QUANTITATIVE METHOD

Aras BOZKURT

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QUANTITATIVE METHODDESIGN

QUANTITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• 1. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN• In an experiment, you test an idea (or practice or procedure) to determine

whether it influences an outcome or dependent variable. You first decideon an idea with which to “experiment,” assign individuals to experience it(and have some individuals experience something different), and thendetermine whether those who experienced the idea (or practice orprocedure) performed better on some outcome than those who did notexperience it.

• When Do You Use an Experiment?• You use an experiment when you want to establish possible cause and

effect between your independent and dependent variables. This meansthat you attempt to control all variables that influence the outcomeexcept for the independent variable. Then, when the independentvariable influences the dependent variable, we can say the independentvariable “caused” or “probably caused” the dependent variable. Becauseexperiments are controlled, they are the best of the quantitative designsto use to establish probable cause and effect.

QUANTITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• Before you consider how to conduct an experiment, you will find it helpful

to understand in more depth several key ideas central to experimentalresearch. These ideas are:

• A-Random assignment

• B-Control over extraneous variables

• C-Manipulation of the treatment conditions

• D-Outcome measures

• E-Group comparisons

• G-Threats to validity

QUANTITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• A-Random Assignment

• As an experimental researcher, you will assign individuals to groups. Themost rigorous approach is to randomly assign individuals to thetreatments. Random assignment is the process of assigning individuals atrandom to groups or to different groups in an experiment. The randomassignment of individuals to groups (or conditions within a group)distinguishes a rigorous, “true” experiment from an adequate, but less-than-rigorous, “quasi-experiment”

• You use random assignment so that any bias in the personalcharacteristics of individuals in the experiment is distributed equallyamong the groups. By randomization, you provide control for extraneouscharacteristics of the participants that might infl uence the outcome (e.g.,student ability, attention span, motivation). The experimental term for thisprocess is “equating” the groups. Equating the groups means that theresearcher randomly assigns individuals to groups and equally distributesany variability of individuals between or among the groups or conditionsin the experiment

• You should not confuse random assignment with random selection. Bothare important in quantitative research, but they serve different purposes.Quantitative researchers randomly select a sample from a population. Inthis way, the sample is representative of the population and you cangeneralize results obtained during the study to the population.

QUANTITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• B-Control Over Extraneous Variables• In randomly assigning individuals, we say that we are controlling for

extraneous variables that might influence the relationship between the newpractice. Extraneous factors are any influences in the selection of participants,the procedures, the statistics, or the design likely to affect the outcome andprovide an alternative explanation for our results than what we expected.

• Pretests and Posttests: To “equate” the characteristics of the groups,experimental researchers may use a pretest. A pretest provides a measureon some attribute or characteristic that you assess for participants in anexperiment before they receive a treatment. After the treatment, you takeanother reading on the attribute or characteristic. A posttest is a measureon some attribute or characteristic that is assessed for participants in anexperiment after a treatment.

• Covariates: Because pretests may affect aspects of the experiment, theyare often statistically con trolled for by using the procedure of covariancerather than by simply comparing them with posttest scores. Covariatesare variables that the researcher controls for using statistics and thatrelate to the dependent variable but that do not relate to theindependent variable

QUANTITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• B-Control Over Extraneous Variables

• Matching of Participants: Another procedure used for control in anexperiment is to match participants on one or more personal characteristics.Matching is the process of identifying one or more personal characteristicsthat influence the outcome and assigning individuals with that characteristicequally to the experimental and control groups. Typically, experimentalresearchers match on one or two of the following characteristics: gender,pretest scores, or individual abilities.

• Homogeneous Samples: Another approach used to make the groupscomparable is to choose homogeneous samples by selecting people who varylittle in their personal characteristics.

• Blocking Variables: One such procedure is to “block” for grade level beforethe experiment begins. A blocking variable is a variable the researchercontrols before the experiment starts by dividing (or “blocking”) theparticipants into subgroups (or categories) and analyzing the impact of eachsubgroup on the outcome. The variable (e.g., gender) can be blocked intomales and females; similarly, high school grade level can be blocked into fourcategories: freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors

QUANTITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• C-Manipulating Treatment Conditions• Once you select participants, you randomly assign them to either a

treatment condition or the experimental group. In experimental treatment, the researcher physically intervenes to alter the conditions experienced by the experimental unit

• Treatment Variables• In experiments, you need to focus on the independent variables. These

variables influence or affect the dependent variables in a quantitative study. The two major types of independent variables were treatment and measured variables. In experiments, treatment variables are independent variables that the researcher manipulates to determine their effect on the outcome, or dependent variable. Treatment variables are categorical variables measured using categorical scales. For example, treatment independent variables used in educational experiments might be:– Type of instruction (small group, large group)– Type of reading group (phonics readers, whole-language readers)

QUANTITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• C-Manipulating Treatment Conditions

• Conditions

• In both of these examples, we have two categories within each treatment variable. In experiments, treatment variables need to have two or more categories, or levels. In an experiment, levels are categories of a treatment variable

• Intervening in the Treatment Conditions

• In an experiment, the researcher physically intervenes (or manipulates with interventions) in one or more condition so that individuals experience something different in the experimental conditions than in the control conditions.

QUANTITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• D-Outcome Measures

• In experiments, the outcome (or response, criterion, or posttest) is the dependent variable that is the presumed effect of the treatment variable. It is also the effect predicted in a hypothesis in the cause-and-effect equation

• E-Group Comparisons

• A group comparison is the process of a researcher obtaining scores for individuals or groups on the dependent variable and comparing the means and variance both within the group and between the groups.

QUANTITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• F-Threats to Validity

• Threats to validity refer to specific reasons for why we can be wrong when we make an inference in an experiment because of covariance, causation constructs, or whether the causal relationship holds over variations in persons, setting, treatments, and outcomes ( Shadish, Cook, & Campbell, 2002 ). Four types of validity they discuss are:– Statistical conclusion validity, which refers to the appropriate use of statistics (e.g.,

violating statistical assumptions, restricted range on a variable, low power) to infer whether the presumed independent and dependent variables covary in the experiment.

– Construct validity, which means the validity of inferences about the constructs (or variables) in the study.

– Internal validity, which relates to the validity of inferences drawn about the cause and effect relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

– External validity, which refers to the validity of the cause-and-effect relationship being generalizable to other persons, settings, treatment variables, and measures.

QUANTITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• F-Threats to Validity

• Threats to internal validity are problems in drawing correct inferences about whether the covariation (i.e., the variation in one variable contributes to the variation in the other variable) between the presumed treatment variable and the outcome reflects a causal relationship (Shadish, Cook, & Campbell, 2002 ).

• Threats to external validity are problems that threaten our ability to draw correct inferences from the sample data to other persons, settings, treatment variables, and measures.

QUANTITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS?• Although all experiments have common characteristics, their use and

applications vary depending on the type of design used. The mostcommon designs you will find in educational research are:

• Between Group Designs

– True (gerçek-tam) experiments (pre- and posttest, posttest only)

– Quasi (yarı) experiments (pre- and posttest, posttest only)

– Factorial (faktöriyel) designs

• Within Group or Individual Designs

– Time series (zaman serisi) experiments (interrupted, equivalent)

– Repeated measures (tekrar ölçümlü) experiments

– Single subject (tek denekli) experiments

QUANTITATIVE METHOD DESIGN

QUANTITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• Between-Group Designs

• The most frequently useddesigns in education arethose where the researchercompares two or moregroups. Illustrationsthroughout this chapterunderscore the importanceof these designs.

QUANTITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• True Experiments• True experiments comprise the most rigorous and strong experimental

designs because of equating the groups through random assignment. Theprocedure for conducting major forms of true experiments and quasi-experiments, viewing them in terms of activities from the beginning of theexperiment to the end. In true experiments, the researcher randomlyassigns participants to different conditions of the experimental variable.Individuals in the experimental group receive the experimental treatment,whereas those in the control group do not. After investigators administerthe treatment, they compile average (or mean) scores on a posttest. Onevariation on this design is to obtain pretest as well as posttest measures orobservations. When experimenters collect pretest scores, they maycompare net scores (the differences between the pre- and posttests).Alternatively, investigators may relate the pretest scores for the controland experimental groups to see if they are statistically similar, and thencompare the two posttest group scores. In many experiments, the pretestis a covariate and is statistically controlled by the researcher.

QUANTITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• Because you randomly assign individuals to the groups, most of the

threats to internal validity do not arise. Randomization or equating of thegroups minimizes the possibility of history, maturation, selection, and theinteractions between selection and other threats. Treatment threats suchas diffusion, rivalry, resentful demoralization, and compensatoryequalization are all possibilities in a between-group design because two ormore groups exist in the design. When true experiments include only aposttest, it reduces the threats of testing, instrumentation, and regressionbecause you do not use a pretest. If a pretest is used, it introduces all ofthese factors as possible threats to validity. Instrumentation exists as apotential threat in most experiments, but if researchers use the same orsimilar instrument for the pre- and posttest or enact standard proceduresduring the study, you hold instrumentation threats to a minimum.

QUANTITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• Quasi-Experiments

• In education, many experimental situations occur in which researchersneed to use intact groups. This might happen because of the availability ofthe participants or because the setting prohibits forming artificial groups.Quasi-experiments include assignment, but not random assignment ofparticipants to groups. This is because the experimenter cannot artificiallycreate groups for the experiment. For example, studying a new mathprogram may require using existing fourth-grade classes and designatingone as the experimental group and one as the control group. Randomlyassigning students to the two groups would disrupt classroom learning.Because educators often use intact groups (schools, colleges, or schooldistricts) in experiments, quasi-experimental designs are frequently used.

QUANTITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• Factorial Designs

• In some experimental situations, it is not enough to know the effect of asingle treatment on an outcome; several treatments may, in fact, providea better explanation for the outcome. Factorial designs represent amodification of the between group design in which the researcher studiestwo or more categorical, independent variables, each examined at two ormore levels (Vogt, 2005). The purpose of this design is to study theindependent and simultaneous effects of two or more independenttreatment variables on an outcome.

QUANTITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• Factorial Designs

• Let’s examine more closely the steps in the process of conducting afactorial design. The researcher identifies a research question thatincludes two independent variables and one dependent variable, such as“Do rates of smoking vary under different combinations of type ofinstruction and levels of depression?” To answer this question, theexperimenter identifies the levels of each factor or independent variable:

• Factor 1—types of instruction– Level 1—a health-hazards lecture in civics class

– Level 2—a standard lecture in civics class

• Factor 2—levels of depression– Level 1—high

– Level 2—medium

– Level 3—low

• Because you measure two levels of instruction and three levels of depression, thedesign is called a two by three factorial design. It is written as “2 × 3” to indicatethe levels involved in each independent variable.

QUANTITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• Using a statistical software program, analysis of variance will produce

statistical results for main effects and interaction effects. Main effects arethe influence of each independent variable (e.g., type of instruction orextent of depression) on the outcome (e.g., the dependent variable, rateof smoking) in an experiment. Interaction effects exist when the influenceon one independent variable depends on (or co-varies with) the otherindependent variable in an experiment.

QUANTITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• Within-Group or Individual Designs

• In any given experiment, the number of participants may be limited and itmay not be possible to involve more than one group. In these cases,researchers study a single group using a within-group experimentaldesign. Also, the experimenter might examine single individuals (within-individual design). This type of design assumes several forms: time series,repeated measures, and single-subject designs.

QUANTITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• Time Series

• When an experimental researcher has access to only one group and canstudy them over a period, a time series design is a good experimentalapproach. A time series design consists of studying one group, over time,with multiple pretest and posttest measures or observations made by theresearcher. This design does not require access to large numbers ofparticipants, and it requires only one group for the study. It is ideal forexamining change in an entire system (e.g., a school district) where itwould be difficult to find a control group or system willing to cooperate.However, this design is labor intensive because the researcher needs togather multiple measures.

QUANTITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• Time Series

• These multiple measures are seen in two important variations of thisdesign. As shown in Table 10.5, the first is the interrupted time seriesdesign. This procedure consists of studying one group, obtaining multiplepretest measures for a period of time, administering an intervention (orinterrupting the activities), and then measuring outcomes (or posttests)several times. Data analysis in this example consists of examiningdifference scores between the pretests and posttests or posttest-onlyscores and using the pretests as covariates. A variation, also seen in Table10.5, uses an equivalent time series design, in which the investigatoralternates a treatment with a posttest measure. The data analysis thenconsists of comparing posttest measures or plotting them to discernpatterns in the data over time.

QUANTITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• Repeated Measures

• Another experimental design that has the advantage of employing only asingle group is a repeated measures design. In a repeated measuresdesign, all participants in a single group participate in all experimentaltreatments, with each group becoming its own control.

• The researcher compares a group’s performance under one experimentaltreatment with its performance under another experimental treatment.The experimenter decides on multiple treatments (as in factorial designs)but administers each separately to only one group. After eachadministration, the researcher obtains a measure or observation.

QUANTITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• Single-Subject Designs

• In your experiment, assume that you seek to learn about the behavior ofsingle individuals rather than groups. You also have an opportunity toobserve their behavior over time. In these situations, single-subjectexperimental designs are ideal. Single-subject research (also called N of 1research, behavior analysis, or within-subjects research) involves thestudy of single individuals, their observation over a baseline period, andthe administration of an intervention. This is followed by anotherobservation after the intervention to determine if the treatment affectsthe outcome.– An A/B design consists of observing and measuring behavior during a trial period (A),

administering an intervention, and observing and measuring the behavior after theintervention

– Multiple Baseline Design A frequently used single-subject design is the multiplebaseline design, as shown in Figure 10.8. In this design, each participant receives anexperimental treatment at a different time (hence, multiple baselines exist) so thattreatment diffusion will not occur among participants. Researchers choose this designwhen the treatment (e.g., skill or strategy being taught) cannot be reversed and doingso would be unethical or injurious to participants.

– An alternating treatment design is a single-subject design in which the researcherexamines the relative effects of two or more interventions and determines whichintervention is the more effective treatment on the outcome.

QUANTITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• 2-SURVEY RESEARCH• Survey research designs are procedures in quantitative research in which

investigators administer a survey to a sample or to the entire populationof people to describe the attitudes, opinions, behaviors, or characteristicsof the population. survey studies describe trends in the data rather thanoffer rigorous explanations.

QUANTITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• Cross-Sectional Survey Designs: The most popular form of survey design

used in education is a cross-sectional survey design. In a cross-sectionalsurvey design, the researcher collects data at one point in time.

• Longitudinal Survey Designs: An alternative to using a cross-sectionaldesign is to collect data over time using a longitudinal survey design. Alongitudinal survey design involves the survey procedure of collecting dataabout trends with the same population, changes in a cohort group orsubpopulation, or changes in a panel group of the same individuals overtime. Thus, in longitudinal designs, the participants may be different orthe same people.

QUANTITATIVE METHOD DESIGN

QUANTITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• 3-CORRELATIONAL DESIGN• Correlational designs provide an opportunity for you to predict scores and

explain the relationship among variables. In correlational researchdesigns, investigators use the correlation statistical test to describe andmeasure the degree of association (or relationship) between two or morevariables or sets of scores.

• An explanatory (relational) research design is a correlational design inwhich the researcher is interested in the extent to which two variables (ormore) co-vary, that is, where changes in one variable are reflected inchanges in the other. Explanatory designs consist of a simple associationbetween two variables (e.g., sense of humor and performance in drama)or more than two (e.g., pressure from friends or feelings of isolation thatcontribute to binge drinking).

• The purpose of a prediction research design is to identify variables thatwill predict an outcome or criterion. In this form of research, theinvestigator identifies one or more predictor variable and a criterion (oroutcome) variable

QUANTITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• 4-META ANALYSIS• In another extension of correlation research, authors integrate the

findings of many (primary source) research studies in a meta-analysis byevaluating the results of individual studies and deriving an overall numericindex of the magnitude of results.

• meta-analysis comprises statistical methods for contrasting and combiningresults from different studies in the hope of identifying patterns amongstudy results, sources of disagreement among those results, or otherinteresting relationships that may come to light in the context of multiplestudies. Meta-analysis can be thought of as "conducting research aboutprevious research." In its simplest form, meta-analysis is done byidentifying a common statistical measure that is shared between studies,such as effect size or p-value, and calculating a weighted average of thatcommon measure. This weighting is usually related to the sample sizes ofthe individual studies, although it can also include other factors, such asstudy quality.

QUALITATIVE METHOD

Aras BOZKURT

QUALITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of human

behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior. The qualitativemethod investigates the why and how of decision making, not just what,where, when. Hence, smaller but focused samples are more often usedthan large samples.

QUALITATIVE METHOD DESIGN

QUALITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• 1. Case study• Case study research is a qualitative approach in which the investigator

explores a bounded system (a case) or multiple bounded systems (cases)over time, through detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiplesources of information (e.g., observations, interviews, audiovisualmaterial, and documents and reports), and reports a case description andcase-based themes.

QUALITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• 1. Case study• The type of analysis of these data can be a holistic analysis of the entire

case or an embedded analysis of a specific aspect of the case (Yin, 2003).

• One analytic strategy would be to identify issues within each case andthen look for common themes that transcend the cases (Yin, 2003).

QUALITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• 1. Case study• Holistic single

• Embedded single

• Holistic multible

• Embedded multible

QUALITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• 2. Narrative Research• "Narrative" might be the term assigned to any text or discourse, or, it

might be text used within the context of a mode of inquiry in qualitativeresearch (Chase, 2005), with a specific focus on the stories told byindividuals (Polkinghorne, 1995).

• Polkinghorne (1995) takes this approach and distinguishes between"analysis of narratives" (p. 12), using paradigm thinking to createdescriptions of themes that hold across stories or taxonomies of types ofstories, and "narrative analysis," in which researchers collect descriptionsof events or happenings and then configure them into a story using a plotline.

QUALITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• 3. Phenomenology• Whereas a narrative study reports the life of a single individual, a

phenomenological study describes the meaning for several individuals oftheir lived experiences of a concept or a phenomenon. Phenomenologistsfocus on describing what all participants have in common as theyexperience a phenomenon (e.g., grief is universally experienced).

• The basic purpose of phenomenology is to reduce individual experienceswith a phenomenon to a description of the universal essence (a "grasp ofthe very nature of the thing," van Manen, 1990, p. 177).

QUALITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• 3. Phenomenology• Two approaches to phenomenology are highlighted in this discussion:

hermeneutic phenomenology (van Marren, 1990) and empirical,transcendental, or psychological phenomenology (Moustakas, 1994). VanMarren (1990) is widely cited in the health literature (Morse & Field,1995).

• An educator, van Marren, has written an instructive book onhermeneutical phenomenology in which he describes research as orientedtoward lived experience (phenomenology) and interpreting the "texts" oflife (hermeneutics) (van Marren, 1990,p. 4 ).

• Moustakas's (1994) transcendental or psychological phenomenology isfocused less on the interpretations of the researcher and more on adescription of the experiences of participants.

QUALITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• 3. Grounded Theory• Although a phenomenology emphasizes the meaning of an experience for

a number of individuals, the intent of a grounded theory study is to movebeyond description and to generate or discover a theory, an abstractanalytical schema of a process (or action or interaction, Strauss & Corbin,1998).

• Participants in the study would all have experienced the process, and thedevelopment of the theory might help explain practice or provide aframework for further research. A key idea is that this theory-development does not come "off the shelf," but rather is generated or"grounded" in data from participants who have experienced the process(Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Thus, grounded theory is a qualitative researchdesign in which the inquirer generates a general explanation (a theory) ofa process, action, or interaction shaped by the views of a large number ofparticipants (Strauss & Corbin, 1998).

QUALITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• 3. Grounded Theory• The two popular approaches to grounded theory are the systematic

procedures of Strauss and Corbin (1990, 1998) and the constructivistapproach of Charmaz (2005, 2006).

• In the more systematic, analytic procedures of Strauss and Corbin (1990,1998), the investigator seeks to systematically develop a theory thatexplains process, action, or interaction on a topic (e.g., the process ofdeveloping a curriculum, the therapeutic benefits of sharing psychologicaltest results with clients). The researcher typically conducts 20 to 30interviews based on several visits "to the field" to collect interview data tosaturate the categories (or find information that continues to add to themuntil no more can be found).

• A second variant of grounded theory is found in the constructivist writingof Charmaz (see Charmaz, 2005, 2006). Instead of embracing the study ofa single process or core category as in the Strauss and Corbin (1998)approach, Charmaz advocates for a social constructivist perspective thatincludes emphasizing diverse local worlds, multiple realities, and thecomplexities of particular worlds, views, and actions.

QUALITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• 4. Ethnography• Although a grounded theory researcher develops a theory from examining

many individuals who share in the same process, action, or interaction,the study participants are not likely to be located in the same place orinteracting on so frequent a basis that they develop shared patterns ofbehavior, beliefs, and language.

• An ethnographer is interested in examining these shared patterns, and theunit of analysis is larger than the 20 or so individuals involved in agrounded theory study. An ethnography focuses on an entire culturalgroup. Granted, sometimes this cultural group may be small (a fewteachers, a few social workers), but typically it is large, involving manypeople who interact over time (teachers in an entire school, a communitysocial work group). Ethnography is a qualitative design in which theresearcher describes and interprets the shared and learned patterns ofvalues, behaviors, beliefs, and language of a culture-sharing group (Harris,1968).

QUALITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• 4. Ethnography• There are many forms of ethnography, such as a confessional

ethnography, life history, autoethnography, feminist ethnography,ethnographic novels, and the visual ethnography found in photographyand video, and electronic media (Denzin, 1989a; LeCompte, Millroy, &Preissle, 1992; Pink, 2001; VanMaanen, 1988). Two popular forms ofethnography will be emphasized here: the realist ethnography and thecritical ethnography

QUALITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• 4. Ethnography• The realist ethnography is a traditional approach used by cultural anthropologists.

Characterized by VanMaanen (1988), it reflects a particular stance taken by theresearcher toward the individuals being studied. Realist ethnography is anobjective account of the siruation, typically written in the thirdperson point ofview and reporting objectively on the information learned from participants at asite. In this ethnographic approach, the realist ethnographer narrates the study ina third-person dispassionate voice and reports on what is observed or heard fromparticipants.

• For many researchers, ethnography today employs a "critical" approach(Carspecken & Apple, 1992; Madison, 2005; Thomas, 1993) by including in theresearch an advocacy perspective. This approach is in response to current society,in which the systems of power, prestige, privilege, and authority serve tomarginalize individuals who are from different classes, races, and genders. Thecritical ethnography is a type of ethnographic research in which the authorsadvocate for the emancipation of groups marginalized in society (Thomas, 1993).Critical researchers typically are politically minded individuals who seek, throughtheir research, to speak out against inequality and domination (Carspecken &Apple, 1992).

QUALITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• 5. Action research• Action research has an applied focus. Similar to mixed methods research,

action research uses data collection based on either quantitative orqualitative methods or both. However, it differs in that action researchaddresses a specific, practical issue and seeks to obtain solutions to aproblem. Thus, action research designs are systematic procedures done byteachers (or other individuals in an educational setting) to gatherinformation about, and subsequently improve, the ways their particulareducational setting operates, their teaching, and their student learning (Mills, 2011 ).

QUALITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• 5. Action research (Eylem araştırması)• A review of the major writers in education, however, shows that the following two

basic research designs are typically discussed ( Mills, 2011 ): Practical actionresearch and Participatory action research

• Practical Action Research: Teachers seek to research problems in their ownclassrooms so that they can improve their students’ learning and their ownprofessional performance. Teams composed of teachers, students, counselors, andadministrators engage in action research to address common issues such asescalating violence in schools. In these situations, educators seek to enhance thepractice of education through the systematic study of a local problem.

• Participatory Action Research: Participatory action research (PAR) has a longhistory in social inquiry involving communities, industries and corporations, andother organizations outside of education (e.g., Kemmis & McTaggart, 2005 ).Rather than focus on individual teachers solving immediate classroom problems orschools addressing internal issues, PAR has a social and community orientationand an emphasis on research that contributes to emancipation or change in oursociety.

• The purpose of participatory action research is to improve the quality of people’sorganizations, communities, and family lives ( Stringer, 2007 ). Although espousingmany of the ideas of teacher and school-based practical action research, it differsby incorporating an emancipatory aim of improving and empowering individualsand organizations

QUALITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• 6. Design based research• Design research: to design/develop an intervention (such as programmes,

teaching-learning strategies and materials, products and systems) withthe aim to solve a complex educational problem and to advance ourknowledge about the characteristics of these interventions and theprocesses to design and develop them. (p. 12)

• Generally, the main purpose that design-based research aims at achievingis to “address complex problems in educational settings”(Sari & Lim,2012, p. 2) in order to “build a stronger connection between educationalresearch and real-world problems” while supporting design anddevelopment of prototypical products to solve complex authentic context-specific problem”

QUALITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• 6. Design based research• In DBR design is a crucial part of the research, whereas in action research

the focus is on action and change, which can but need not involve thedesign of a new learning environment. DBR also more explicitly aims forinstructional theories than does action research

QUALITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• 7. Historical• Purpose - describe and examine events of the past to understand the

present and anticipate potential future effects

• 8. Content analysis• In the social sciences and humanities, content analysis is the analysis of

texts of various types including writing, images, recordings and culturalartifacts. Content analysis includes both qualitative and quantitativeapproaches. Content analysis is used for a variety of purposes includingattribution of texts to authors, testing of hypotheses, theory building, andevaluation research.

QUALITATIVE METHOD DESIGN• 9. Meta-synthesis• Generally speaking, a qualitative meta-synthesis is a type of qualitative

study that uses as data the findings from other qualitative studies linkedby the same or a related topic. The sample for a meta-synthesis, then, ismade up of individual qualitative studies selected on the basis of theirrelevance to a specific research question posed by the synthesist. Meta-synthesis is not an integrated review of qualitative literature on a giventopic. Also, it is not secondary data analysis of primary data from theselected studies; rather, it is an analysis of the findings of these studies.That is, meta-synthesis is the synthesist’s interpretation of theinterpretations of primary data by the original authors of the constituentstudies.

QUALITATIVE METHOD DESIGN

MIXED METHOD

Aras BOZKURT

MIXED METHOD DESIGN• A mixed methods research design is a procedure for collecting, analyzing,

and “mixing” both quantitative and qualitative methods in a single studyor a series of studies to understand a research problem (Creswell & PlanoClark, 2011). The basic assumption is that the uses of both quantitativeand qualitative methods, in combination, provide a better understandingof the research problem and question than either method by itself.

MIXED METHOD DESIGN• When one combines quantitative and qualitative data, “we have a very

powerful mix”.

• Triangulation: Applied to research, it meant that investigators couldimprove their inquiries by collecting and converging (or integrating)different kinds of data bearing on the same phenomenon.

• The three points to the triangle are the (1,2) two sources of the data andthe (3) phenomenon.

• philosophical worldview: pragmatism.

MIXED METHOD DESIGN• Figure 16.2 illustrates six mixed methods designs, with the first four as the

basic designs in use today and the last two as complex designs that arebecoming increasingly popular (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011).

• The designs are:

• the convergent parallel design

• the explanatory sequential design

• the exploratory sequential design

• the embedded design

• the transformative design

• the multiphase design

MIXED METHOD DESIGN• 1-The Convergent (concurrent) Parallel Design • The purpose of a convergent (or parallel or concurrent) mixed methods

design is to simultaneously collect both quantitative and qualitative data, merge the data, and use the results to understand a research problem.

MIXED METHOD DESIGN• 2-The Explanatory Sequential Design• A mixed methods researcher might collect quantitative and qualitative

information sequentially in two phases, with one form of data collectionfollowing and informing the other.

• An explanatory sequential mixed methods design (also called a two-phasemodel; Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011) consists of first collectingquantitative data and then collecting qualitative data to help explain orelaborate on the quantitative results.

MIXED METHOD DESIGN• 3-The Exploratory Sequential Design• The mixed methods researcher begins with qualitative data and then

collects quantitative information. The purpose of an exploratorysequential mixed methods design involves the procedure of first gatheringqualitative data to explore a phenomenon, and then collectingquantitative data to explain relationships found in the qualitative data.

MIXED METHOD DESIGN• 4-The Embedded/nested Design• The purpose of the embedded design is to collect quantitative and

qualitative data simultaneously or sequentially, but to have one form ofdata play a supportive role to the other form of data. The reason forcollecting the second form of data is that it augments or supports theprimary form of data.

MIXED METHOD DESIGN• 5-The Transformative Design• At a more complex level than the four previous designs, we have the

transformative mixed methods design. The intent of the transformativemixed methods design is to use one of the four designs (convergent,explanatory, exploratory, or embedded), but to encase the design within atransformative framework or lens (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011).

• This framework provides an orienting lens for the mixed methods design.It informs the overall purpose of the study, the research questions, thedata collection, and the outcome of the study. The intent of theframework is to address a social issue for a marginalized orunderrepresented population and engage in research that brings aboutchange. Thus, strength of this design is that it is value-based andideological ( Greene, 2007). The typical frameworks found in mixedmethods are feminist, racial, ethnic, disability, and gay or lesbianperspectives.

MIXED METHOD DESIGN• 5-The Transformative Design

MIXED METHOD DESIGN• 6-Multiphase Design• A multiphase design emerges from multiple projects conducted over time

linked together by a common purpose.

• the multiphase design is a complex design that builds on the basicconvergent, explanatory, exploratory, and embedded designs. Multiphasemixed methods designs occur when researchers or a team of researchersexamine a problem or topic through a series of phases or separatestudies. The groups of phases or studies are considered to be a mixedmethods design and the intent of the design is to address a set ofincremental research questions that all advance one programmaticresearch objective (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011).

• The phases or studies may employ a combination of concurrent orsequential designs and this form of design is popular in large-scale healthresearch and in evaluation research. The strength of this design lies in the

use of multiple projects to best understand an overall program objective.

MIXED METHOD DESIGN• 6-Multiphase Design