Question about the readingWhat are clitics?They are not words.Evidence: they cant be stressedThey are not prefixes or suffixes.Evidence: they dont cause certain changes in the word that a prefix or suffix would cause.Evidence: any given prefix or suffix can attach to one kind of word (for example, only nouns or only verbs). Some clitics attach to whatever is nearby.

Example: Spanish clitic pronouns(Data to be supplied by the class)Word stress in SpanishStress the second to last or last syllableExamples:When you add a suffix like able or mente, the stress goes on the new second to last syllable:Examples:Clitic pronoun:Example: I am reading it.When the clitic is added, the stress stays on the old second to last syllable.Clitic pronoun:Example: I see him.Can it be stressed?

A Distributional Approach to Parts of SpeechGrammars and Lexicons11-721September 5, 2007

Categories of Words:Parts of SpeechNounVerbAdjectiveAdverbPrepositionDeterminer (Article)Modal ?

Parts of SpeechThis boy must seem incredibly stupid to that girl.Det Noun Modal Verb Adverb Adjective Prep. Det Noun

Scientific method in linguisticsTheories (hypotheses) must be testable and falsifiable.Results must be reproducible.

Reproducible Results: Chomsky, 1957The search for rigorous formulation in linguistics has a much more serious motivation than mere concern for logical niceties or the desire to purify well-established methods of linguistic analysis. Precisely constructed models for linguistic structure can play an important role, both negative and positive, in the process of discovery itself. By pushing a precise but inadequate formulation to an unacceptable conclusion, we can often expose the exact source of the inadequacy and, consequently, gain a deeper understanding of the linguistic data. More positively a formalized theory may automatically provide solutions for many problems other than those for which it was explicitly designed. Obscure and intuition-bound notions can neither lead to absurd conclusions nor provide new and correct ones, and hence they fail to be useful in two important respects.

In language technologies, imprecise definitions lead to poor intercoder reliability, which leads to poor training, etc.

A traditional theory of parts of speechVerbs denote actionsNouns denote entitiesAdjectives denote statesAdverbs denote mannerPrepositions denote locationDeterminers specify

Counter-examplesThe same concept can function in several parts of speech.Pinker, page 98Her interest in fungi (noun)Fungi are starting to interest her more and more. (verb)She seems interested in fungi. (adjective)Interestingly, the fungi grew an inch in an hour. (adverb)

The distributional theory of parts of speech

A part of speech, then, is not a kind of meaning; it is a kind of token that obeys certain formal rules, like a chess piece or a poker chip.Pinker, page 98Testable and falsifiableAssumes discrete categories

The distributional theory of parts of speechDistributionThe contexts where the word can appearMorphology Prefixes, suffixes, and other changes to the structure of the word.

Identifying parts of speech by their MorphologyMorphology: The form of wordsAffixes: Prefixes, suffixes, infixesStem changes: swim/swam

Morphological properties of English nounsCount nounsCup/cupsBook/booksMass nounsAttention/?attentionsSand/?sandsWater/?watersCoffee/?coffees

Morphological Properties of English adjectivesMonosyllabic (one syllable) adjectivesTall/taller/tallestFast/faster/fastestMulti-syllabic adjectivesIntelligent/more intelligent/most intelligentExcept for adjectives that have non-gradable meanings:Alphabetical, unique, pregnant

Invariant words: no prefixes or suffixes in EnglishPrepositions (in, on, at, about, across, beyond, etc.)Modals (may, might, can, could, must, shall, should, etc.)

Morphological Properties of English VerbsPast ParticiplePresent ParticipleThird person singular subjectInfinitive

What are participles?Verb forms that act like adjectives or nouns:Mown grass Participle in an adjective positionMowing is funParticiple in a noun position

Other uses of English ParticiplesThe grass was mown.Passive verbI was mowing the grass.Present progressive verb

Distributional criteria for parts of speech

Template 1: adjectivesGreat ideas spread quickly.Interesting ideas spread quickly.Stupid ideas spread quickly.Colorless ideas spread quickly.Words of the same category have the same distribution. For example, adjectives can come before nouns.

Template 2: adjectivesThey are very adjective.They are very nice/gentlemanly/ladylike.*They are very gentlemen/ladies/faxes.*They are very starve/die.*They are very to/at/on.

They are very in.They are very off.

Template 3: adjectives and adverbsVery adverb or adjectiveVery slowVery slowlyVery badlyVery happy

Template 4: adverbHe treats her adverb.He treats her well.He treats her arrogantly.He treats her nicely.

He treats her nice.He treats her good.

Template 5: nounsnoun can be a pain in the neck.Television can be a pain in the neck.Linguistics can be a pain in the neck.This can be a pain in the neck.*Happy can be a pain in the neck.*From can be a pain in the neck.*The can be a pain in the neck.*Breathe can be a pain in the neck.

Template 6: verbsThey/it can verb.They/it can stay/leave/die/cry.*They/it can gorgeous/cute/trendy.*They/it can from/to/in/off/on.*They/it can door/bible/gold/camera.

Template 7: ModalsModal I be frank?Can I be frank?Must I be frank?Should I be frank?Need I be frank?

Template 8: determinerHe wrote determiner other works.He wrote the/all/these/no/few/many other works.*He wrote despair/be/have other works.*He wrote student other works.?He wrote successful other works.

Template 9: prepositionsRight preposition.Right is an intensifier.Right up/down/in/on/across the streetRight down the stairsRight in the drawerRight from schoolRight across the street*He right despaired.*She chose right this one.

ProblemsProblems with Radfords templatesProblems for the assumption of discrete categoriesWords that evade categorization

Template 1 problemTemplates need to be more exact:

Great ideas spread quickly.The ideas spread quickly.

Do great and the have the same part of speech?

Template 5: need subcategoriesCat can be a pain in the neck.The template only works forPlural nouns (e.g., cats)Mass nouns (e.g., water)Pronouns (e.g., he)Proper nouns (e.g., Sam)Cat is a singular count noun.

Count and mass nounsSingular count nouns must occur with a determiner:The cat was a pain in the neck.A cat can be a pain in the neck.*Cat was a pain in the neck. Plural nouns and mass nouns can occur without a determiner.Cats can be a pain in the neck.Water can be a pain in the neck. Singular mass nouns change their meaning when they occur with aa watera coffee?An information

Other things to take into accountHe can be a pain in the neck.*Him can be a pain in the neck.This music rocks.These CDs rock.

Template 6: Need subcategories*They can handle.*They can accommodate.*They can harbor.

The template only works for intransitive verbs.These verbs need another noun after them.They can handle boredom.They can accommodate changes.They can harbor criminals.

Template 9: prepositionsShe looked at him right strangely. (dialect)She is right pretty. (dialect)You look a right clown. (Oxford English Dictionary)The government made a right mess of it. (Oxford English Dictionary)

Words can have more than one part of speechHe needs to see a doctor. (verb)Need I be frank? (modal)I feel a need to explore my roots. (noun)

Importance to youThe distributional theory of parts of speech is problematic, but it is your best bet for your grammar writing project.When you are building a lexicon, you will decide on parts of speech for words by using template tests and morphological tests.

In-class exerciseGoals:Interpret the results of distributional tests for parts of speech.Discover that some words are problematic for the distributional theory of parts of speech.Reminder:When you know a language, you know a complex body of unconscious knowledge.

Words that evade classificationMore tests for prepositions and adjectivesCambridge Grammar of the English Language, Chapter 7, Section 2.2Attempt to categorize like, worth, near, opposite, due, close, far

Predicative and non-predicative adjunctsCambridge Grammar of the English Language, page 604Adjectives: predicative modifiersTired of the ship, the captain saw an island on which to land.Tired is predicated of the captain.*Tired of the ship, there was a small island.Prepositions: non-predicative modifiersAhead of the ship, the captain saw an island on which to land.Ahead of the ship, there was an island on which to land.

Become, Feel, Seem, LookAdjectivesHe became/seemed/felt/looked happyPrepositions*He became/seemed/felt/looked in the park.ExceptionsHe became/seemed/felt/looked under the weatherHe became/seemed/felt/looked out of his mind

Degree modificationAdjectivesVery smartSmarterSmart enough*very much smartPrepositions*very in the room?very much in the room*more on the table?This book is more on the table than that one.?This book is enough on the table not to fall.?This book is on the table enough not to fall.This book is very much on the table.?This book is more about linguistics than that one.

Followed by bare NP or PPAdjectives: Cannot be followed by bare NPFond of Sam*Fond SamHappy about the promotion*Happy the promotionPrepositions: Can be followed by bare NPIn the roomAbout linguistics

Right and StraightAdjectives:*right red*right conspicuous?right smartPrepositionsStraight into the roomRight on the table

Coming with a question word when it moves (Pied Piping, from a story where kids and rats followed a piper)Relative clauseI saw a manThe man who I saw ___Embedded questionI know that you saw someone.I dont know who you saw ___.PrepositionsShe cut the bread with a knifeThe knife with which she cut it ___The knife she cut it withI know that you are referring to someone.I dont know to whom you are referring ___I dont know who you are referring to.AdjectivesShe is fond of Sam.?The boy fond of whom she is ___The boy of whom she is fond __The boy who she is fond of ___*I dont know fond of whom she is. *I dont know of whom she is fond ___.I dont know who she is fond of ___.

WorthPredication:Worth over a million dollars, the jewels were kept under surveillance.*Worth over a million dollars, there will be ample opportunity for a lavish lifestyle.BecomeWhat might have been a $200 first edition suddenly became worth perhaps ten times that much.

WorthDegree modification*It was very worth the effort.It was very much worth the effort.?It was enough worth the effort.?It was worth the effort enough.Followed by a bare NPyes

WorthRight and straight*The land is right worth $100K.Comes with a question word?She thought the land was worth $100K. This was far less than the amount which she thought the land was worth ___.*This was far less than the amount worth which she thought the land was ___.

WorthDegree modification

Parts of Speech in Language Technologies

Part of Speech TaggingInput: string of wordsOutput: string of words with a part of speech associated with each word.Example:This:det boy:N likes:V that:det girl:NUse statistical or rule-based knowledge about distribution.Usually use a long list of parts of speech, e.g., around 40.

Part of speech tags used in the Penn TreebankCoordinating conjunctionCardinal numberDeterminerExistential-thereForeign wordPreposition/subordinating conjunctionAdjectiveComparative adjectiveSuperlative adjectiveList item markerModal

Part of speech tags used in the Penn TreebankSingular noun or mass nounPlural nounSingular proper nounPlural proper nounPredeterminerPossessive endingPersonal pronounPossessive pronounAdverbComparative adverbSuperlative adverbParticle

Part of speech tags used in the Penn TreebankSymbolToInterjectionBase form verbPast tense verbGerund or present participle verbPast participle verbVerb not 3rd person singular presentVerb 3rd singular presentWh-determinerWh-pronounPossessive wh-pronounWh-adverb

A different theory of Parts of Speech

Theory of Propositional Acts and Parts of Speech(William Croft, Radical Construction Grammar, Chapter 2)ReferModifyPredicate

Nouns are words that refer without additional marking.Adjectives and adverbs modify without additional marking.Verbs predicate without additional marking.

Additional MarkingPredication > referenceDestroy > destructionThe destruction of the cityPredication > modificationDestroy > that destroyedThe hurricane that destroyed New OrleansModification > predicationRed > is redThe book is redModification > referencered > the red oneThe red one is on the shelfReference > predicationTeacher > is a teacherHe is a teacher

Problems with propositional acts and additional markingModification > reference without additional markingRobin Hood stole from the rich and gave to the poor.Reference > modification without markingToy house

Variation across languagesWorld Atlas of Language Structures

Things that are marked on verbs in other languagesAspectPerfect and imperfectMoodSubjunctiveVoicePassive