quantity-quality and the one child policy:the only-child ... · quantity-quality and the one child...
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NBER WORKING PAPER SERIES
QUANTITY-QUALITY AND THE ONE CHILD POLICY:THE ONLY-CHILD DISADVANTAGE IN SCHOOL ENROLLMENT IN RURAL CHINA
Nancy Qian
Working Paper 14973http://www.nber.org/papers/w14973
NATIONAL BUREAU OF ECONOMIC RESEARCH1050 Massachusetts Avenue
Cambridge, MA 02138May 2009
I thank Joshua Angrist, Daron Acemoglu, Abhijit Banerjee, Gary Becker, Esther Duflo, Oded Galor,Andrew Foster, Ashley Lester, Mark Rosenzweig and David Weil for their many insights; and participantsat the MIT development lunch, BREAD and the Econometrics Society for useful comments. I am incrediblygrateful to the China Health and Nutritional Survey at the University of North Carolina and the NationalBureau of Statistics of China for sharing their data with me. All mistakes are my own. The views expressedherein are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau ofEconomic Research.
NBER working papers are circulated for discussion and comment purposes. They have not been peer-reviewed or been subject to the review by the NBER Board of Directors that accompanies officialNBER publications.
© 2009 by Nancy Qian. All rights reserved. Short sections of text, not to exceed two paragraphs, maybe quoted without explicit permission provided that full credit, including © notice, is given to the source.
Quantity-Quality and the One Child Policy:The Only-Child Disadvantage in School Enrollmentin Rural ChinaNancy QianNBER Working Paper No. 14973May 2009JEL No. I20,J13,O1
ABSTRACT
Many believe that increasing the quantity of children will lead to a decrease in their quality. This paperexploits plausibly exogenous changes in family size caused by relaxations in China's One Child Policyto estimate the causal effect of family size on school enrollment of the first child. The results showthat for one-child families, an additional child significantly increased school enrollment of first-bornchildren by approximately 16 percentage-points. The effect is larger for households where the childrenare of the same sex.
Nancy QianDepartment of EconomicsBrown University64 Waterman StreetProvidence, RI 02912and [email protected]
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Figure 1: The Number of Total Children in Household by Birth Year for Households with 3 or fewer children
Total Number of Total Children in a Household
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
1962 1966 1970 1974 1978
Birth Year
Girls
Boys
Figure 2A: Correlation between Family Size and School Enrollment by Family Size with No Birth Year Controls
Coefficients of the number of total children in the household
-0.7
-0.6
-0.5
-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Number of Total Children in Household
County FE
No County FE
Figure 2B: Correlation between Family size and School Enrollment By Family Size with Birth Year Controls
Coefficients of the number of total children in the household
-0.1
-0.08
-0.06
-0.04
-0.02
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Number of Total Children in Household
Birth Yr & County FE
Birth Yr FE
Figure 3A: The Effect of Relaxation on Family Size Coefficients of the Interactions between Born in a Relaxed Area * Birth Regions
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981
Birth Year
Girls
Boys
Figure 3B: The Effect of Relaxation on Family Size Coefficients of the Interactions between
Dummy for Girl * Born in a Relaxed Region * Birth Year
-0.05
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981
Birth Year
Figure 4A: The Effect of Relaxation on School Enrollment Coefficients of Interactions between Born in Relaxed Region * Birth Year
-0.25
-0.2
-0.15
-0.1
-0.05
0
0.05
1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980
Birth Year
Girls
Boys
Figure 4B: The Effect of Relaxation on School Enrollment Coefficients of Interactions between
Dummy for Girl * Born in Relaxed Region * Birth Year
-0.2
-0.15
-0.1
-0.05
0
0.05
0.1
1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980
Birth Year
Figure 5A: The Effect of Relaxation on Sex Ratios of First Born Children and 95% Confidence Intervals
Coefficients of the Interactions between Born in Relaxed Region * Birth Year
-0.1
-0.05
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990
Birth Year
Figure 5B: The Effect of Relaxation on Sex Ratios
of Second Born Children and 95% Confidence Intervals Coefficients of the Interactions between
Born in Relaxed Region * Birth Year
-0.5
-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0.0
0.1
0.2
1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990
Birth Year
Figure 5C: The Effect of Relaxation on Sex Ratios
of Later Born Children and 95% Confidence Intervals Coefficients of the Interactions between
Born in Relaxed Region * Birth Year
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990
Birth Year
Table 1A: Descriptive Statistics CHNS 1989 and 1% Sample of China Population Census
Variable Obs Mean Std. Err. Obs Mean Std. Err.
A. Girls B. Boys
Han 11938 0.943 (0.002) 14518 0.949 (0.002)
# Siblings 11938 0.908 (0.007) 14518 0.759 (0.006)
Sisters 11938 0.359 (0.005) 14518 0.413 (0.005)
Brothers 11938 0.550 (0.006) 14518 0.345 (0.004)
Enrolled 11938 0.504 (0.005) 14518 0.477 (0.004)
Mother's Education 11551 6.252 (0.040) 13944 5.805 (0.036)
Father's Education 10872 8.191 (0.036) 13305 7.729 (0.034)
Mother at Home 11938 0.116 (0.003) 14518 0.135 (0.003)
Relaxation 11938 0.243 (0.003) 14518 0.238 (0.003)
Agricultural 11927 0.597 (0.004) 14481 0.608 (0.004)
C. <=3 Children D. Only Child
Sex 16723 0.512 (0.004) 9733 0.611 (0.005)
Han 16723 0.939 (0.002) 9733 0.958 (0.002)
Enrolled 16723 0.430 (0.004) 9733 0.591 (0.005)
Mother's Education 16231 5.469 (0.031) 9264 6.952 (0.048)
Father's Education 15427 7.600 (0.029) 8750 8.530 (0.044)
Mother at Home 16723 0.129 (0.003) 9733 0.121 (0.003)
Relaxation 16723 0.272 (0.003) 9733 0.186 (0.003) Dist to Prov. Capital 16723 169.968 (1.147) 9733 134.971 (1.607)
Dist to Big City 15806 7.711 (0.081) 9369 10.667 (0.116)
Agricultural 16694 0.709 (0.004) 9714 0.423 (0.005)
Sample of cohorts born 1962-1981
Table 1B: Descriptive Statistics for Counties with Relaxation
No Relaxation Some Relaxation
Variable Obs Mean Std. Err. Obs Mean Std. Err.
A. Demographic
Sex 9915 0.555 (0.005) 16541 0.545 (0.004)
Han 9915 0.967 (0.002) 16541 0.934 (0.002)
# Siblings 9915 0.833 (0.007) 16541 0.822 (0.006)
Sisters 9915 0.385 (0.006) 16541 0.391 (0.004)
Brothers 9915 0.448 (0.006) 16541 0.431 (0.004)
Enrolled 9915 0.459 (0.005) 16541 0.507 (0.004)
Mother's Education 9558 5.153 (0.042) 15937 6.520 (0.034)
Father's Education 9055 7.518 (0.038) 15122 8.187 (0.032)
Mother at Home 9915 0.110 (0.003) 16541 0.136 (0.003)
Agricultural 9905 0.700 (0.005) 16503 0.546 (0.004)
B. Infrastructural
Relaxation 9915 0.000 0.000 16541 0.384 (0.003)
Dist to Prov Capital 9915 178.135 (1.340) 16541 144.480 (1.264)
Dist to Big City 8634 2.106 (0.017) 16541 12.311 (0.091)
Dist to Primary School 9915 0.245 (0.007) 15281 0.420 (0.004)
Dist to Middle School 9914 1.014 (0.010) 15281 1.607 (0.011)
Dist to High School 9914 4.989 (0.089) 15281 4.470 (0.069)
Sample of households with <=3 children amongst cohorts born 1962-1981.
Table 2: OLS and 2SLS Estimates of the Effect of Family Size on School Enrollment Coefficients of the number of siblings
Dependent Variable: School Enrollment
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
All All All All All All
OLS
A. Households with <=3 children
Sample Mean of Dep Var 0.489
# Siblings -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.010 -0.011 -0.011
(0.004) (0.004) (0.005) (0.003) (0.004) (0.004)
Observations 26456 26456 26456 25495 26456 25495
R-squared 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.70 0.69 0.70
B. Households with <=2 children
Sample Mean of Dep Var 0.539
# Siblings 0.016 0.016 0.013 0.018 0.016 0.015
(0.005) (0.005) (0.004) (0.004) (0.005) (0.005)
Observations 21321 21321 21321 20497 21321 20497
R-squared 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.71 0.70 0.71
2SLS
C. Households with <=3 children
# Siblings 0.161 0.161 0.167 0.146 0.159 0.140
(0.058) (0.059) (0.062) (0.043) (0.062) (0.046)
Observations 26456 26456 26456 25495 26456 25495
R-squared 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.66 0.64 0.66
D. Households with <=2 children
# Siblings 0.122 0.122 0.134 0.097 0.125 0.104
(0.065) (0.065) (0.064) (0.063) (0.067) (0.062)
Observations 21321 21321 21321 20497 21321 20497
R-squared 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.70 0.69 0.70
Controls
Han N Y Y N N Y
Distance to Urban N N Y N N Y
Mother's Education N N N Y N Y
Household Income N N N N Y Y
All regressions control for the full set of interaction terms and birth year and county fixed effects. Standard errors are clustered at the county level.
Table 3: The Effect of Relaxation on Family Size and School Enrollment by Size
Coefficients for columns (1)-(4) are the interaction terms between born in a relaxed region * year of birth. Coefficients in columns (5)-(6) are the triple interactions between dummy for girl * born in a relaxed region * year of birth.
Dependent Variables
# Sibs Enrollment # Siblings Enrollment
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Girls Boys Girls Boys All All
Sample Mean of Dependent Variable 1.153 0.922 0.473 0.456
Sample Mean of Dependent Variable 1.028 0.464
relax*born 1973 0.026 0.034 -0.180 -0.092 relax*girl*born 1973 -0.020 -0.087
(0.110) (0.116) (0.082) (0.071) (0.099) (0.037)
relax*born 1974 0.127 0.082 -0.216 -0.050 relax*girl*born 1974 0.048 -0.168
(0.115) (0.107) (0.098) (0.078) (0.073) (0.070)
relax*born 1975 0.115 0.045 -0.112 -0.106 relax*girl*born 1975 0.068 -0.009
(0.071) (0.139) (0.078) (0.048) (0.132) (0.056)
relax*born 1976 0.155 0.137 -0.087 -0.048 relax*girl*born 1976 0.028 -0.038
(0.128) (0.157) (0.062) (0.030) (0.170) (0.074)
relax*born 1977 0.325 0.096 0.007 -0.058 relax*girl*born 1977 0.246 0.062
(0.136) (0.101) (0.055) (0.037) (0.116) (0.061)
relax*born 1978 0.274 0.076 0.032 -0.011 relax*girl*born 1978 0.205 0.042
(0.152) (0.161) (0.028) (0.027) (0.171) (0.022)
relax*born 1979 0.418 0.222 0.010 -0.035 relax*girl*born 1979 0.210 0.044
(0.158) (0.159) (0.034) (0.025) (0.183) (0.022)
relax*born 1980 0.385 0.153 0.030 -0.022 relax*girl*born 1980 0.247 0.048
(0.180) (0.128) (0.033) (0.028) (0.168) (0.018)
relax*born 1981 0.450 0.088 0.005 -0.025 relax*girl*born 1981 0.370 0.029
(0.186) (0.154) (0.035) (0.030) (0.194) (0.014)
Observations 13271 15500 13271 15500 Observations 28771 28771
R-squared 0.26 0.23 0.70 0.69 R-squared 0.25 0.69
Regressions in columns (1)-(4) include county and birth year fixed effects.
Regressions in columns (5)-(6) include controls for relax*girl, relax*birthyear, girl*birthyear, girl, birthyear fixed effects and county fixed effects.
Standard errors clustered at county level.
Table 4: The Effect of Relaxation on Sex Ratios by Birth Parity Coefficients of the interaction terms between born in a relaxed region*birth year.
Dependent Variable: Dummy for Male
1st Born 2nd Born 3+ Born
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Coeff. Std. Err. Coeff. Std. Err. Coeff. Std. Err. Coeff. Std. Err. Coeff. Std. Err. Coeff. Std. Err.
Sample Mean of Dep Var 0.530 0.509 0.495
Relax * Born 1970 0.065 (0.032) 0.064 (0.031) 0.113 (0.047) 0.110 (0.046) 0.113 (0.049) 0.112 (0.049)
Relax * Born 1971 0.067 (0.018) 0.066 (0.018) 0.126 (0.055) 0.124 (0.054) 0.061 (0.082) 0.055 (0.081)
Relax * Born 1972 0.084 (0.042) 0.086 (0.043) 0.168 (0.071) 0.170 (0.071) 0.019 (0.038) 0.018 (0.037)
Relax * Born 1973 0.053 (0.048) 0.056 (0.049) 0.177 (0.078) 0.178 (0.077) 0.093 (0.038) 0.091 (0.037)
Relax * Born 1974 0.106 (0.032) 0.103 (0.033) 0.108 (0.070) 0.111 (0.069) 0.050 (0.039) 0.047 (0.039)
Relax * Born 1975 0.027 (0.047) 0.025 (0.049) 0.257 (0.046) 0.256 (0.047) 0.002 (0.052) 0.002 (0.052)
Relax * Born 1976 0.045 (0.046) 0.050 (0.047) 0.062 (0.054) 0.066 (0.055) 0.097 (0.043) 0.094 (0.044)
Relax * Born 1977 0.059 (0.044) 0.057 (0.045) 0.230 (0.063) 0.225 (0.063) 0.085 (0.087) 0.081 (0.087)
Relax * Born 1978 0.063 (0.051) 0.056 (0.052) 0.126 (0.071) 0.122 (0.071) 0.078 (0.039) 0.080 (0.039)
Relax * Born 1979 0.106 (0.035) 0.101 (0.036) 0.154 (0.052) 0.154 (0.051) 0.048 (0.048) 0.050 (0.049)
Relax * Born 1980 0.163 (0.044) 0.162 (0.044) 0.128 (0.038) 0.126 (0.039) 0.042 (0.041) 0.041 (0.041)
Relax * Born 1981 0.148 (0.050) 0.145 (0.051) 0.161 (0.063) 0.169 (0.064) 0.146 (0.062) 0.144 (0.063)
Relax * Born 1982 0.078 (0.050) 0.077 (0.050) 0.200 (0.065) 0.200 (0.065) 0.085 (0.099) 0.073 (0.098)
Relax * Born 1983 0.079 (0.033) 0.081 (0.034) 0.121 (0.106) 0.120 (0.105) 0.020 (0.040) 0.007 (0.037)
Relax * Born 1984 0.040 (0.046) 0.038 (0.046) 0.244 (0.098) 0.241 (0.098) 0.014 (0.083) 0.003 (0.083)
Relax * Born 1985 0.070 (0.039) 0.066 (0.039) 0.110 (0.049) 0.114 (0.048) 0.079 (0.074) 0.079 (0.076)
Relax * Born 1986 0.086 (0.048) 0.089 (0.048) 0.145 (0.091) 0.158 (0.092) 0.058 (0.044) 0.047 (0.049)
Relax * Born 1987 0.098 (0.053) 0.097 (0.053) 0.144 (0.064) 0.145 (0.062) 0.041 (0.075) 0.038 (0.075)
Relax * Born 1988 0.044 (0.036) 0.038 (0.036) 0.105 (0.056) 0.108 (0.057) 0.029 (0.041) 0.028 (0.041)
Relax * Born 1989 0.067 (0.033) 0.075 (0.033) 0.167 (0.043) 0.167 (0.044) 0.025 (0.055) 0.021 (0.055)
Relax * Born 1990 0.079 (0.036) 0.077 (0.037) 0.113 (0.096) 0.118 (0.095) 0.063 (0.057) 0.064 (0.057)
Han N Y N Y N Y
Observations 44754 44754 23306 23306 14495 14495
R-squared 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Regressions include county and birthyear fixed effects.
Standard errors clustered at the county level.
Table 5: The Effect of Relaxation on Sex Ratios for First Born Children Coefficients are the interaction terms between born in a relaxed region * born in the One Child Policy Cohort and between
born in a relaxed region * born in the relaxation cohort
The Effect of Relaxation on Sex Ratios for First Borns
Dependent Variable: Dummy for Male
(1) (2)
Born in relaxed region * Born 1976-1981 0.106 0.098
(0.024) (0.025)
Born in relaxed region * Born 1982-1989 0.037 0.035
(0.021) (0.021)
Han, Han * Birth Cohort N Y
Observations 44234 44234
R-squared 0.00 0.00
Regressions include county and birth cohort fixed effects.
Standard errors clustered at the county level.
Table 6: OLS and 2SLS Estimates of the Effect of Family Size on School Enrollment by Sex Composition of Siblings
Dependent Variable: Fraction enrolled in School
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Different Sex Same Sex Younger Sister Younger Brother
OLS
A. Households with <=3 children
Sample Mean of Dep Var 0.511 0.419 0.534 0.536
# Siblings -0.053 -0.011 -0.009 -0.005
(0.011) (0.005) (0.004) (0.004)
Observations 6218 19277 17785 18601
R-squared .55 0.6 0.73 0.72
B. Households with <=2 children
Sample Mean of Dep Var .483 0.554 0.378 0.423
# Siblings 0.000 0.005 0.018 0.015
(0.000) (0.006) (0.005) (0.006)
Observations 3907 16590 14979 16213
R-squared 0.55 0.6 0.73 0.72
2SLS
C. Households with <=3 children
# Siblings 0.058 0.176 0.190 0.049
(0.225) (0.082) (0.049) (0.048)
Observations 6383 20073 18514 19316
R-squared 0.57 0.67 0.65 0.71
D. Households with <=2 children
# Siblings 0.000 0.112 0.125 0.078
(0.000) (0.058) (0.063) (0.052)
Observations 4018 17303 15641 16857
R-squared 0.58 0.72 0.72 0.71
Controls
Han Y Y Y Y
Distance to Urban Y Y Y Y
Mother's Education Y Y Y Y
Household Income Y Y Y Y
All regressions control for the full set of interaction terms and birth year and county fixed effects. Standard errors are clustered at the county level. Column (1) excludes individuals whose next youngest sibling is of the same sex. Column (2) excludes individuals whose next youngest sibling is of different sex. Column (3) is restricted to the sample individuals who do not have a younger brother. Column (4) is restricted to the sample individuals who do not have a younger sister.
Table 7: OLS and 2SLS Estimates of the Effect of Family Size on Education Delay Coefficients for the number of siblings a first born child has
Dependent Variable: Actual Years of Education - Supposed Years of Education
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
All All All All All All Younger
Sister Younger Brother
Households with <=3 children
A. OLS
Sample Mean of Dep Var 0.489 0.534 0.536
# Siblings -0.121 -0.121 -0.127 -0.076 -0.125 -0.095 -0.121 -0.115
(0.026) (0.026) (0.029) (0.021) (0.021) (0.024) (0.027) (0.026)
Observations 12940 12940 12940 12715 12940 12715 9817 10306
R-squared 0.63 0.63 0.63 0.64 0.63 0.65 0.68 0.68
2SLS
B. 2SLS
# Siblings 0.297 0.299 0.274 0.303 0.274 0.213 0.179 0.504
(0.440) (0.439) (0.438) (0.469) (0.433) (0.454) (0.436) (0.606)
Observations 12940 12940 12940 12715 12940 12715 10008 10499
R-squared 0.61 0.61 0.62 0.63 0.62 0.65 0.65 0.63
Controls
Han N Y Y N N Y Y Y
Distance to Urban N N Y N N Y Y Y
Mother's Education N N N Y N Y Y Y
Household Income N N N N Y Y Y Y
Sample restricted to individuals enrolled in school.
All regressions control for the full set of interaction terms and birth year and county fixed effects.
Standard errors are clustered at the county level.
Column (7) is restricted to the sample individuals who do not have a younger brother.
Column (8) is restricted to the sample individuals who do not have a younger sister.
Table 8: The Effect of Family Size on Female Labor Supply
Dependent Variable: Dummy Variable for Mother who Stays at Home
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
All All All All All All Younger
Sister Younger Brother
Households with <=3 Children
Sample Mean of Dep. Var 0.126 0.124 0.123
A. OLS
# Siblings -0.029 -0.029 -0.029 -0.036 -0.028 -0.036 -0.036 -0.038
(0.012) (0.012) (0.012) (0.013) (0.012) (0.013) (0.013) (0.013)
Observations 26456 26456 26456 25495 26456 25495 17785 18601
R-squared 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.19 0.13 0.19 0.20 0.20
B. 2SLS
# Siblings -0.142 -0.144 -0.144 -0.122 -0.139 -0.119 -0.137 -0.141
(0.098) (0.098) (0.098) (0.088) (0.098) (0.088) (0.055) (0.079)
Observations 26456 26456 26456 25495 26456 25495 18514 19316
R-squared 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.16 0.09 0.17 0.09 0.10
Controls
Han N Y Y N N Y Y Y
Distance to Urban N N Y N N Y Y Y
Mother's Education N N N Y N Y Y Y
Household Income N N N N Y Y Y Y
All regressions control for the full set of interaction terms and birth year and county fixed effects.
Standard errors are clustered at the county level.
Column (7) is restricted to the sample individuals who do not have a younger brother.
Column (8) is restricted to the sample individuals who do not have a younger sister.
Appendix Table A1: The Correlation between Family Size and School Enrollment
Coefficients of dummy variables for the total number of children in each household
Dependent Variables
School Enrollment Actual Years of Edu - Supposed Years of Edu
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
Sample Mean for Dependent Variable 0.464 -2.470
Total Kids = 2 -0.095 -0.098 0.004 0.018 -0.700 -0.657 -0.156 0.010
(0.051) (0.050) (0.004) (0.006) (0.115) (0.140) (0.033) (0.042)
Total Kids = 3 -0.308 -0.312 -0.056 -0.023 -1.312 -1.297 -0.581 -0.247
(0.057) (0.057) (0.011) (0.009) (0.168) (0.172) (0.099) (0.062)
Total Kids = 4 -0.397 -0.409 -0.071 -0.028 -1.462 -1.449 -0.794 -0.334
(0.058) (0.059) (0.011) (0.009) (0.175) (0.203) (0.126) (0.074)
Total Kids = 5 -0.464 -0.487 -0.070 -0.019 -2.192 -2.219 -1.254 -0.778
(0.055) (0.056) (0.018) (0.015) (0.290) (0.362) (0.198) (0.163)
Total Kids = 6 -0.540 -0.573 -0.075 -0.017 -2.015 -1.668 -0.472 0.328
(0.051) (0.056) (0.024) (0.020) (0.310) (0.359) (0.285) (0.197)
Total Kids = 7 -0.507 -0.534 -0.048 0.004 -2.515 -2.784 -0.881 -0.823
(0.061) (0.063) (0.047) (0.046) (0.364) (0.325) (0.450) (0.202)
Total Kids = 8 -0.591 -0.655 -0.033 0.040 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
(0.039) (0.048) (0.006) (0.016) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
Total Kids = 9 -0.591 -0.644 -0.025 0.038 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
(0.039) (0.048) (0.006) (0.020) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
Constant 0.591 0.594 0.478 -0.001 2.015 1.995 1.680 -5.029
(0.039) (0.034) (0.015) (0.016) (0.075) (0.080) (0.066) (0.724)
Controls
County Fixed Effect N Y N Y N Y N Y
Birth Year Fixed Effect N N Y Y N N Y Y
Observations 28771 28771 28771 28771 13338 13338 13338 13338
R-squared 0.08 0.08 0.71 0.72 0.07 0.08 0.60 0.62
All standard errors clustered at county level.
Columns (5)-(8) restricted to sample of children enrolled in school.
Table A2: The Effect of Relaxation on Family Size and School Enrollment by Size for Households with 3 or fewer Children Coefficients for columns (1)-(4) are the interaction terms between born in a relaxed region * year of birth.
Coefficients in columns (5)-(6) are the triple interactions between dummy for girl * born in a relaxed region * year of birth.
Dependent Variables
# Siblings School
Enrollment # Siblings School
Enrollment
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Girls Boys Girls Boys All All
Sample Mean of Dependent Variable 0.908 0.759 0.500 0.480
Sample Mean of Dependent Variable 0.826 0.489
Relax* Born 1973 0.006 0.074 0.209 0.106 Relax*Girl*Born 1973 0.083 0.101
(0.080) (0.099) (0.079) (0.074) (0.086) (0.041)
Relax* Born 1974 0.225 0.105 0.230 0.035 Relax*Girl*Born 1974 0.129 0.194
(0.070) (0.060) (0.103) (0.078) (0.067) (0.076)
Relax* Born 1975 0.211 0.148 0.100 0.124 Relax*Girl*Born 1975 0.063 0.023
(0.087) (0.111) (0.063) (0.054) (0.059) (0.037)
Relax* Born 1976 0.317 0.158 0.074 0.040 Relax*Girl*Born 1976 0.179 0.033
(0.070) (0.133) (0.060) (0.033) (0.104) (0.079)
Relax* Born 1977 0.509 0.242 0.015 0.060 Relax*Girl*Born 1977 0.287 0.074
(0.088) (0.119) (0.043) (0.038) (0.105) (0.050)
Relax* Born 1978 0.493 0.145 0.032 0.015 Relax*Girl*Born 1978 0.361 0.045
(0.117) (0.151) (0.029) (0.027) (0.133) (0.023)
Relax* Born 1979 0.571 0.275 0.016 0.040 Relax*Girl*Born 1979 0.315 0.056
(0.117) (0.162) (0.034) (0.024) (0.157) (0.019)
Relax* Born 1980 0.525 0.260 0.026 0.026 Relax*Girl*Born 1980 0.268 0.049
(0.153) (0.154) (0.034) (0.026) (0.176) (0.019)
Relax* Born 1981 0.551 0.168 0.003 0.028 Relax*Girl*Born 1981 0.411 0.030
(0.135) (0.174) (0.035) (0.028) (0.174) (0.016)
Relax*Girl*Born 1982
Observations 11938 14518 11938 14518 26456 26456
R-squared 0.18 0.20 0.70 0.68 0.19 0.69
Regressions in columns (1)-(4) include county and birth year fixed effects.
Regressions in columns (5)-(6) include controls for relax*girl, relax*birthyear, girl*birthyear, girl, birthyear fixed effects and county fixed effects.
Standard errors clustered at county level.
