quantifying pm emissions and assessing health impacts · 03/03/2017 · quantifying pm emissions...

Quantifying PM emissions and assessing health impacts

Jing Wang

Air Quality and Particle Technology Institute of Environmental Engineering

ETH Zurich/Empa

CO2

H2O

NOx

CO

UHC

Soot

Chemical

Reactions

Microphysical

Processes

O3 Formation

Secondary Aerosol Formation

Contrail Formation

Modification of Cloud Properties

Climate

Change

Environmental

Degradation

SO2

Social

Welfare

Human

Health

Aircraft Emissions and Impact

2 Air Quality & Particle Technology (APT)

Aircraft Engine Emission Measurement

Our project contributes significantly to a certification requirement and an international standard for aircraft engine PM emissions by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).

3

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 20100

10

20

30

40

50

60

GE90 (B777)GEnx (B787)

PW4000 (B747)CFM56 (A320, B737)

JT9D (B747)

JT8D (B727)

Max

. Sm

oke

Num

ber [

-]

JT3D (B707)

current smoke regulations introduced

From smoke number to PM (particulate matter) number and mass.

Air Quality & Particle Technology (APT)

ICAO Standard on Particulates

4

2016/02/02: The Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) approved a preliminary standard governing the emission of particulates by aircraft engines. 2017/03/03: Final approval of the standard by the ICAO council. 2020/01/01: All engine types for passenger aircrafts should be certified in accordance with the new standard.


A-PRIDE Campaigns Aviation Particle Regulatory Instrumentation Demonstration Experiments

5

Lobo et al. AS&T, 2015. Kilic et al. ES&T 2017.


Particle Size Distribution

6

GMD CFM56-7B26/3 GMD CFM56-7B24/3 GMD CFM56-7B24 GMD PW4168A GSD CFM56-7B26/3 GSD CFM56-7B24/3 GSD CFM56-7B24 GSD PW4168A

0 20 40 60 80 1000

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

R2=0.935

FC,rel [% F00]

geom

etric

mea

n di

amet

er [n

m] R2=0.991

1.41.61.82.02.22.42.62.83.03.23.43.63.8

geom

etric

sta

ndar

d de

viat

ion

Durdina et al, Atmospheric Environment, 2014. Liati et al. ES&T, 2014. Johnson et al, J. Propulsion & Power, 2015. Abegglen et al, J. Aerosol Sci, 2015. Boies et al, AS&T, 2015. Abegglen et al, Atmospheric Environment, 2016.

10 1000.0

5.0E5

1.0E6

1.5E6

2.0E6

2.5E6

3.0E6

CMD: 50nmGSD: 1.67

dN/ d

LogD

p [c

m-3]

Electrical Mobility Diameter [nm]

7 % Engine Power 98 % Engine Power

CMD: 24nmGSD: 1.51


Non-volatile PM Emission Indices • CFM56-7B, 90’s technology mid-size turbofan: used on Boeing 737; one of

the most common aircraft engines worldwide, more than 20,000 units built

• High number emissions at low engine fuel flow that do not correlate with

mass emissions • Engine maintenance status and temperature effects visible in the number

emissions

Mass Number

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

121113 130809 130823 130604 130319 130327 130521 130719

Ei P

MM

ass [

g kg

-1]

Engine Fuel Flow [kg hr-1]

-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Ambient Temperature [°C]

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 50000.0

5.0E14

1.0E15

1.5E15

2.0E15

2.5E15

121113 130809 130823 130604 130319 130327 130521 130719

Ei P

MN

umbe

r [kg

-1]

Engine Fuel Flow [kg hr-1]

Ambient Temperature [°C]

-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

7 Air Quality & Particle Technology (APT)

Fuel Aromatics and Emissions

(Bockhorn 1983)

8

Fuel rich pockets within the flame promote reactions that form heavy PAHs which subsequently pyrolyze and form soot particles.

18 19 20 21 22 23 24

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6 Solvesso 150ND Solvesso 150

Ei nv

PM N

umbe

r / E

i nvPM

Num

ber @

Tot

al A

rom

atic

s =

17.8

% v

/v

Total Aromatics [% v/v]

25.00

40.00

55.00

70.00

85.00

100.0

Thrust

13.8 13.9 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6b) Solvesso 150ND

Solvesso 150

Ei nv

PM N

umbe

r / E

i nvPM

Num

ber @

H =

14.

31%

m/m

H [% m/m]

25.00

40.00

55.00

70.00

85.00

100.0

Thrust [%]


Brem et al. ES&T, 2015. Durdina et al. ES&T, 2017.

Alternative Aviation Fuel Effect

9

CFM56-2 50/50 Shell FT/JP-8

CFM56-2 50/50 Sasol FT/JP-8

CFM56-7 50/50 FT/Jet A-1 Aerodyne

CFM56-7 50/50 FT/Jet A-1 MST

F117 50/50 JP-8/HRJ(tallow)

F117 50/25/25 JP-8/HRJ/FT(Ctl)

TF33 50/50 FT/JP-8

JT15D 50/50 F1/FT

JT15D50/50 F2/FT

PW308C 50/50 FT/JP-8

T63 50/50 Shell FT/JP-8 Blend

T63 50/50 Sasol FT/JP-8 Blend

No

rmali

zed

Part

icle

Nu

mb

er

EI

(EI n

Fu

el/

EI n

Base

lin

e F

uel)

Power (%)

JP-8/Jet A1

APU

300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650

APU Exhaust Gas Tempture(°C)

APU 50/50 HEFA/Jet A-1 Blend

0 20 40 60 80 100

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

F117PW308C

CFM56-7

The low aromatic content levels of AAFs lead to significant reduction of particle emissions at low engine power settings. Air Quality & Particle Technology (APT)

Comparing Airplane and Vehicle Emissoins

• Model plane: Boeing 737NG (~30% of all 100+ seater

airliners)


Durdina et al. ES&T, 2017.

10

Flight Profiles

11

Flight profile used in the model (blue line) based on flight radar data (gray lines). Note the different time scale for the cruise data.


Emission Depends on Engine Power

thrust:

0.5

2

5

20

50

1

10

100

2E13

5E13

2E14

5E14

2E15

1E13

1E14

1E15

100%85%30%

combustor inlet temperature T3

EI m

[mg/

kgfu

el]


7%

EI n [#

/kg fu

el]

100%85%30%7%

Air Quality & Particle Technology (APT) 12

Ground Data to Flight Conditions

13

1E-3

0.01

0.1

EI m

[g/k

g fue

l]


Eim,SLS

EIm = EIm,SLS x KP3 x KAFR x KTFL

Combustor inlet pressure effect Air-fuel ratio effect

Adiabatic flame temperature effect ≈1

1E16

1E17

1E18

[#

/g n

vPM

]


EIn = ν(T3) x EIm

Howard et al. AEDC-TR-96-3 1996

Assumption: GMD is a function of T3 independent of altitude


Emission Dependence on Flight Time

14

• Flight profile (climb, descent) based on flight radar data for Boeing 737 flights

• LTO and climb emissions are dominant for short flights

1 2 3 4 5 6 70.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

15.0% H2

BC m

ass

[mg/

pass

enge

rkm

-1]

flight time without LTO [h]

600 1400 2200 3000 3800 4600 5400 great circle distance [km]

13.8% H2

0.0E+00

1.0E+13

2.0E+13

3.0E+13

4.0E+13

5.0E+13

6.0E+13

BC n

umbe

r [#

/pas

seng

erk

m-1]


Emissions Comparison

15

• Assumed plane occupancy 80% (130 pass.), 30 bus passengers, and 2 car passengers

• Mass emissions comparable with gasoline vehicles • Number emissions relatively high, comparable with old diesel

cars

bus D

bus DPF

car D

car DPF

car GDI

car PFI

this study

0.01 0.1 1 10

b)

BC mass [mg/passenger/km]

3h, 1

4.3%

H2

a)

bus D

bus DPF

car D

car DPF

car GDI

car PFI

this study

1E10 1E11 1E12 1E13 1E14

3h, 1

4.3%

H2

BC number [#/passenger/km]


PM Health Impacts

16

- Vehicle emissions There exist strong evidence that exposure to diesel exhaust

particles is associated with an increased risk of lung cancer. International Agency for Research on Cancer classified diesel

engine exhaust as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1) (IARC, 2012).

The exhaust of gasoline engines is also suspected as carcinogenic (Group 2B) (IARC, 2012).

- Aircraft emissions Only a few studies have established a specific link between

exposure to pollution in an airport work environment and respiratory problems.

The link is weak and there are not enough data to demonstrate a cause-effect relationship.


Reported Respiratory Symptoms

17

People exposed Respiratory symptoms References

Airport vicinity exposure

Coughing, shortness of

breath, wheezing onset and

decreased lung function

Staatsen et al. 1994;

Schiphol Airport,

Amsterdam.

Exacerbation of pre-existing

respiratory diseases

Health Council of the

Netherlands, 1999.

Airport occupational

exposure

A runny nose and a cough

with phlegm

Tunnicliffe et al. 1999;

Birmingham Airport

Chest illnesses Whelan et al. 2003; flight

attendants.

Exacerbation of pre-existing

respiratory diseases

LaPuma et al. 1999; aircraft

painting operation.


Health Impact on Airport Workers

18

Exposu

re

group

Workers Subject

s n

Comments Median

time in

aircraft

taxiing

area h/day

Crude prevalence of respiratory

problems

Running

nose

Cough with

phlegm

Shortness

of breath

Wheezing

High Baggage handlers;

Airport hands;

Marshalers;

Operational

Engineers

53 Considerable

proportion of

working day in close

proximity to in-

service aircrafts

8 58% 36% 25% 13%

Mediu

m

Security staff; Fire

fighters; Airfield

operation managers

83 Some of working

time on the airport

apron, in reasonable

proximity of aircrafts

1 42% 16% 22% 17%

Low Terminal and office

workers

86 0 45% 36% 24% 20%

Occupational exposure of Birmingham International Airport workers and respiratory disorders.

Tunnicliffe et al. Occup Environ Med 1999; Touri et al. Eur Respir Rev 2013.


PM Based Modeling for Health Impact

19

Barrett group used concentration-response functions to estimate premature deaths due to population exposure to aviation-attributable emissions: - It is reported that global aircraft emissions of PM2.5 caused ∼10 000 premature deaths per year globally, with 80% due to cruise emissions (Barrett et al. ES&T 2010). - The current UK aviation emissions caused ∼110 premature deaths per year (Yim et al. Atmos. Environ. 2013). - Aviation emissions of PM2.5 and ozone cause∼16 000 (90% CI: 8300–24 000) premature deaths per year, costs of ∼$21 bn per year (Yim et al. Environ. Res. Lett. 2015).


Exposure of Lung Cells to Jet Engine Exhaust

REHEATE Project - University of Bern -

M. Geiser/H.R. Jonsdottir

Particle-free

Human bronchial epithelial cells (BEAS-2B) exposed to particle-free exhaust (filtered 50% thrust) or to exhaust at different thrust levels (up to 85%) for 60 min at 37°C and

85% RH

Nano Aerosol Chamber for In-Vitro Toxicity (NACIVT,

http://www.nacivt.ch)

NACIVT allows the deposition of nanoparticles from jet

engine exhaust on lung cell cultures in a controlled,

realistic manner

A single, short exposure of lung epithelial cells to jet

engine exhaust at different thrust levels does not lead to

severe morphological changes (e.g. massive cell death or

detachment)

85% Thrust

Particle deposit

100

µm

100

µm

Air Quality & Particle Technology (APT) 20

http://www.nacivt.ch/

Summary

21

• Mass and number based particle emission indices depend on engine type, conditions, and are sensitive to fuel composition.

• The emission particle sizes are small, generally the peak size is below 50 nm. The size is smaller at lower thrust.

• Higher fuel aromatic contents lead to higher particle emissions. Alternative aviation fuels can reduce the emissions.

• PM from Boeing 737NG is comparable with gasoline vehicles in terms of mass, and higher in terms of number.

• The aircraft emissions have been shown related to respiratory symptom for airport workers and nearby residents in limited studies, however, no cause-effect relationship is demonstrated.


quantifying pm emissions and assessing health impacts · 03/03/2017 · quantifying pm emissions...

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