reward2 )eo)le e.)ect rewards" They do and

%ehave in a certain way to gain something to s)ar' motivationE"

6" (ntrinsic motivation2 teachers have to consider students3

motivations" Students )erform a tas' %ecause it is fun$ challenging etc"

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7" Strategic investment2 to %e successful in something$ you need

)ractice"

J %ffective $rinci$les

!" Language ego2 students develo) a new way of thin'ing" Teacher

should ta'e into account students have feelings affective filter$ iM!E+" Self#confidence2 the %elief that they studentsE are ca)a%le of

doing or achieve something"

0" Iis'#ta'ing2 the im)ortance of getting learners to ta'e cultural

ris's in attem)ting to use language the teacher should )rovide an

a))ro)riate environment so students may feel comforta%leE"

6" The language#culture connection2 teacher should teach their

students the cultural connotations sociolinguistic as)ects of languageE

J Linguistic $rinci$les

!" The native language effect2 it a good idea to discuss in lessons

cross#cultural differences contrast analysisE"

+" (nterlanguage2 it is a develo)mental )rocess" Successful

interlanguage develo)ment is )artially a result of utili8ing feed%ac' from

others"

0" -ommunicative com)etence2 language it is not >ust grammar or

le.is$ it involves other com)etences and as)ects intonation$ stress$

)ragmatics$ semantics$ etcE

&!. "he $ractice of 'nglish Language "eaching #y armer.

0efer to learner differences.

The =ractice of ;nglish Language Teaching %y Harmer refers to2

/)titude2 analytic#ty)e learners good at grammar not the crucial

factor to success in language learning " Cost successful students2

unusual memories" So they retain more what they hear" Learner ty)es

and styles$ Iecognition of students as individuals$ ;sta%lish who the

different students in our classes are$ /scertain their language level and

monitor their )rogress forma and informally to 'now who needs more

or less hel)$ to guide de ty)e and amount of feed%ac' they need" To

tailor our methods$ the materials and the )roduction we e.ce)t to the

level we are wor'ing with" To ma'e activities that offer ma.imal

advantage to the different )eo)le in the class" Through o%servation$4uestionnaires$ etc" ,ritten feed%ac'$ more effective than face to face

feed%ac'"

&(. ;escri#ing learners E armer + "eaching children , %dults

and adolescents.

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/ge2

-hildren /dults Teens

(ntellectual

develo)ment

they are centred on

the here and now on

the functional)ur)oses of language

they handle a%stract

rules

some so)histicated

intellectual

)rocessing is)ossi%le do not

forget )u%erty

issuesE

/ttention s)an they tend to have

short attention s)an

interesting to)ics to

catch their attentionE

they have longer

attention s)ans

attention s)ans tend

to %e long$ %ut it can

easily %e shortened

Sensory in)ut they need their 7

senses involved inlessons

sensory in)ut may

not always %e varied"

varieties of sensorial

in)ut are stillim)ortant

/ffective

factors

their egos are still

%eing sha)ed"

they tend to %e self#

confident

teacher must %e

careful a%out self#

esteem

/uthentic$

meaningful

language

language need to %e

authentic and

conte.tuali8ed

they can understand

a conte.t reduced

segment of language

conte.t still

im)ortantE

do not %ored then

with overanalysis nor

treat them as

children

Learner differences2 a)titude some students are %etter at learning

languages than others" *ut it does not determine the level of student3s

successE good learner characteristics there are not s)ecific

characteristics$ %ut some of them are2 tolerance of am%iguity$ )ositive

tas' orientation$ ego involvement$ high as)irations$ goal orientation$

)erseverance$ creative$ inde)endent$ etcE

learner styles many teachers may classify their students in different

ways$ as the )artici)ators v1s re%el" There are 6 ty)es of students

according to Keith ,illing2 convergers2 they avoid )air or grou) wor'$ are

analytical$ confident and inde)endent: conformist2 they )refer to learn

a%out language than use it$ and well#organised teachers: concrete

learners2 they en>oy games$ the social as)ects of learning and are

interesting on language use: communicative learners2 they are language

use oriented$ they are interested on social interaction and are ha))y

when they wor' without the guidance of a teacherE language levels

elementary2 real %eginner and false %eginner: )re#intermediate: mid#

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intermediate: u))er#intermediate: advanced" There is a )ro%lem with

these esta%lished levels %ecause it means different things to different

)eo)le" For e.am)le ( may say that ( am advanced$ %ut someone else

could say (3m >ust )re#intermediate$ etcE" There are many incidences

related to the level of our students may reach2 the )lateau effect at the

%eginning students note their )rogress" *ut while they go through thesestages$ they may find difficult to note their )rogress and then feel

frustratedE$ methodology some techni4ues are more suita%le or

a))ro)riated for %eginners others for advancedE$ language teachers

have to ada)t their language to their students3 level$ length of

audios1videos$ language material$ etcE$ to)ics match to)ic with level" Do

not encourage %eginner students to deal with religion: they do have

neither the voca%ulary nor the grammar for discuss such a to)icE

individual variations )eo)le are differentE there are + theories that

e.)lain individual variations2 neuro#linguistic )rogramming it says that

)eo)le use )rimary re)resentational$ our senses$ to e.)erience the

world" /s )eo)le are different$ they use differently their senses$ one

more the others$ etc" So )eo)le3s )erce)tions are different too"

Therefore$ there are visual$ auditory$ 'inaesthetic learners" (t will de)end

on their )referred )rimary systemE: C( theory this one is related to

Nardner3s multi)le intelligences2 ver%al1linguistics$ visual1s)atial$

%ody1'inaesthetic$ logical1mathematical$ intra)ersonal$ inter)ersonalE

Cotivation2 motivation drives us to do a thing3 in a )eriod of time in

order to achieve a goal" There are + ty)es of motivation2 intrinsic

motivation comes from within the individualE and e.trinsic motivation it

is caused %y e.ternal factors as the need of getting a %etter >o%E"

Sources of motivation )ositive )eo)le attitudeE the society we live in2how the L+ in our society is seen$ if it is a sign of )restige or as a

%etrayed to our culture: significant others2 the a))roval or disa))roval

attitude of )arents or other si%lings is crucial: the teacher2 it influence on

classroom atmos)here and everything else: the method2 confidence is

im)ortant in order to %e comforta%le with the method used in lessons"

(nitiating and sustaining motivation ma'ing a diagnose a%out students3

interests to find to)ics that ma'e interesting lessons: esta%lish short and

long#term goals so students will wor' for a )ur)ose: ma'e the classroom

a good )lace so students feel invited to learnE"

+9"Mistakes and 6eed#ack E armer

# 7$eak a#out 6eed#ack during oral 8ork

/ccording to Harmer$ in relation to feed%ac' during oral wor'$ he

aims that it will de)end on the stage of the lesson consider controlled$

semi controlled or freer )racticesE$ the activity you must consider the

aim of the activity2 is it for them to get fluency or accuracyE$ the ty)e of

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mista'e the student made form or meaningE$ and the )articular student

who is ma'ing that mista'e if it is an adult for instance$ do not correct

him1her as he1she is a childE"

# %ccuracy v

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&4. "eaching $ronunciation 9see armerK

5 Pro#lems

Perfection vs *ntelligi#ility+ 7tudents3 )roduction de)ends on what

they heard" There are also )sychological factors why students may notli'e to ac4uire a native accent" *esides$ adults may have difficulties

%ecause of their rigidJ muscles" (ntelligi%ility is the goal of teaching

)ronunciation" The teacher must ma'e em)hasis on the features that

interfere on meaning coo' v1s co'eE

Pro#lems+ there are + )ro%lems2 what students can hear e." ma'e the

distinction %etween 1%1 and 1v1E and the intonation )ro%lem stress and

intonation change the meaning of what we sayE

Phonemic sym#ols+ to use or not to use+The teacher may descri%e

how sounds are made %y demonstrating$ drawing a )icture of the mouth

etcE without teaching )honemic sym%ols" evertheless$ it is useful toteach them %ecause they a))ear in dictionaries$ so student will 'now

how to )ronounce a word without the teacher3s hel)" ,hen teacher and

students 'now the sym%ols$ it is easier to e.)lain )ronunciation errors"

'Iam$les of $ronunciation teaching+ wor'ing with sounds to as'

student to focus on a sound sim)le )resent#third )erson3: contrasting

sounds#shee) v1s chi) and then they wor' the sound se)arately in

different utterances a %ig shee)3: listen and re)eat#tango$ tengo$ %ingo$

etc to get agma3: showing the chart of sounds$ how to )roduce a sound$

where they have to )ut their tongue$ etc3E" The first thing is to isolate the

sound they have )ro%lems with"

&A. 'valuation and testing. 7ee armer.

Harmer&s ideas a%out evaluation and testing aims 2 =lacement

tests2 Usually %ased on sylla%uses and materials the students will follow

and use once their level has %een decided on$ these test grammar and

voca%ulary 'nowledge and assess students3 )roductive and rece)tive

s'ills" Diagnosis tests2 -an %e used to e.)ose learner difficulties$ ga)s in

their 'nowledge$ and s'ill deficiencies during a course" Thus$ when we

'now what the )ro%lems are$ we can do something a%out them" =rogress

or achievement tests2 Designed to measure learners3 language and s'ill

)rogress in relation to the sylla%us they have %een following" They only

wor' if they contain item ty)es which the students are familiar with" /t

the end of a term$ they should reflect )rogress$ not failure and reinforce

the learning that has ta'en )lace" =roficiency tests2 Nive a general

)icture of a student3s 'nowledge and a%ility rather than measure

)rogress" Fre4uently used as stages )eo)le have to reach if they want to

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%e admitted to a foreign university$ get a >o%$ or o%tain some 'ind of

certificate" /lso$ he adds characteristics of a good test2 Palid su))osed

to testE$ relia%le give consistent resultsE and ty)es of test item2 Direct if

it as's candidates to )erform the communicative s'illE$ and indirect

measure students3 'nowledge and a%ility %y getting at what lies

%eneath their rece)tive and )roductive s'illsE"

. 8hy are learning strategies im$ortant E see 0. :Iford.

Ieferred to2 Strategies2 the s)ecific %ehaviors or thoughts learners

use to enhance their language learning" These factors influence the

student3s a%ility to learn in a )articular instructional framewor'" Learning

strategies are defined as s)ecific actions$ %ehaviors$ ste)s$ or

techni4ues# such as see'ing out conversation )artners$ or giving oneself

encouragement to tac'le a difficult language tas' ## used %y students to

enhance their own learningJ Scarcella A.ford$ !@@+$ )"90E" ,hen thelearner consciously chooses strategies that fit his or her learning style

and the L+ tas' at hand$ these strategies %ecome a useful tool'it for

active$ conscious$ and )ur)oseful self#regulation of learning" Learning

strategies can %e classified into si. grou)s2 cognitive$ metacognitive$

memory#related$ com)ensatory$ affective$ and social" Thus$ a given

strategy is neither good nor %ad: it is essentially neutral until the conte.t

of its use is thoroughly considered" / strategy is useful if the following

conditions are )resent2 aE the strategy relates well to the L+ tas' at

hand$ %E the strategy fits the )articular student3s learning style

)references to one degree or another$ and cE the student em)loys the

strategy effectively and lin's it with other relevant strategies" Strategies

that fulfill these conditions ma'e learning easier$ faster$ more

en>oya%le$ more self#directed$ more effective$ and more transfera%le to

new situationsJ A.ford$ !@@B$ )" ?E" Learning strategies can also ena%le

students to %ecome more inde)endent$ autonomous$ lifelong learners

/llwright$ !@@B: Little$ !@@!E" Oet students are not always aware of the

)ower of consciously using L+ learning strategies for ma'ing learning

4uic'er and more effective yi'os A.ford$ !@@0E" S'illed teachers

hel) their students develo) an awareness of learning strategies and

ena%le them to use a wider range of a))ro)riate strategies"

3. 8hat are direct strategies= E see 0. :Iford

-ognitive strategies ena%le the learner to mani)ulate the

language material in direct ways$ e"g"$ through reasoning$ analysis$

note#ta'ing$ summari8ing$ synthesi8ing$ outlining$ reorgani8ing

information to develo) stronger schemas 'nowledge structuresE$

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)racticing naturalistic settings$ and )racticing structures and sounds

formally"

&. "eaching leIis E see 7crivener and Lewis

Le.is words and word com%inationsE is the %asis of language"Le.is is misunderstood in language teaching %ecause of the assum)tion

that grammar is the %asis of language and that mastery of the

grammatical system is a )rere4uisite for effective communication" The

'ey )rinci)le of a le.ical a))roach is that language consists of

grammaticali8ed le.is$ not le.icali8ed grammar" -larify that a voca%ulary

item can %e more than one word" Develo) the understanding that

languages do not consist of words with e4uivalents from one language to

the other" Do not discuss the structure of the le.ical item" /void

confusing the students %y using structuralist e.)lanations for functional

e.)lanations" Difference %etween active and )assive voca%ulary2students have to understand items that they do not need to add to their

active voca%ulary" (t is hel)ful to guide them towards those words to add

to their active voca%ulary and distinguish those they will only need for

)assive use" ;.)lain difference of meaning$ not meaning2 to define a

word in relation to other words" -ontrastively$ for e.am)le" (t is easier

and effectively"

,ords are often %est taught in grou)s2 synonyms$ antonyms$

com)lements single1marriedE$ converses )arent1childE$ and hy)onyms"

Pary the way you e.)lain2 demonstrate1use the real thing1draw or

s'etch$ show the scales or grades1antonyms1synonyms1dictionary1ver%al

e.)lanations1translation" ,ords can lin' grammatically as well as

thematically2 voca%ulary learning seems to %e a totally disorganised

)rocess of learning a lot of different words %ut$ %y thin'ing of

grammatical lin's voca%ulary can at least to a limited e.tent$ %e

systemati8ed"

. Noticing in Language teaching and Learning. ;iscuss

oticing may %e the %asic learning )rocess in classroom second

language learning"

*ecause noticing is an inner )sychological )rocess$ data on noticing can

only %e gleaned from two sources R intros)ection and o%servation" From

%oth of these )oints of view$ ( thin' we can say two things a%out it

definitively" Firstly$ we teachers are not doing the noticing" oticing is

something that iE only the learner can do iiE is not guaranteed even

when the teacher leads the learner %y the nose" Secondly$ noticing is

something that can ta'e many stages$ and may not ha))en either

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'nowingly$ or all at once" oticing does not normally ha))en all at once"

So let3s not force our students into )roducing freely what can ta'e ages

to assimilate" Let3s >ust let them come to it when they do" That moment$

the moment when it %ecomes )art of them$ is invisi%le" (t >ust ha))ens at

an un'nown )oint$ and the student is from then on a different )erson"

,e should not want to 'now when it ha))ens" ,e should not want tocontrol when it ha))ens" ,e should >ust %e o)en to when it ha))ens"

There are many methods of hel)ing the students to notice$ which wor'

well$ and they include the u)dated version of ===" The 'ey )rinci)le

%ehind Iutherford3s wor' is that he ta'es the )ressure off the teacher to

%elieve that the single lesson is the moment of learning for the student"

(t is the moment of teaching$ %ut it is not necessarily the moment of

learning" /s)ects of language 4uite incidental to the lesson seem to

ma'e as much im)ression on my students as the targets of my focusing"

,hat seems to ha))en here is that$ while the %ul' of these as)ects

emerge after focused attention directed %y the teacher ( call this

directed noticing3E$ some emerge either after attention a))lied %y the

students alone ( call this incidental noticing3E$ or after no attention at all

( call this unconscious noticing3E"(f there is a %asic )rinci)le of noticing$

it is that language noticing comes from language focusing"

/ll the techni4ues that hel) the students tend to have this feature in

common" *ut it is always 'ey to remem%er that when learners notice an

as)ect of the language$ this is only ever one stage among a succession

of stages in the learning of that item %y those learners" So in su%se4uent

lessons$ that language item will return in other guises$ in )ractice

e.ercises$ role#)lay scenarios$ discussion to)ics$ etc$ and each time$ with

feed%ac' and focus from the teacher or )eers or self#correction$ thelearner will learn3 it a little dee)er"

/nd then$ one day$ at a time not 'nown to either teacher or learner$ it

will have %ecome )art of the learner$ and they will have learnt it" For

some language items$ this )rocess seems to ha))en very 4uic'ly$ for

instance with the structure can1can3t3 M infinitive"

Teachers have to raise the noticea%ility of language )oints"

!. Listening and 0eading E see M. Lewis.

C" Lewis )ostulates the following a%out Listening2-an %e divided into su%#s'ills2 follow general trend1understand s)ecific

details$ s)ea'ers3 intention$ s)ea'ers3 attitude"

Direct students3 listening$ )articularly if it is ta)ed2 two or three 4uestion

in order %efore they listen to the ta)e$ do some voca%ulary e.ercises

a%out the to)ic %efore"

Iemem%er that listening to a ta)e is difficult: you cannot interru)t and

re)eat for clarification of re)etition"

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Students need to hear the real thingJ from early in the course" ,e

%egin listening when learning our mother tongue"

Ca'e sure students can hear the difference %etween similar sounds

Use a variety of listen and res)ond activities2 you learn to s)ea' %y

listening$ good listening means that listeners are actively involved" Net

the students involved is the 'ey" C" Lewis )ostulates the following a%out Ieading2

Different te.ts are suita%le for different activities"

ot to use a te.t with a high density of new items" Too much new

material sim)ly cannot %e mastered at one time"

Use material that is not too difficult for the students$ %ecause nothing is

interesting if you can3t do it"

Use )re activities to focus students3 attention2 introduction1)re#

4uestions1voca%ulary

Distinguish %etween intensive and e.tensive reading

Do not as' students to read aloud unseen2 students will not 'now how to

)ronounce and he will also %e una%le to concentrate on their meaning

too"

Pary the method of reading

Use short 4uestions during intensive reading2 not to test com)rehension

%ut to ensure that students are following and to hel) them concentrate"

Use definition 4uestions$ don3t as' what does"" mean

Students cannot use what they cannot say

Difficult wordsJ are not the same as long words"

-orrection 4uestion )rom)t students3 language

ot all com)rehension 4uestions chec' understanding

Use com)rehension and conversation 4uestions together(f you read a dialogue$ distinguish the two s)ea'ers clearly"

(. Characteristics of a good

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The more the teacher tal's$ the less o))ortunity the students have to

s)ea'$ %ut it is the students who need the )ractice

# Conce$t 1uestioning

(t is an im)ortant chec'ing tool" (t has to avoid as'ing the 4uestion$ 5Do

you understand5$ which can %e answered 5yes5 without indicating true

understanding" -once)t 4uestions$ using realia$ as'ing learners tore)eat instructions$ learners e.)laining meaning$ and o)en#class

4uestions are all ways of conce)t chec'ing"

# Correction + 8hen, 8hy, ow=

Teachers have to correct all the time$ %ecause as students are learning a

new language they might commit all 'inds of mista'es and if teacher

does not correct those mista'es$ the student might fossili8e the mista'e"

However$ if the teacher wants to develo) fluency$ the %est way to

correct is after they s)ea' and )roduce and most of the times correction

is for every%ody$ so the rest can %e %eneficed too" *ut$ (f the tas' is in

order to develo) accuracy $ it is necessary to correct immediately"

"echni1ues E conversation. 7ee M. Lewis.

Some techni4ues )ro)osed %y C" Lewis are2

;.)loit o))ortunities for short s)ontaneous conversation"

ot to )lan a conversation into a lesson too general or too s)ecific or to

%oring$ etcE

/%out something that H/==;S during the lesson

-onversation lessons2 the least successful it is com)letely unnatural

Don3t flog a dead horse

-hange the to)ic as soon as you notice it is not of the interest of the

students

;ncourage contri%utions without interfering

Teachers have to remem%er that this s'ill is the most difficult and have

to ma'e the conversation activities as rela.ed as it can %e"

Teacher must e.)ect sim)le contri%utions

Nive students a )ause so they thin' what they want to say and how

ot to )ressure students with 4uestions or hel)ing %y finishing students

sentences for them"

-onversation focuses on fluency rather accuracy"

Teacher must not correct small structure mista'es and if they are to give

correction it must %e after the conversation" Don3t interru)t it"

-onversation does not need to %e a%out serious issues

Teachers should %e aware of %ig issues3 as the %asis of conversation

lessons"

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(f students don3t li'e the to)ic they will not %e interested on sharing their

o)inion$ they won3t have one"

Unim)ortant to)ics$ everyone have o)inion

=rovocative statements are often %etter than 4uestions

Students can %e much more willing to res)ond it

Teachers can feel inhi%ited to e.)ress their o)inions$ in that case theycan say something li'e a friend of mine told me thatJ

=ro%lem solving is often an e.cellent %asis for conversation

(nformation ga)s3 + s)ea'ers with different sets of info conversation

consisting of an e.change of info

atural involvement closer to normal language use outside the

classroom

Different )eo)le can have different o)inions and care enough to correct

others3 o)inions %ut not enough to feel inhi%ited %y the to)ic"

;ncourage active listening

Teach the 'ind of res)onses which encourage the s)ea'er to e.)and2

really That3s very interesting$ were you Did you Has she

). "echni1ues E structure. 7ee M. Lewis

/ccording to Lewis$ (t is necessary for a teacher to encourage

students to see )atterns" The a%ility to recogni8e items which are similar

in some way will ma'e it easier for the student to learn" The teachers

have to construct and guide the attention to grou)s which ma'e such

similarities clear to students" Nood rules hel) students where good3means a com)romise %etween accuracy and accessi%ility$ and where

rule3 is a com%ination of cyclically )resented well#chosen e.am)les and

ver%al descri)tion" Understanding is a cycle which involves each of

e.)licit e.)lanation$ e.am)le and )ractice" (t is not sufficient for

students to understand intellectually

Terminology can hel) or hinder" Terminology should %e taught for its

own sa'e" Terminology has to %e taught and understood %efore students

are e.)ected to use it" Filling in a fill#in e.ercise is not enough$ students

need to )ractice" The teacher say the num%er$ the student say the

com)lete e.am)le" Students need to )ractice form as well as use" Theteaching should maintain a %alance %etween )ractices which

concentrate on fluency and those which concentrate on accuracy" (t is

worth to em)hasise that oral and written )ractices are *ATH useful even

if the students3 main o%>ective )laces the em)hasis strongly on oral or

written ;nglish" Nimmic'sJ to com%at )o)ular mista'es" Have an S3 to

)oint to when students forget the final s3 in third )erson" Use %eehives

with large classes" *eehive drill" The name of such )ractices is %ased on

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the fact that all the %ees in the hive wor' at the same time" For structure

)ractice we can use language games$ it is more li'ely to %e effective

than a more conventional )ractice" Free situations are im)ortant"

Lessons develo) from controlled to free )ractice" Nrammar is a rece)tive

s'ill too" Nrammar conveys meaning %ut too often the teacher directs

the students only to the meaning of words" Hel) students to see themeaning of grammar as well"

Teach word grammar as well as sentence grammar"

. 6actors affecting learning. 7ee 7$ada and Light##own.

9ow Languages are learnedK

/ccording to S)ada and Light%%own $ factors that affect learningare2 intelligence which is understood as the )erformance on certain

'ind of tests" However$ it has %een demonstrated that some tests avoid

some as)ects that evaluate only metalinguistic a%ilities and not

communicative a%ilities" Thus$ Nardner claims that we have multi)le

intelligences that gives us other a%ilities li'e musical$ inter)ersonal$

athletic$ etc" /)titude refers to the a%ility to learn 4uic'ly$ for instance$

some learners may have strong memories %ut only average a%ilities in

language analysis" Learners& strengths and wea'nesses in these

different com)onents may occur for their a%ility to succeed in different

ty)es of instructional )rograms" Learning styles$ as it has %eenmentioned$ are an learner&s natural way of a%sor%ing$ )rocessing and

retaining new information and s'ills" Then$ in relation to Personality,

these authors aims that a learner an.iety interferes with the learning

)rocess and that this student will not learn as a rela.ed or self confident

student$ %ut all this factors are uncontrolled and de)end of each learner"

Motivation and attitudesgoes together %ecause there is a sim)le

evidence that )ositive motivation is associated with willingness to 'ee)

learning$ so$ a )ositive attitude or value to the second languageE

increases the )ossi%ilities to learn" Finally$ in relation to age of

ac4uisition$ S)ada an Light%%own notice the fact that it has %een

hy)othesi8ed that there is a critical )eriod for second language

ac4uisition" This critical )eriod hy)othesis is that there is a time in

human develo)ment when the %rain is )redis)osed for success in

language learning"

4. 8hat is CL" today. 7ee 0ichards

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!@

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eclecticism"J Larsen#Freeman2 s)ea's a%out two ty)es of eclecticism2

)rinci)led eclecticism3 and informed eclecticism3" The am%ition of the

former is to descri%e a desira%le$ coherent$ )luralistic a))roach to

language teaching$ and the latter stresses that teachers have to %e

informed and use this information to choose from among the availa%le

)ractices to create their own uni4ue %lend that would %e a))ro)riate fortheir own )ersonality$ teaching style$ and the circumstances in which the

teaching is ta'ing )lace" Iichards$ et al$ add that most language

teaching )rograms o)erate from a %asis of informed eclecticism rather

than %y attem)ting to rigidly im)lement a s)ecific methodJ !@@!2!7?E"

These ideas indicate that the conce)t of eclecticism may %e inter)reted

in a numerous ways" Two conce)ts$ however$ seem to %e most fre4uent"

Ane is %ased on an idea that there may %e an eclectic methodJ or

methodologyJ which incor)orates what is valua%le in any system or

method of teaching and refuses to recogni8e anything that is in conflict"

This attitude is close to what is sometimes called a com)lete methodJ

N(I/ID !@?9E" *rown advocates Venlightened eclecticism which

means Vto engage in an intelligent use of selected a))roaches %uilt u)on

and guided %y an integrated and %roadly %ased theory of second

language ac4uisition!@?

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teacher as a controller2 they determine what the students do$ when

learners should do s)ea'$ and what language forms students should use"

*ut for interaction to ta'e )lace$ the teacher must create an a))ro)riate

climate" He is also a director2 / teacher has to guarantee a smooth and

fluent learning )rocess in order to ena%le students to engage in real life

communication" Furthermore$ a teacher can %e a manager2 who involves)lans lessons$ modules$ and courses" *esides$ the teacher is su))osed to

%e a facilitator2 This is a less directive role" Teachers facilitate the

)rocess of learning" *ased on students3 intrinsic motivation$ the teacher

allows students to discover language through using it )ragmatically"

Finally$ he is a resource2 this is the least directive role" The teacher is

availa%le for advice and counsel when students see' it" /s it was said

%efore$ a teacher might %e many different things in one lesson or one

semester as the categories mention %efore an many others li'e an

organi8er$ an assessor$ a )rom)ter $ a )artici)ant$ a tutor$ an o%server$

among others"

!&. Lesson Planning Princi$les. 7ee 7anti#ae@ 9manual de

a$oyo a la ;ocencia E *dioma eItranero, 3AAK

!" De)endence ### (nde)endence

+" Timeta%le fit

0" -larity of aims

6" /ssum)tions and /ntici)ated =ro%lems

7" *alance$ variety$ timing$ and logical )rogression

9" How would ( feel