qualitative research · qualitative research uses purposeful sampling—the emphasis is on studying...

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Qualitative ResearchQualitative Research

Rick Balkin, Ph.D., LPC-S, NCCRick Balkin, Ph.D., LPC-S, NCC

Balkin, R. S., 2008Balkin, R. S., 2008 22

6 Features of Qualitative6 Features of QualitativeStudyStudy

Field focusedField focused Self as instrumentSelf as instrument InterpretativeInterpretative


6 Features of Qualitative6 Features of QualitativeStudyStudycontinuedcontinued……

Expressive use of languageExpressive use of language Attention to detailsAttention to details TransferTransfer

–– CoherenceCoherence–– InsightInsight–– Instrumental utilityInstrumental utility


Why QualitativeWhy QualitativeResearch?Research?

Social inquiry is complex and requiresSocial inquiry is complex and requiresa variety of toolsa variety of tools

Realities are multiple, constructed, &Realities are multiple, constructed, &holisticholistic


Why Qualitative Research?Why Qualitative Research?ContinuedContinued……

Research should be time and contextResearch should be time and contextboundbound

All entities are constantly changing, soAll entities are constantly changing, soit is impossible to establishit is impossible to establishrelationshipsrelationships


Uses of QualitativeUses of QualitativeResearchResearch

Clarify/illustrate quantitative findingsClarify/illustrate quantitative findings Create instrumentsCreate instruments Develop policyDevelop policy Evaluate programsEvaluate programs Guide practiceGuide practice Develop theoryDevelop theory


Sampling in QualitativeSampling in QualitativeResearchResearch

Qualitative research uses purposefulQualitative research uses purposefulsamplingsampling——the emphasis is on studyingthe emphasis is on studyinga phenomena in deptha phenomena in depth

This is different from probabilityThis is different from probabilitysampling used in quantitativesampling used in quantitativeresearch, in which the purpose is toresearch, in which the purpose is tostudy a phenomena and generalize thestudy a phenomena and generalize thefindings to a populationfindings to a population


Sampling: Probability vs.Sampling: Probability vs.PurposefulPurposeful

RepresentationalRepresentational–– Goal: Enable generalizations from studyGoal: Enable generalizations from study

samples to populations.samples to populations.–– The sample displays variables (e.g., age,The sample displays variables (e.g., age,

gender) in similar proportions and patterns togender) in similar proportions and patterns tothe total population about which you wish tothe total population about which you wish tomake generalizations. Statistical conventionsmake generalizations. Statistical conventionsare used to calculate the probability thatare used to calculate the probability thatpatterns observed in the sample will exist inpatterns observed in the sample will exist inthe wider population.the wider population.


Sampling: Probability vs.Sampling: Probability vs.PurposefulPurposeful

•• PurposefulPurposeful•• Goal: To understand a phenomenon, notGoal: To understand a phenomenon, not

to represent a population.to represent a population.•• The selection of information-rich cases forThe selection of information-rich cases for

intensive study. Commonly used inintensive study. Commonly used inqualitative research.qualitative research.


Purposeful SamplingPurposeful Sampling

Sample size is smallSample size is small Participants are Participants are information-richinformation-rich

resourcesresources Selection is deliberateSelection is deliberate Goal is to gain a deeper understandingGoal is to gain a deeper understanding

of a phenomenaof a phenomena


Types of PurposefulTypes of PurposefulSamplingSampling

Extreme or deviantExtreme or deviantcase samplingcase sampling

Intensity samplingIntensity samplingTypical case samplingTypical case samplingMaximum variationMaximum variation

samplingsamplingStratified purposefulStratified purposeful

samplingsamplingHomogeneousHomogeneous

samplingsamplingCritical case samplingCritical case samplingSnowball or chainSnowball or chain

samplingsampling

Criterion samplingCriterion samplingTheory-based orTheory-based or

operational constructoperational constructsamplingsampling

Confirming andConfirming anddisconfirming casedisconfirming casesamplingsampling

Purposeful randomPurposeful randomsamplingsampling

Sampling politicallySampling politicallyimportant casesimportant cases

Convenience samplingConvenience samplingOpportunistic samplingOpportunistic sampling


Selected Types ofSelected Types ofPurposeful SamplingPurposeful Sampling

CriterionCriterion Maximum variationMaximum variation StratifiedStratified Typical caseTypical case Deviant caseDeviant case RandomRandom


Criterion SamplingCriterion Sampling

A generic form of sampling involvingA generic form of sampling involvingthe selection of cases on pre-the selection of cases on pre-conceived empirical or theoreticalconceived empirical or theoreticalcriteria. Sometimes called selectivecriteria. Sometimes called selectivesampling.sampling.

Criteria may entail other kinds ofCriteria may entail other kinds ofsampling, such as typical or deviantsampling, such as typical or deviantcase sampling. Criteria can be acase sampling. Criteria can be ascore on a measure (score on a measure (qual/quantqual/quantcombined study).combined study).


Maximum VariationMaximum Variation Selection of cases to represent a set ofSelection of cases to represent a set of

variations on specified aspects of avariations on specified aspects of aphenomenon (variables) that are relevant tophenomenon (variables) that are relevant toyour phenomenon of interest.your phenomenon of interest.–– Equality of number is not relevant.Equality of number is not relevant.–– What is important is that you have informationWhat is important is that you have information

so you can say something about that variable.so you can say something about that variable.–– Phenomenal, not demographic, variationPhenomenal, not demographic, variation–– Phenomenal variation can be demographicPhenomenal variation can be demographic

Researchers choose which and how manyResearchers choose which and how manyfeatures to vary (heterogeneity) and whichfeatures to vary (heterogeneity) and whichfeatures to fix (homogeneity).features to fix (homogeneity).–– More variation = larger sample size.More variation = larger sample size.


Stratified PurposefulStratified PurposefulSamplingSampling

Selection of cases showingSelection of cases showingcombinations of pre-selected variables.combinations of pre-selected variables.

Can use stratified purposeful samplingCan use stratified purposeful samplingin grounded theory when therein grounded theory when there’’ssalready theory development.already theory development.


Random PurposefulRandom PurposefulSamplingSampling

Used when there is a very large poolUsed when there is a very large poolof potentially information-rich casesof potentially information-rich casesand no obvious reason to choose oneand no obvious reason to choose onecase over another.case over another.


Typical Case SamplingTypical Case Sampling

Selection of cases conforming to aSelection of cases conforming to aspecified standard, or pre-conceivedspecified standard, or pre-conceivednorm.norm.–– Comparatively typical: Within the sampleComparatively typical: Within the sample

you have selected, they are typical.you have selected, they are typical.–– Normatively typical: Typical in relation toNormatively typical: Typical in relation to

something out there, e.g., a measure.something out there, e.g., a measure.


Deviant Case SamplingDeviant Case Sampling

Selection of cases departing from aSelection of cases departing from aspecified standard, or pre-conceivedspecified standard, or pre-conceivednorm.norm.–– Comparatively atypical: Within yourComparatively atypical: Within your

study, something stood out.study, something stood out.–– Normatively atypical: Not typicalNormatively atypical: Not typical

according to a standard outside youraccording to a standard outside yourstudy.study.


Theoretical SensitivityTheoretical Sensitivity

The researcherThe researcher’’s ability tos ability to–– have insighthave insight–– give meaning to datagive meaning to data–– distinguish between what is pertinent anddistinguish between what is pertinent and

what is notwhat is not


Theoretical SensitivityTheoretical Sensitivitycontinuedcontinued……

Dependent upon the researcherDependent upon the researcher’’ss–– MethodsMethods–– Professional experienceProfessional experience–– Personal experiencePersonal experience–– Analytic rigorAnalytic rigor


Conducting QualitativeConducting QualitativeResearchResearch

ObservationsObservations InterviewsInterviews Document collectionDocument collection


ObservationsObservations

Utilize focus factorsUtilize focus factors Shift your focus as time and reasonShift your focus as time and reason

seem to dictateseem to dictate Look for patternsLook for patterns


ObservationsObservationscontinuedcontinued……

Define patterns as early as possibleDefine patterns as early as possible Create taxonomy to check againstCreate taxonomy to check against

continued patternscontinued patterns Ask questions to continue definingAsk questions to continue defining

patternspatterns


ObservationsObservationscontinuedcontinued……

Focus FactorsFocus Factors InteractionsInteractions LanguageLanguage IndividualsIndividuals GroupsGroups RoutinesRoutines Interpretations byInterpretations by

participantsparticipants RitualsRituals

Social organizationSocial organization Time sequencesTime sequences NonverbalNonverbal

communicationcommunication Symbolic spaceSymbolic space SettingSetting Unplanned activitiesUnplanned activities What does notWhat does not

happenhappen


InterviewingInterviewing

Closed, fixed response interviewClosed, fixed response interview Informal conversational interviewInformal conversational interview Guided interviewGuided interview Standardized open-ended interviewStandardized open-ended interview

See p. 268 in your text for an overviewSee p. 268 in your text for an overviewof each of these strategiesof each of these strategies


Conducting InterviewsConducting Interviews

Experience/behavior questionsExperience/behavior questions Opinion/values questionsOpinion/values questions Feeling questionsFeeling questions Knowledge questionsKnowledge questions Sensory questionsSensory questions Background/demographic questionsBackground/demographic questions Time frame questionsTime frame questions


Issues in QualitativeIssues in QualitativeInterviewingInterviewing

Sequencing of questionsSequencing of questions WordingWording True open-ended questionsTrue open-ended questions Singular questionsSingular questions


Issues in QualitativeIssues in QualitativeInterviewingInterviewingcontinuedcontinued……

Avoid Avoid ““Why?Why?”” Remain neutralRemain neutral Probe and follow-upProbe and follow-up Support and recognizeSupport and recognize Maintain controlMaintain control


Making sense of yourMaking sense of yourdatadata

Scan your dataScan your data Return to any word, phrase, sentence,Return to any word, phrase, sentence,

or idea that struck you as significant,or idea that struck you as significant,important, or of interestimportant, or of interest


Making sense of yourMaking sense of yourdatadata

Ascertain frequency of word, phrase,Ascertain frequency of word, phrase,sentence, or ideasentence, or idea——it is a pattern?it is a pattern?

List all possible meaningsList all possible meanings Validate possible meaningsValidate possible meanings——useuse

theorytheory


CodingCoding

OpenOpen——scanning and returningscanning and returning AxialAxial——organizing in to initial patternsorganizing in to initial patterns SelectiveSelective——validated the categories andvalidated the categories and

developed a theorydeveloped a theory


TrustworthinessTrustworthiness

Trustworthiness is to qualitativeTrustworthiness is to qualitativeresearch what reliability and validityresearch what reliability and validityare to quantitative research.are to quantitative research.

Does the data show a pattern?Does the data show a pattern? Was it collected truthfully andWas it collected truthfully and

accurately?accurately? How did you reduce bias?How did you reduce bias?



Prolonged engagementProlonged engagement Persistent engagementPersistent engagement TriangulationTriangulation Peer debriefingPeer debriefing Member checksMember checks Audit trailAudit trail


Prolonged engagementProlonged engagement

The documentation of patterns overThe documentation of patterns overtimetime

Must show adequate time andMust show adequate time andresources in the study.resources in the study.


Persistent engagementPersistent engagement

Dealing with discrepant dataDealing with discrepant data Resolving inconsistent data withResolving inconsistent data with

pattern datapattern data Why was some data deemed notWhy was some data deemed not

worthy of consideration?worthy of consideration?


TriangulationTriangulation

Comparison of data from differentComparison of data from differentsourcessources–– DataData–– ResearcherResearcher–– TheoryTheory–– MethodologicalMethodological


Peer debriefingPeer debriefing

Subjecting your data andSubjecting your data andinterpretations to scrutiny by qualifiedinterpretations to scrutiny by qualifiedindividualsindividuals

How often?How often? How thorough?How thorough?


Member checksMember checks

Allowing participants to read the dataAllowing participants to read the datayou collected and the conclusions youyou collected and the conclusions youdrew from themdrew from them

When were they performed?When were they performed? Did you included their reactions?Did you included their reactions? Why or why not?Why or why not?


Audit trailAudit trail

Have you made a clear reference trailHave you made a clear reference trailback to your raw data?back to your raw data?


Aspects of poorAspects of poorqualitative researchqualitative research

Inadequate amounts of evidenceInadequate amounts of evidence Inadequate variety in kinds ofInadequate variety in kinds of

evidenceevidence Faulty interpretative status of evidenceFaulty interpretative status of evidence Presence of disconfirming evidencePresence of disconfirming evidence Inadequate discrepant case analysisInadequate discrepant case analysis


Writing a QualitativeWriting a QualitativeMethods SectionMethods Section

You will have the following headingsYou will have the following headingsunder methodsunder methods–– Theoretical SensitivityTheoretical Sensitivity–– ParticipantsParticipants–– Data CollectionData Collection–– TrustworthinessTrustworthiness–– Data AnalysisData Analysis


Theoretical SensitivityTheoretical Sensitivity

Explain why you are a goodExplain why you are a goodinstrument for this study.instrument for this study.

What experiences do you bring thatWhat experiences do you bring thatmake you an ideal researcher for yourmake you an ideal researcher for yourproposed project?proposed project?

See slides 19-20.See slides 19-20.


ParticipantsParticipants

Who are your participants in theWho are your participants in thestudy?study?

Summarize the qualities you expectSummarize the qualities you expectfrom your participants (why are theyfrom your participants (why are theyan information rich source? Providean information rich source? Provideany pertinent demographicany pertinent demographicinformation)information)


ParticipantsParticipants

How will you solicit participants?How will you solicit participants? Describe purposeful samplingDescribe purposeful sampling

procedureprocedure See slides 11 See slides 11 –– 18 and Purposeful 18 and Purposeful

Sampling under Doc Sharing inSampling under Doc Sharing inecollegeecollege..


Data CollectionData Collection

What observations will you conduct?What observations will you conduct?What will be your focus factors (i.e.What will be your focus factors (i.e.slide 24). You should identify at least 4slide 24). You should identify at least 4focus factors.focus factors.



What type of interview will youWhat type of interview will youconduct? Include 10 (minimum) open-conduct? Include 10 (minimum) open-ended interview questions in anended interview questions in anappendix section of your project.appendix section of your project.

See slides 25-28.See slides 25-28.



What type of documents will youWhat type of documents will youcollect. What information do you needcollect. What information do you needto gather that will be important forto gather that will be important foryour study?your study?



Discuss how all six aspects ofDiscuss how all six aspects oftrustworthiness (slides 32-39) will betrustworthiness (slides 32-39) will beaddressed in your study.addressed in your study.


Data AnalysisData Analysis

Discuss your procedure for identifyingDiscuss your procedure for identifyingpatterns through open, axial, andpatterns through open, axial, andselective coding.selective coding.

See slides 29 See slides 29 –– 31. 31.

qualitative research · qualitative research uses purposeful sampling—the emphasis is on studying...

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