quantum game theory and cooperation in intellectual property

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QUANTUM GAME THEORY AND QUANTUM GAME THEORY AND COOPERATION IN INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY IN INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY Ted Sichelman Ted Sichelman Univ. of San Diego School of Law CLEO – USC Law School Apr 12 2010 Apr . 12, 2010

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The inventive and creative works protected by intellectual property laws are essentially public goods. As in the case of ordinary public goods, it is usually difficult for inventors and creators to erect non-legal barriers to prevent the use of their works (non-excludability), and any such use does not deplete their works (non-rivalry). Thus, scholars have long used classical game theoretic models of public goods to describe the strategies of players in intellectual property (IP) games. These models contain two seemingly common-sense assumptions: one, that if there are a finite number of decisions a player can make for any single move, the player must make exactly one decision; and two, that if a player engages only in a single game, the player will break a pre-game commitment with another player to follow a mutually beneficial strategy if it is in that player’s self-interest.Recent extensions to classical game theory using the theory of quantum mechanics – known as quantum game theory (QGT) – have dispensed with these two assumptions, yielding radical new results for many types of games. For instance, in the classical version of the prisoner’s dilemma, two prisoners will fail to cooperate even though it is in their mutual interest to do so. However, in the quantum version, the prisoners’ decisions are often “entangled” in a mutually beneficial way that overcomes the ostensible barriers of classical self-interest, leading the players to cooperate. In this regard, quantum game theorists have suggested that if some exogenous quantum mechanical mechanism – like a quantum computer – could be used to entangle players in a public-goods game, doing so would diminish or eliminate sub-optimal free riding.This paper contends that there are endogenous effects – specifically, quantum game theoretic phenomena present in the absence of external quantum computers – in certain types of IP games that may act to reduce classically predicted free riding, duplicated development costs, and deadweight losses. In particular, instead of modeling underlying IP rights as classical entities, this paper follows the suggestions of several earlier scholars that legal rights are probabilistic and, at least metaphorically, quantum in nature. In so doing, it shows that rights, including IP rights, exhibit an inherent quantum structure that allows players to avoid making a single classical choice for each move. By allowing the government – as a mechanism designer – to engage in quantum strategies, ordinary players can coordinate their strategies in non-classical ways, exhibiting forms of seemingly altruistic behavior and cooperation that are absent in classical models. The paper concludes by commenting briefly on how QGT might be applied more broadly to other areas of the law.

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Page 1: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

QUANTUM GAME THEORY ANDQUANTUM GAME THEORY AND COOPERATION 

IN INTELLECTUAL PROPERTYIN INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

Ted SichelmanTed SichelmanUniv. of San Diego School of Law

CLEO – USC Law SchoolApr 12 2010Apr. 12, 2010

Page 2: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Uncertainty in IPUncertainty in IP• Uncertainty in IP is generally assumed to decrease welfare (aside from reducing administrative costs):welfare (aside from reducing administrative costs):

– “Uncertainty is the enemy of innovation.” (Newman, J.) (In re Bilski))

– “[U]ncertainty is not desirable.” (Bessen & Meurer, 2008)

– “[U]ncertainty about patent coverage deters firms from innovating and significantly increases costs associated with innovation due to the threat of infringement allegations.” (Thomas, 2009)( , )

– “[U]ncertainty about the validity of a patent has several potential costs.” (Hall, Graham, Harhoff & Mowery, 2004)

– “The uncertainty that the current system creates for all parties regarding who can legally use what technologies is a cost that is difficult to quantify but is surely significant ” (Jaffe 2008)technologies is a cost that is difficult to quantify, but is surely significant.  (Jaffe, 2008)

– “There are also increased costs for innovators attributable to the increased uncertainty.” (Quillen, 2006)

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Uncertainty as BeneficialUncertainty as Beneficial• New result by Ayres & Klemperer (1999)

• Show that denying enforcement of a valid infringed• Show that denying enforcement of a valid, infringed patent in a probabilistic fashion can increase social welfarewelfare– Can decrease deadweight losses by providing an incentive for third‐parties to infringe the patent right prior to enforcement decision

• Limitations:– Only one innovator; not a game‐theoretic model

– Assumes an otherwise ironclad, classical right

l l d h d– Equivalent to proportional damages scheme; reduction in scope or duration of right 3

Page 4: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Contributions of this PaperContributions of this Paper• Formal: Extends Ayres & Klemperer (1999) to a multi‐innovator model– Shows that “probabilistic patents” can decrease deadweight losses and duplicated development costs

– These effects cannot be easily replicated by proportional damages or adjustments to classical patent scope or durationpatent scope or duration

• Conceptual: Situates “probabilistic” rights and duties in the context of quantum game theoryduties in the context of quantum game theory

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Page 5: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Classical Game Theory (CGT) & IPClassical Game Theory (CGT) & IP

• Two‐party game: innovate‐imitate

• Alpha and Beta are chip manufacturers

• Each can build a new chip with marginalEach can build a new chip with marginal revenue benefits– 20mm consumers will purchase– 20mm consumers will purchase

• 10mm @ $75 more; 10mm @ $25mm more

– $300mm in R & D costs; will build if net ≥ 0$300mm in R & D costs; will build if net ≥ 0

• A & B cannot communicate

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Page 6: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Alpha‐Beta HypotheticalAlpha Beta Hypothetical

• Once built, other player can copy design and incorporate for no addl. marginal costs– Copier may be subject to IP right (see below)

• If A & B both sell, market is competitive– Parties enter market if non‐negative net payoffsParties enter market if non negative net payoffs

• Thus, in absence of IP rights, parties always copy.

• No other potential barriers to entry• No other potential barriers to entry

• Other usual assumptions (parties are rational, self interested etc )self‐interested, etc.)

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Page 7: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

No IP Right g(Marginal Payoffs)

Alpha/Beta Build Copy

Build (‐300, ‐300) (‐300, 0)( ) ( )

Copy (0, ‐300) (0, 0)

N ith t b ild• Neither party builds• Classic “public goods” problem

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Page 8: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Alpha‐Beta: Classical IP RightAlpha Beta: Classical IP Right• Government as “mechanism designer” 

i bli d blrecognizes public goods problem

• Adopts IP right to protect “first” innovator– Patent provides ironclad, exclusive right w/ lost profits and injunctive remedies

S h l h 50% h f i i– Suppose each player has a 50% chance of winning “patent race”

– Winner has effective “monopoly” powerWinner has effective  monopoly  power• So winner prices chip at $75 over old chip [maximizes revenue at $75 x 10mm as opposed to $25 x 20mm], which l d t d d i ht lleads to deadweight losses

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Page 9: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Alpha‐Beta: IP RightAlpha Beta: IP Right

• Case I: Both build– 50% chance of $750mm in marginal revenue ($375mm), but $300mm in costs: $75mm net

• Case II: One builds, one “copies”– Builder wins patent race; “copier” will not copy p ; p pysince it will pay certain damages in litigation

– Builder nets $450mm [$750mm ‐ $300mm][ ]

• Case III: Both “copy”– No product is builtNo product is built

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Page 10: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Alpha‐Beta Payoffs: IPAlpha Beta Payoffs: IP

Alpha/Beta Build CopyAlpha/Beta Build Copy

Build (75, 75) (450, 0)

Copy (0, 450) (0, 0)

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Page 11: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Social Welfare: CGTSocial Welfare: CGT• Classical IP Right

l h b ld– Result: Both parties build

– Winning Player: $450mm in producer surplus 

Losing Player $300mm in surplus– Losing Player: ‐$300mm in surplus

– Net Social Surplus: $150mm• Net Consumer Surplus $0mm ($75 @max value)Net Consumer Surplus $0mm ($75 @ max value)

– $550mm less than ideal surplus of $700mm• $300mm in duplicated development costs

• $250mm in deadweight losses ($25 x 10mm)

• No Classical IP Right– Result: No new product; zero social surplus

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Page 12: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Can we do better?Can we do better?• Classical theory attempts to reduce deadweight losses by:losses by:– (1) Adjusting duration or scope of patent

– (2) Tinkering with patentability requirements:(2) Tinkering with patentability requirements:

• Threshold of novelty/non‐obviousness

• Level of disclosure

– (3) Adjusting level of damages

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Page 13: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Benefits of UncertaintyBenefits of Uncertainty• Exception: Ayres & Klemperer (1999)

– Reduces deadweight losses in neoclassical model via probabilistic enforcement of valid right

Limitations: Can replicate with proportional damages;– Limitations: Can replicate with proportional damages; does nothing to reduce duplicated development costs.

• This paper: Generalizes A & K by using QGTThis paper: Generalizes A & K by using QGT– N‐player game theoretic approach; no assumption of valid right

– Reduces deadweight losses and duplicated development costs

– Caveat: Formally, QGT not necessary to analysis, but a fruitful conceptual approach. 13

Page 14: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Quantum Game TheoryQuantum Game Theory• Dispenses with classical assumptions:

– (1) “Quantum strategies” result in probabilistic superpositions of classical decisions

l i l i d• Not a classical mixed strategy

• Player does not need to make a particular choice for each move, but can make “multiple choices at once”each move, but can make  multiple choices at once

• Post‐game “measurement” selects a specific decision path

– (2) Parties can be “entangled” in non‐classical ways• Measurement on one party may “instantaneously” affect 

hanother party14

Page 15: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Classical Strategy

15Move 1 Move 2 “Uncertain” Outcome

Page 16: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Classical StrategyUnique decision may be result of

classical “mixed”mixed strategy

16Move 1 Move 2 “Uncertain” Outcome

Page 17: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Classical Strategy

17Move 1 Move 2 “Uncertain” Outcome

Page 18: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Classical Strategy

18Move 1 Move 2 “Uncertain” Outcome

Page 19: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Classical Strategy

19Move 1 Move 2 “Uncertain” Outcome

Page 20: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Classical Strategy

20Move 1 Move 2 “Uncertain” Outcome

Page 21: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Classical Strategy

21Move 1 Move 2 “Uncertain” Outcome

Page 22: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Quantum Strategy

22Move 1 Move 2 “Uncertain” Outcome

Page 23: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Quantum Strategy

23Move 1 Move 2 “Uncertain” Outcome

Page 24: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Quantum Strategy

24Move 1 Move 2 “Uncertain” Outcome

Page 25: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Quantum Strategy

25Move 1 Move 2 “Uncertain” Outcome

Page 26: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Quantum Strategy

“Measurement” R lt

26Move 1 Move 2 “Uncertain” Outcome

Result

Page 27: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Quantum Strategy

“Measurement” R lt

27Move 1 Move 2 “Uncertain” Outcome

Result

Page 28: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Quantum Game TheoryQ y• Can produce radically new results for game theorytheory– Quantum strategies can increase player welfare (Meyer 1999)(Meyer, 1999)

– Quantum entanglement can overcome the prisoners’ dilemma (Eisert et al., 1999)( , )

• Public goods problems – Solve “free rider” problem via quantum entanglementSolve  free rider  problem via quantum entanglement [Chen, Hogg, Beausoleil (2003)]

• Key Limitation: These effects depend upon useKey Limitation: These effects depend upon use of quantum computer in game 28

Page 29: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Endogenous Quantum Effects?Endogenous Quantum Effects?• This paper asserts there are “endogenous” quantum phenomena in legal gamesquantum phenomena in legal games

• Example: Inherently “probabilistic patents”E g 80% “right” + 20% “no right”– E.g., 80%  right + 20%  no‐right

• “State Vector” for a Hohfeldian “jural relation”|j = a |right + b |no right– |j = a |right + b |no‐right

• Vector “collapses” to classical state upon final judgment by courtjudgment by court

• Conceptually different from “classical” uncertaintyIncomplete knowledge in facts or law– Incomplete knowledge in facts or law

– Probabilistic enforcement of classical right 29

Page 30: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

QGT – Alpha‐Beta GameQGT  Alpha Beta Game• Gov’t alters patentability standard that results in 

t i t i t t iuncertainty in patent issuance

• For a given patent race, there is a specific b b l “ ” h h ff llprobability “w” that the Patent Office will issue a 

patent at end of R & D phase“ ” d d l “ ” f– “w” depends on an intentional, “quantum” strategy of the government (e.g., imprecision in statutory language)language) 

– Alternatively, “w” may result from (i) under‐enforcement of classical right; or (ii) simply, information deficits of the innovators

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Page 31: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Probabilistic Patent RaceProbabilistic Patent Race• Restrict Alpha & Beta to classical moves

• Players now have different incentives– One builds: Net is 750w – 300 for builder

– Both build: Net is 375w – 300 for each player

• Result: Ordinary players may have incentives to engage in mixed, classical strategies– Can increase social welfare relative to purely classical adjustments in scope or duration

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Page 32: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Alpha‐Beta Payoffs: Q‐IPAlpha Beta Payoffs: Q IP

Alpha/Beta Build CopyAlpha/Beta Build Copy

Build (375w ‐ 300, 375w ‐ 300)

(750w ‐ 300, 0)

Copy (0, 750w ‐ 300) (0, 0)

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Page 33: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Results of GameResults of Game

C I If 4/5• Case I: If w > 4/5– Both parties build (classical pure strategy)

• Case II: 2/5 < w < 4/5– Classical mixed strategy where parties randomize between building and copying

• Case III:  If x < 2/5 – Neither party builds (classical pure strategy)

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Page 34: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Case I: Classical IPCase I: Classical IP• When w < 4/5 (“strong” right), both parties build.

• Same result as classical IP system

• But overall welfare is increased, because when w < 1, then no patent issues some of the time– Reduces deadweight loss by (1 – w) 

• However, reducing w decreases innovation incentives.

• Can equivalently reduce classical patent duration or scope to match increase in welfare.

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Page 35: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Case III: Classical No‐IPCase III: Classical No IP• When w < 2/5 (“weak” right), neither party builds.

• Same as no IP system

• Results in “public goods” problem

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Page 36: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Case II: Quantum IPCase II: Quantum IP• When 2/5 < w < 4/5 (“intermediate” right)

• Key Results:– (1) New phenomenon: Players use classical, mixed strategies.

– (2) Increased social welfare: Mixed strategies i lf i h b ilimprove welfare in a manner that cannot be easily replicated by classical adjustments to patent scope duration or damagesscope, duration, or damages.

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Page 37: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

A‐B Payoffs: Q‐IP (w = 0.5)A B Payoffs: Q IP (w   0.5)

Alpha/Beta Build CopyAlpha/Beta Build Copy

Build (‐112.5, ‐112.5) (75, 0)

Copy (0, 75) (0, 0)

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Page 38: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Case II: Quantum IPCase II: Quantum IP • Since parties are symmetrically situated, they will choose to b ild and cop a specific percentage ofchoose to build and copy a specific percentage of the time, such that the other player is indifferent b/t building or copyingb/t building or copying

• Here, parties will build 40% and copy 60%.If y = % of time building then for both parties:– If y = % of time building, then for both parties:• ‐112.5y + 75(1 – y) = 0  y = 0.4

• Note that in this instance, each party nets 0 (and,Note that in this instance, each party nets 0 (and, hence, participates in the game).

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Page 39: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Case II: Social WelfareCase II: Social Welfare • Each player builds 40% & copies 60% of the time

• So build/build (16%); build/copy (48%); copy/copy (36%)• So build/build (16%); build/copy (48%); copy/copy (36%)

• Total welfare: $320mm

• $170mmmore than classical case• $170mm more than classical case– If both players build:

• $150mm (welfare when patent issues) [$750mm ‐ $600mm]

• $400mm (welfare when patent does not issue) [$1bn $600mm]• $400mm (welfare when patent does not issue) [$1bn ‐ $600mm]

• Total welfare build/build = $275mm (50% issuance)

– If one player builds:

• $450mm (welfare when patent issues) [$750mm ‐ $300mm]

• $700mm (patent does not issue) [$1bn ‐ $300mm]

• Total welfare build/copy = $575mm (50% issuance)

– If both players copy there is no change in net welfare.

– (0.16) * $275mm + (0.48) * $575mm = $320mm39

Page 40: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Innovation Incentives Problem?Innovation Incentives Problem?

• One response is that this comparison is unfair, b h d h $150because the producers have $150mm net surplus in classical game and $0 net surplus hhere

• In other words, are all the benefits flowing merely from society extracting the producers’ surplus?

• Short Answer: Since net surplus is $170mm greater in 50% grant case, this cannot be the g g ,explanation.

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Page 41: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Incentives Problem?Incentives Problem?• Long Answer: Match innovation incentives so th t th t d l i i ththat the net producer surplus is zero in the classical system (like the quantum system)

• How?– Reduce scope/duration of the classical right by 20%

– Only applies to 8mm @ $75 and 8mm @ $25

• In this case, total surplus is: $200mm– 2mm * $75 + 2mm * $25 [consumer surplus]

• For Case I, matching eliminates benefit 41

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Case III Case II Case I

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Page 43: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

So Not a Classical EquivalentSo Not a Classical Equivalent• When both build, merely eliminating deadweight loss through probabilistic patent can be matchedloss through probabilistic patent can be matched by reduction in scope/duration

Cf Ayres/Klemperer equivalence of proportional– Cf. Ayres/Klemperer equivalence of proportional damages

• But benefits of mixed strategies that result from• But benefits of mixed strategies that result from QGT analysis cannot be duplicated by adjusting scope or durationscope or duration– Note adjusting damages not an option since in this scenario, infringement is always net loss

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Page 44: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Benefits of Quantum IP GameBenefits of Quantum IP Game

• Why?y– When players decide to engage in mixed classical strategies, only one builds, which reduces duplicated development costs

– And when patent does not issue, reduces deadweight losses.• Reduction can be easily replicated in Case I (both build)build).

• But cannot in Case II, since there is also some reduction in deadweight loss when one builds and one copies.g p

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Page 45: Quantum Game Theory and Cooperation in Intellectual Property

Other ImplicationsOther Implications• Alternative explanation for apparent “ ti ”/“ di ti ” i IP“cooperation”/“coordination” in IP games

• Although certainty may decrease ex post transaction costs, uncertainty may provide large, ex ante social benefits– Note that uncertainty will also reduce innovation incentives for each player, but these can be offset b h i l b fiby other social benefits• Here, reduction in duplicated costs and deadweight losseslosses.

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Benefits of QGTBenefits of QGT• Provides a robust conceptual apparatus to more clearly think about uncertainty in legal and other games

• Affords a rich set of mathematics for formal modeling

• “Fuzzy rights” can lead to improvements in welfare in other areas of the lawwelfare in other areas of the law– E.g., property, contract, etc.

– Any area where high transaction costs or otherAny area where high transaction costs or other barriers prevent optimal bargaining 46