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Qualitative Methods PrimerEditor: Philip Wane

ContentsArticles

Qualitative research 1Chicago school (sociology) 6Interview 11Focus group 14Ethnography 17Grounded theory 26

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors 35Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 36

Article LicensesLicense 37

Qualitative research 1

Qualitative researchQualitative research is a method of inquiry employed in many different academic disciplines, traditionally in thesocial sciences, but also in market research and further contexts.[1] Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depthunderstanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior. The qualitative method investigates thewhy and how of decision making, not just what, where, when. Hence, smaller but focused samples are more oftenneeded than large samples.In the conventional view, qualitative methods produce information only on the particular cases studied, and anymore general conclusions are only propositions (informed assertions). Quantitative methods can then be used to seekempirical support for such research hypotheses. This view has been disputed by Oxford University professor BentFlyvbjerg, who argues that qualitative methods and case study research may be used both for hypotheses-testing andfor generalizing beyond the particular cases studied.[2]

HistoryIn the early 1900s, some researchers rejected positivism, the theoretical idea that there is an objective world aboutwhich we can gather data and "verify" this data through empiricism. These researchers embraced a qualitativeresearch paradigm, attempting to make qualitative research as "rigorous" as quantitative research and creatingmyriad methods for qualitative research. In the 70s and 80s, the increasing ubiquity of computers aided in qualitativeanalyses, several journals with a qualitative focus emerged, and postpositivism gained recognition in the academy. Inthe late 1980s, questions of identity emerged, including issues of race, class, and gender, leading to research andwriting becoming more reflexive. Throughout the 1990s, the concept of a passive observer/researcher was rejected,and qualitative research became more participatory and activist-oriented. Also, during this time, researchers began touse mixed-method approaches, indicating a shift in thinking of qualitative and quantitative methods as intrinsicallyincompatible. However, this history is not apolitical, as this has ushered in a politics of "evidence" and what cancount as "scientific" research in scholarship, a current, ongoing debate in the academy.

Data collectionQualitative researchers may use different approaches in collecting data, such as the grounded theory practice,narratology, storytelling, classical ethnography, or shadowing. Qualitative methods are also loosely present in othermethodological approaches, such as action research or actor-network theory. Forms of the data collected can includeinterviews and group discussions, observation and reflection field notes, various texts, pictures, and other materials.Qualitative research often categorizes data into patterns as the primary basis for organizing and reporting results.Qualitative researchers typically rely on the following methods for gathering information: Participant Observation,Non-participant Observation, Field Notes, Reflexive Journals, Structured Interview, Semi-structured Interview,Unstructured Interview, and Analysis of documents and materials.[3]

The ways of participating and observing can vary widely from setting to setting. Participant observation is a strategyof reflexive learning, not a single method of observing.[4] In participant observation[5] researchers typically becomemembers of a culture, group, or setting, and adopt roles to conform to that setting. In doing so, the aim is for theresearcher to gain a closer insight into the culture's practices, motivations and emotions. It is argued that theresearchers' ability to understand the experiences of the culture may be inhibited if they observe withoutparticipating.Some distinctive qualitative methods are the use of focus groups and key informant interviews. The focus grouptechnique involves a moderator facilitating a small group discussion between selected individuals on a particulartopic. This is a particularly popular method in market research and testing new initiatives with users/workers.

Qualitative research 2

One traditional and specialized form of qualitative research is called cognitive testing or pilot testing which is usedin the development of quantitative survey items. Survey items are piloted on study participants to test the reliabilityand validity of the items.In the academic social sciences the most frequently used qualitative research approaches include the following:1. Ethnographic Research, used for investigating cultures by collecting and describing data that is intended to help

in the development of a theory. This method is also called "ethnomethodology" or "methodology of the people".An example of applied ethnographic research is the study of a particular culture and their understanding of therole of a particular disease in their cultural framework.

2. Critical Social Research, used by a researcher to understand how people communicate and develop symbolicmeanings.

3. Ethical Inquiry, an intellectual analysis of ethical problems. It includes the study of ethics as related to obligation,rights, duty, right and wrong, choice etc.

4.4. Foundational Research, examines the foundations for a science, analyzes the beliefs, and develops ways tospecify how a knowledge base should change in light of new information.

5.5. Historical Research allows one to discuss past and present events in the context of the present condition, andallows one to reflect and provide possible answers to current issues and problems. Historical research helps us inanswering questions such as: Where have we come from, where are we, who are we now and where are wegoing?

6. Grounded Theory is an inductive type of research, based or "grounded" in the observations or data from which itwas developed; it uses a variety of data sources, including quantitative data, review of records, interviews,observation and surveys.

7. Phenomenology describes the "subjective reality" of an event, as perceived by the study population; it is the studyof a phenomenon.

8.8. Philosophical Research is conducted by field experts within the boundaries of a specific field of study orprofession, the best qualified individual in any field of study to use an intellectual analysis, in order to clarifydefinitions, identify ethics, or make a value judgment concerning an issue in their field of study their lives.

Data analysis

Interpretive techniquesThe most common analysis of qualitative data is observer impression. That is, expert or bystander observers examinethe data, interpret it via forming an impression and report their impression in a structured and sometimes quantitativeform.

Coding

Coding is an interpretive technique that both organizes the data and provides a means to introduce the interpretationsof it into certain quantitative methods. Most coding requires the analyst to read the data and demarcate segmentswithin it. Each segment is labeled with a "code" – usually a word or short phrase that suggests how the associateddata segments inform the research objectives. When coding is complete, the analyst prepares reports via a mix of:summarizing the prevalence of codes, discussing similarities and differences in related codes across distinct originalsources/contexts, or comparing the relationship between one or more codes.Some qualitative data that is highly structured (e.g., open-end responses from surveys or tightly defined interviewquestions) is typically coded without additional segmenting of the content. In these cases, codes are often applied asa layer on top of the data. Quantitative analysis of these codes is typically the capstone analytical step for this type ofqualitative data.

Qualitative research 3

Contemporary qualitative data analyses are sometimes supported by computer programs, termed Computer AssistedQualitative Data Analysis Software. These programs do not supplant the interpretive nature of coding but rather areaimed at enhancing the analyst’s efficiency at data storage/retrieval and at applying the codes to the data. Manyprograms offer efficiencies in editing and revising coding, which allow for work sharing, peer review, and recursiveexamination of data.A frequent criticism of coding method is that it seeks to transform qualitative data into quantitative data, therebydraining the data of its variety, richness, and individual character. Analysts respond to this criticism by thoroughlyexpositing their definitions of codes and linking those codes soundly to the underlying data, therein bringing backsome of the richness that might be absent from a mere list of codes.

Recursive abstractionSome qualitative datasets are analyzed without coding. A common method here is recursive abstraction, wheredatasets are summarized; those summaries are then further summarized and so on. The end result is a more compactsummary that would have been difficult to accurately discern without the preceding steps of distillation.A frequent criticism of recursive abstraction is that the final conclusions are several times removed from theunderlying data. While it is true that poor initial summaries will certainly yield an inaccurate final report, qualitativeanalysts can respond to this criticism. They do so, like those using coding method, by documenting the reasoningbehind each summary step, citing examples from the data where statements were included and where statementswere excluded from the intermediate summary.

Mechanical techniquesSome techniques rely on leveraging computers to scan and sort large sets of qualitative data. At their most basiclevel, mechanical techniques rely on counting words, phrases, or coincidences of tokens within the data. Oftenreferred to as content analysis, the output from these techniques is amenable to many advanced statistical analyses.Mechanical techniques are particularly well-suited for a few scenarios. One such scenario is for datasets that aresimply too large for a human to effectively analyze, or where analysis of them would be cost prohibitive relative tothe value of information they contain. Another scenario is when the chief value of a dataset is the extent to which itcontains "red flags" (e.g., searching for reports of certain adverse events within a lengthy journal dataset frompatients in a clinical trial) or "green flags" (e.g., searching for mentions of your brand in positive reviews ofmarketplace products).A frequent criticism of mechanical techniques is the absence of a human interpreter. And while masters of thesemethods are able to write sophisticated software to mimic some human decisions, the bulk of the "analysis" isnonhuman. Analysts respond by proving the value of their methods relative to either a) hiring and training a humanteam to analyze the data or b) letting the data go untouched, leaving any actionable nuggets undiscovered.

Paradigmatic differencesContemporary qualitative research has been conducted from a large number of various paradigms that influence conceptual and metatheoretical concerns of legitimacy, control, data analysis, ontology, and epistemology, among others. Research conducted in the last 10 years has been characterized by a distinct turn toward more interpretive, postmodern, and critical practices.[6] Guba and Lincoln (2005) identify five main paradigms of contemporary qualitative research: positivism, postpositivism, critical theories, constructivism, and participatory/cooperative paradigms.[6] Each of the paradigms listed by Guba and Lincoln are characterized by axiomatic differences in axiology, intended action of research, control of research process/outcomes, relationship to foundations of truth and knowledge, validity (see below), textual representation and voice of the researcher/participants, and commensurability with other paradigms. In particular, commensurability involves the extent to which paradigmatic

Qualitative research 4

concerns "can be retrofitted to each other in ways that make the simultaneous practice of both possible".[7] Positivistand post positivist paradigms share commensurable assumptions but are largely incommensurable with critical,constructivist, and participatory paradigms. Likewise, critical, constructivist, and participatory paradigms arecommensurable on certain issues (e.g., intended action and textual representation).

ValidationA central issue in qualitative research is validity (also known as credibility and/or dependability). There are manydifferent ways of establishing validity, including: member check, interviewer corroboration, peer debriefing,prolonged engagement, negative case analysis, auditability, confirmability, bracketing, and balance. Most of thesemethods were coined, or at least extensively described by Lincoln and Guba (1985)[8]

Academic researchBy the end of the 1970s many leading journals began to publish qualitative research articles[9] and several newjournals emerged which published only qualitative research studies and articles about qualitative researchmethods.[10]

In the 1980s and 1990s, the new qualitative research journals became more multidisciplinary in focus movingbeyond qualitative research’s traditional disciplinary roots of anthropology, sociology, and philosophy.[10]

The new millennium saw a dramatic increase in the number of journals specializing in qualitative research with atleast one new qualitative research journal being launched each year.

Notes[1] Denzin, Norman K. & Lincoln, Yvonna S. (Eds.). (2005). The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

ISBN 0-7619-2757-3[2] Bent Flyvbjerg, 2006, "Five Misunderstandings About Case Study Research." (http:/ / flyvbjerg. plan. aau. dk/ Publications2006/

0604FIVEMISPUBL2006. pdf) Qualitative Inquiry, vol. 12, no. 2, April, pp. 219-245.; Bent Flyvbjerg, 2011, "Case Study," (http:/ / www.sbs. ox. ac. uk/ centres/ bt/ directory/ Documents/ CaseStudy4 2HBQR11PRINT. pdf) in Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln, eds., TheSage Handbook of Qualitative Research, 4th Edition (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage), pp. 301-316.

[3] Marshall, Catherine & Rossman, Gretchen B. (1998). Designing Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. ISBN 0-7619-1340-8[4] Lindlof, T. R., & Taylor, B. C. (2002) Qualitative communication research methods: Second edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications,

Inc. ISBN 0-7619-2493-0[5] "Qualitative Research Methods: A Data Collector’s Field Guide" (http:/ / www. techsociety. com/ cal/ soc190/ fssba2009/

ParticipantObservation. pdf). techsociety.com. . Retrieved 7 October 2010.[6] Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2005). "Paradigmatic controversies, contradictions, and emerging influences" In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln

(Eds.), The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research (3rd ed.), pp. 191-215. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. ISBN 0-7619-2757-3[7] Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2005). "Paradigmatic controversies, contradictions, and emerging influences" (p. 200). In N. K. Denzin & Y.

S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research (3rd ed.), pp. 191-215. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. ISBN 0-7619-2757-3[8] Lincoln Y and Guba EG (1985) Naturalistic Inquiry, Sage Publications, Newbury Park, CA.[9] Loseke, Donileen R. & Cahil, Spencer E. (2007). "Publishing qualitative manuscripts: Lessons learned". In C. Seale, G. Gobo, J. F. Gubrium,

& D. Silverman (Eds.), Qualitative Research Practice: Concise Paperback Edition, pp. 491-506. London: Sage. ISBN 978-1-76194-776-9[10] Denzin, Norman K. & Lincoln, Yvonna S. (2005). "Introduction: The discipline and practice of qualitative research". In N. K. Denzin & Y.

S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research (3rd ed.), pp. 1-33. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. ISBN 0-7619-2757-3

Qualitative research 5

References• Adler, P. A. & Adler, P. (1987). : context and meaning in social inquiry / edited by Richard Jessor, Anne Colby,

and Richard A. Shweder] OCLC 46597302• Boas, Franz (1943). Recent anthropology. Science, 98, 311-314, 334-337.• Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method approaches. Thousand

Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.• Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2000). Handbook of qualitative research ( 2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Publications.• Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2011). The SAGE Handbook of qualitative research ( 4th ed.). Los Angeles:

Sage Publications.• DeWalt, K. M. & DeWalt, B. R. (2002). Participant observation. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.• Fischer, C.T. (Ed.) (2005). Qualitative research methods for psychologists: Introduction through empirical

studies. Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-088470-4.• Flyvbjerg, B. (2006). "Five Misunderstandings About Case Study Research." (http:/ / flyvbjerg. plan. aau. dk/

Publications2006/ 0604FIVEMISPUBL2006. pdf) Qualitative Inquiry, vol. 12, no. 2, April 2006, pp. 219–245.• Flyvbjerg, B. (2011). "Case Study," (http:/ / www. sbs. ox. ac. uk/ centres/ bt/ directory/ Documents/ CaseStudy4

2HBQR11PRINT. pdf) in Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln, eds., The Sage Handbook of QualitativeResearch, 4th Edition (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage), pp. 301–316.

• Franklin, M. I. (2012), " Understanding Research: Coping with the Quantitative-Qualitative Divide (http:/ / www.routledge. com/ books/ details/ 9780415490801/ )". London/New York. Routledge

• Giddens, A. (1990). The consequences of modernity. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.• Holliday, A. R. (2007). Doing and Writing Qualitative Research, 2nd Edition. London: Sage Publications• Kaminski, Marek M. (2004). Games Prisoners Play. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-11721-7.• Mahoney, J & Goertz, G. (2006) A Tale of Two Cultures: Contrasting Quantitative and Qualitative Research,

Political Analysis, 14, 227–249. doi:10.1093/pan/mpj017• Malinowski, B. (1922/1961). Argonauts of the Western Pacific. New York: E. P. Dutton.• Miles, M. B. & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.•• Pamela Maykut, Richard Morehouse. 1994 Beginning Qualitative Research. Falmer Press.• Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods ( 3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Publications.• Pawluch D. & Shaffir W. & Miall C. (2005). Doing Ethnography: Studying Everyday Life. Toronto, ON Canada:

Canadian Scholars' Press.• Ragin, C. C. (1994). Constructing Social Research: The Unity and Diversity of Method, Pine Forge Press, ISBN

0-8039-9021-9•• Silverman, David, (ed), (2011), "Qualitative Research: Issues of Theory, Method and Practice". Third Edition.

London, Thousand Oaks, New Delhi, Sage Publications• Stebbins, Robert A. (2001) Exploratory Research in the Social Sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.• Taylor, Steven J., Bogdan, Robert, Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods, Wiley, 1998, ISBN

0-471-16868-8• Van Maanen, J. (1988) Tales of the field: on writing ethnography, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.• Wolcott, H. F. (1995). The art of fieldwork. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.• Wolcott, H. F. (1999). Ethnography: A way of seeing. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.• Ziman, John (2000). Real Science: what it is, and what it means. Cambridge, Uk: Cambridge University Press.

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External links• C.Wright Mills, On intellectual Craftsmanship, The Sociological Imagination,1959 (http:/ / ddl. uwinnipeg. ca/

res_des/ files/ readings/ cwmills-intel_craft. pdf)• Participant Observation, Qualitative research methods: a Data collector's field guide (http:/ / www. fhi. org/ en/

RH/ Pubs/ booksReports/ QRM_datacoll. htm)

Videos• "Living Theory Approach to Qualitative Action Research" (http:/ / www. youtube. com/

watch?v=AFl3PUrwG_8)

Chicago school (sociology)In sociology and later criminology, the Chicago School (sometimes described as the Ecological School) was thefirst major body of works emerging during the 1920s and 1930s specialising in urban sociology, and the researchinto the urban environment by combining theory and ethnographic fieldwork in Chicago, now applied elsewhere.While involving scholars at several Chicago area universities, the term is often used interchangeably to refer to theUniversity of Chicago's sociology department—one of the oldest and one of the most prestigious. Following WorldWar II, a "Second Chicago School" arose whose members used symbolic interactionism combined with methods offield research, to create a new body of work.[1] This was one of the first institutions to use quantitative methods incriminology.The major researchers in the first Chicago School included Nels Anderson, Ernest Burgess, Ruth Shonle Cavan,Edward Franklin Frazier, Everett Hughes, Roderick D. McKenzie, George Herbert Mead, Robert E. Park, Walter C.Reckless, Edwin Sutherland, W. I. Thomas [2], Frederic Thrasher, Louis Wirth, Florian Znaniecki. Activist, socialscientist and Nobel Peace Prize winner Jane Addams also forged and maintained close ties with some of themembers of the Chicago School of Sociology.

DiscussionThe Chicago School is best known for its urban sociology and for the development of the symbolic interactionistapproach. It has focused on human behavior as determined by social structures and physical environmental factors,rather than genetic and personal characteristics. Biologists and anthropologists have accepted the theory of evolutionas demonstrating that animals adapt to their environments. As applied to humans who are considered responsible fortheir own destinies, the School believed that the natural environment which the community inhabits is a major factorin shaping human behavior, and that the city functions as a microcosm:

"In these great cities, where all the passions, all the energies of mankind are released, we are in a position toinvestigate the process of civilization, as it were, under a microscope."[3]

The work of Frederic E. Clements (1916) was particularly influential. He proposed that a community of vegetation isa superorganism and that communities develop in a fixed pattern of successional stages from inception through tosome single climax state or to a self-regulating state of equilibrium. By analogy, an individual is born, grows,matures, and dies, but the community which the individual inhabited continues to grow and exhibit properties whichare greater than the sum of the properties of the parts.Members of the School have concentrated on the city of Chicago as the object of their study, seeking evidence whether urbanization (Wirth: 1938) and increasing social mobility have been the causes of the contemporary social problems. Originally, Chicago was a clean slate, an empty physical environment. By 1860, Chicago was a small town with a population of 10,000. There was great growth after the fire of 1871. By 1910, the population exceeded

Chicago school (sociology) 7

two million. The rapidity of the increase was due to an influx of immigrants and it produced homelessness(Anderson: 1923), poor housing conditions, and bad working conditions based on low wages and long hours. Butequally, Thomas and Znaniecki (1918) stress that the sudden freedom of immigrants released from the controls ofEurope to the unrestrained competition of the new city was a dynamic for growth. See also the broken windowsthesis.

"Ecological studies consisted of making spot maps of Chicago for the place of occurrence of specificbehaviors, including alcoholism, homicides, suicides, psychoses, and poverty, and then computing rates basedon census data. A visual comparison of the maps could identify the concentration of certain types of behaviorin some areas. Correlations of rates by areas were not made until later."[4]

For Thomas, the groups themselves had to reinscribe and reconstruct themselves to prosper. Burgess studied thehistory of development and concluded that the city had not grown at the edges. Although the presence of LakeMichigan prevented the complete encirclement, he postulated that all major cities would be formed by radialexpansion from the center in concentric rings which he described as zones, i.e. the business area in the center, theslum area (called the zone in transition and studied by Wirth: 1928, Zorbaugh: 1929, and Suttles: 1968) around thecentral area, the zone of workingmen's homes farther out, the residential area beyond this zone, and then thebungalow section and the commuter's zone on the periphery. Under the influence of Albion Small, the research at theSchool mined the mass of official data including census reports, housing/welfare records and crime figures, andrelated the data spatially to different geographical areas of the city. Shaw and McKay created maps:•• spot maps to demonstrate the location of a range of social problems with a primary focus on juvenile delinquency;• rate maps which divided the city into block of one square mile and showed the population by age, gender,

ethnicity, etc.;•• zone maps which demonstrated that the major problems were clustered in the city center.Thomas also developed techniques of self-reporting life histories to provide subjective balance to the analysis. Park,Burgess, and McKenzie are credited with institutionalizing, if not establishing, sociology as a science. They are alsocriticized for their overly empiricist and idealised approach to the study of society but, in the inter-war years, theirattitudes and prejudices were normative. Three broad themes characterized this dynamic period of Chicago studies:1.1. culture contact and conflict. This arises from Thomas and Znaniecki (1918) and studies how ethnic groups

interact and compete in a process of community succession and institutional transformation (Hughes and Hughes:1952). An important part of this work concerned African Americans; works including E. Franklin Frazier (1932)and Drake and Cayton (1945) shaped white America's perception of black communities for decades.

2.2. succession in community institutions as stakeholders and actors in the ebb and flow of ethnic groups. Cressey(1932) studied the dance hall and commercialized entertainment services, Kincheloe (1938) studied churchsuccession, Janowitz (1952) studied the community press, and Hughes (1979) studied the real-estate board.

3. city politics. Merriam's commitment to practical reform politics was matched by Gosnell who researched votingand other forms of participation. Gosnell (1935), Wilson (1960), Grimshaw (1992) considered African Americanpolitics, and Banfield and Wilson (1963) placed Chicago city politics in a broader context.

The School is perhaps best known for the Subculture Theories of Thrasher, Frazier, and Sutherland, and for applyingthe principles of ecology to develop the Social Disorganization Theory which refers to consequences of the failureof:• social institutions or social organizations including the family, schools, church, political institutions, policing,

business, etc. in identified communities and/or neighborhoods, or in society at large; and•• social relationships that traditionally encourage co-operation between people.Thomas defined social disorganization as "the inability of a neighborhood to solve its problems together" which suggested a level of social pathology and personal disorganization, so the term, "differential social organization" was preferred by many, and may have been the source of Sutherland's (1947) Differential Association Theory. The researchers have provided a clear analysis that the city is a place where life is superficial, where people are

Chicago school (sociology) 8

anonymous, where relationships are transitory and friendship and family bonds are weak. They have observed theweakening of primary social relationships and relate this to a process of social disorganization (comparison with theconcept of anomie and the Strain Theories is instructive).

For a complete discussion, see Social Disorganization Theory and Subcultural Theory.

Ecology and social theoriesVasishth and Sloane (2000) argue that while it is tempting to draw analogies between organisms in nature and thehuman condition, the problem lies in reductionism, i.e. that the science of biology is oversimplified into rules that arethen applied mechanically to explain the growth and dynamics of human communities. The most fundamentaldifficulties are definitional. If a community is a group of individuals who inhabit the same place, is the communitymerely the sum of individuals and their activities, or is it something more than an aggregation of individuals? This iscritical in planning research into group interactions. Will research be effective if it focuses on the individualscomprising a group, or is the community itself a proper subject of research independently of the individuals whocomprise it? If the former, then data on individuals will explain the community, but if the community either directlyor indirectly affects the behavior of its members, then research must consider the patterns and processes ofcommunity as distinct from patterns and processes in populations of individuals. But this requires a definition anddistinction between "pattern" and "process". The structures, forms, and patterns are relatively easy to observe andmeasure, but they are nothing more than evidence of underlying processes and functions which are the realconstitutive forces in nature and society. The Chicago School wanted to develop tools by which to research and thenchange society by directing urban planning and social intervention agencies. It recognized that urban expansion wasnot haphazard but quite strongly controlled by community-level forces such as land values, zoning ordinances,landscape features, circulation corridors, and historical contingency. This was characterized as ecological becausethe external factors were neither chance nor intended, but rather arose from the natural forces in the environmentwhich limit the adaptive spatial and temporal relationships between individuals. The School sought to derive patternsfrom a study of processes, rather than to ascribe processes to observed patterns and the patterns they saw emerge, arestrongly reminiscent of Clements' ideas of community development.

ConclusionsThe Chicago Area Project (CAP) was a practical attempt by sociologists to apply their theories in a city laboratory.Subsequent research showed that the youth athletic leagues, recreation programs, and summer camp worked bestalong with urban planning and alternatives to incarceration as crime control policy. Such programs arenon-entrepreneurial and non-self-sustaining, and they fail when local or central government does not make asustained financial commitment to them. Although with hindsight, the School's attempts to map crime may haveproduced some distortions, the work was valuable in that it moved away from a study of pattern and place toward astudy of function and scale. To that extent, this was work of high quality that represented the best science availableto the researchers at the time.The Social Disorganization Theory itself was a landmark and, since it focuses on the absence or breakdown of social control mechanisms, there are obvious links with social control theory. In Causes of Delinquency (1969) Travis Hirschi argued that variations in delinquent behavior among youth could be explained by variations in the dimensions of the social bond, namely attachment to others, commitments to conventional goals, acceptance of conventional moral standards or beliefs, and involvement in conventional activities. The greater the social bonds between a youth and society, the lower the odds of involvement in delinquency. When social bonds to conventional role models, values and institutions are aggregated for youth in a particular setting, they measure much the same phenomena as captured by concepts such as network ties or social integration. But the fact that these theories focus on the absence of control or the barriers to progress, means that they are ignoring the societal pressures and cultural values that drive the system Merton identified in the Strain Theory or the motivational forces Cohen proposed were

Chicago school (sociology) 9

generating crime and delinquency. More modern theorists like Empey (1967) argue that the system of values, normsand beliefs can be disorganized in the sense that there are conflicts among values, norms and beliefs within a widelyshared, dominant culture. While condemning crime in general, law-abiding citizens may nevertheless respect andadmire the criminal who takes risks and successfully engages in exciting, dangerous activities. The depiction of asociety as a collection of socially differentiated groups with distinct subcultural perspectives that lead some of thesegroups into conflict with the law is another form of cultural disorganization, is typically called cultural conflict.Modern versions of the theory sometimes use different terminology to refer to the same ecological causal processes.For example, Crutchfield, Geerken and Gove (1982: 467-482) hypothesize that the social integration of communitiesis inhibited by population turnover and report supporting evidence in the explanation of variation in crime ratesamong cities. The greater the mobility of the population in a city, the higher the crime rates. These arguments areidentical to those proposed by social disorganization theorists and the evidence in support of it is as indirect as theevidence cited by social disorganization theorists. But, by referring to social integration rather than disintegration,this research has not generated the same degree of criticism as social disorganization theory.

References[1] Gary Alan Fine. A Second Chicago School? The Development of a Postwar American Sociology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,

1995)[2] http:/ / www. bolender. com/ Sociological%20Theory/ Thomas,%20William%20I. %20and%20Florian%20Znaniecki/

thomas,_william_i_and_florian_znaniecki. htm[3] Robert E. Park, “Human Migration and the Marginal Man,” AJS 33:6 (May 1928), p.890[4] Ruth Shonle Cavan, “The Chicago School of Sociology,” 1983, p.415

External links• For an overview of the history of the Chicago School, see the web version of an article by Howard S. Becker,

himself a member of the "Second Chicago School". (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080203122901/ http:/ /home. earthlink. net/ ~hsbecker/ chicago. html)

• University of Chicago Department of Sociology (http:/ / sociology. uchicago. edu/ )

ReferencesFor a comprehensive history of the Chicago School, see Martin Bulmer (1984) and Lester Kurtz (1984).

Other references• Abbott, Andrew. (1999). Department and Discipline: Chicago Sociology at One Hundred. Chicago: University of

Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-00099-0• Anderson, Nels, and Council of Social Agencies of Chicago. (1923). The Hobo: The Sociology of the Homeless

Man.• Banfield, Edward C. & Wilson, James Q. (1963). City Politics.• Bulmer, Martin. (1984). The Chicago School of Sociology: Institutionalization, Diversity, and the Rise of

Sociological Research. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.• Burgess, Ernest & Bogue, Donald J. (eds.).(1964). Contributions to Urban Sociology. Chicago: University of

Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-08055-2• Burgess, Ernest & Bogue, Donald J. (eds.) (1967). Urban Sociology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN

0-226-08056-0•• Bursik, Robert J. (1984). "Urban Dynamics and Ecological Studies of Delinquency". Social Forces 63: 393-413.• Clements, Frederic E. (1916). Plant Succession: An Analysis of the Development of Vegetation. Carnegie Institute

of Washington Publication, No. 242. Washington, DC: Carnegie Institution.

Chicago school (sociology) 10

• Crutchfield, R.D., M. Geerken and W.R. Gove, (1982). "Crime Rates and Social Integration: The Impact ofMetropolitan Mobility" Criminology, Vol. 20, Nos. 3 and 4, November, 1982, 467-478

• Cressey, Paul Goalby. (1932). The Taxi-Dance Hall: A Sociological Study in Commercialized Recreation andCity Life.

• Drake, St. Clair & Cayton, Horace. (1945). Black Metropolis: A Study of Negro Life in a Northern City.• Empey L. T. (1967) "Delinquency Theory and Recent Research". Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency

4.• Frazier, Edward Franklin. (1932). The Free Negro Family: A Study of Family Origins before the Civil War.• Frazier, Edward Franklin. (1932). The Negro Family in Chicago.• Gosnell, Harold Foote. (1927). Getting Out the Vote: An Experiment in the Stimulation of Voting.• Gosnell, Harold Foote. (1935). Negro Politicians: The Rise of Negro Politics in Chicago.• Gosnell, Harold Foote. (1937). Machine Politics: Chicago Model.• Grimshaw, William J. (1992). Bitter Fruit: Black Politics and the Chicago Machine, 1931–1991.• Hawley, Amos H. (1943). "Ecology and Human Ecology". Social Forces 22: 398-405.• Hawley, Amos H. (1950). Human Ecology: A Theory of Community Structure. New York: Ronald Press.• Hirschi, T. (1969). Causes of Delinquency. Berkeley: University of California Press. (2001) Transaction

Publishers. ISBN 0-7658-0900-1• Hughes, Everett Cherrington. (1979). The Chicago Real Estate Board: The Growth of an Institution.• Hughes, Everett Cherrington & Hughes, Helen MacGill. (1952). Where Peoples Meet: Racial and Ethnic

Frontiers.• Janowitz, Morris. (1952). The Community Press in an Urban Setting.• Kincheloe, Samuel C. (1938). The American City and Its Church.• Kurtz, Lester R. (1984). Evaluating Chicago Sociology: A Guide to the Literature, with an Annotated

Bibliography. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-46477-6• McKenzie, R. D. "The Ecological Approach to the Study of the Human Community". American Journal of

Sociology 30 (1924): 287-301.• Merriam, Charles Edward. (1903). A History of American Political Theories.• Merriam, Charles Edward. (1908). Primary Elections: A Study of the History and Tendencies of Primary Election

Legislation.• Merriam, Charles Edward. (1929). Chicago: A More Intimate View of Urban Politics.• Park, Robert E. (1915). "The City: Suggestions for the Investigation of Behavior in the City Environment",

American Journal of Sociology 20:579-83.• Park, Robert E., Ernest Burgess, Roderick McKenzie (1925). The City, University of Chicago Press.• Stark et al., "Beyond Durkheim" Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 22(1983):120-131• Sutherland, Edwin. (1924, 34. 39). "Principles of Criminology.• Suttles, Gerald D. (1968) The Social Order of the Slum: Ethnicity and Territory in the Inner City.• Thomas, William Isaac & Znaniecki, Florian. (1918). The Polish Peasant in Europe and America: Monograph of

an Immigrant Group.• Thrasher, Frederick (1927) The Gang. University of Chicago Press.• Vasishth, Ashwani & Sloane, David. (2000) Returning to Ecology: An Ecosystem Approach. (http:/ / www-rcf.

usc. edu/ ~vasishth/ Vasishth+ Returning_To_Ecology. pdf)• Wilson, James Q. (1960). Negro Politics: The Search for Leadership.• Wirth, Louis (1928) The Ghetto. University of Chicago Press.• Wirth, Louis. (1938). “Urbanism as a Way of Life: The City and Contemporary Civilization”. American Journal

of Sociology 44:1–24.• Zorbaugh, Harvey Warren. (1929). Gold Coast and Slum: A Sociological Study of Chicago's Near North Side.

Interview 11

Interview

An interview with Thed Björk, a Swedish racingdriver.

An interview is a conversation between two or more people wherequestions are asked by the interviewer to elicit facts or statements fromthe interviewee.

Interview as a method for qualitative research

"Definition" - The qualitative research interview seeks to describe andthe meanings of central themes in the life world of the subjects. Themain task in interviewing is to understand the meaning of what theinterviewees say.(Kvale,1996)

Aspects of qualitative research interviews•• Interviews are completed by the interviewer based on what the interviewee says.•• Interviews are a far more personal form of research than questionnaires.•• In the personal interview, the interviewer works directly with the interviewee.•• Unlike with mail surveys, the interviewer has the opportunity to probe or ask follow up questions.•• Interviews are generally easier for the interviewee, especially if what is sought are opinions and/or impressions.•• Interviews are time consuming and they are resource intensive.•• The interviewer is considered a part of the measurement instrument and interviewer has to be well trained in how

to respond to any contingency.

Types of interviews• Informal, conversational interview - no predetermined questions are asked, in order to remain as open and

adaptable as possible to the interviewee’s nature and priorities; during the interview the interviewer “goes with theflow”.

•• General interview guide approach - intended to ensure that the same general areas of information are collectedfrom each interviewee; this provides more focus than the conversational approach, but still allows a degree offreedom and adaptability in getting the information from the interviewee

•• Standardized, open-ended interview - the same open-ended questions are asked to all interviewees; this approachfacilitates faster interviews that can be more easily analyzed and compared.

•• Closed, fixed-response interview - all interviewees are asked the same questions and asked to choose answersfrom among the same set of alternatives. This format is useful for those not practiced in interviewing.

Interview 12

Employment-related•• Exit interview•• Informational interview•• Job interview

•• Case interview•• Programming interview

•• Microsoft interview•• Telephone interview

Others•• Cognitive interview• Computer-assisted personal vs. telephone interviewing•• Investigative interview•• Ladder interview•• Mall-intercept personal interview•• Mock Interview•• Multiple mini interview•• Online interview•• Parent-teacher interview•• Psychiatric interview• Reference interview, between a librarian and a library user• Repertory grid interview• Structured, semi-structured, and unstructured interview•• Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV

Stages of interview investigation•• Thematizing, the why and what of the investigation•• Designing, plan the design of the study•• Interviewing, conduct the interview based on a guide•• Transcribing, prepare the interview material for analysis•• Analyzing, decide on the purpose, the topic, the nature and methods of analysis that are appropriate•• Verifying, ascertain the validity of the interview findings•• Reporting, communicate findings of the study based on academic criteria

PublicationsSeveral publications give prominence to interviews, including:• Interviews with novelists conducted since 1950 by The Paris Review• Interviews with celebrities conducted by Interview magazine, co-founded by Andy Warhol in 1969• The Rolling Stone Interview, featured in Rolling Stone magazine

Famous interviews• 1957-1960: The Mike Wallace Interview - 30-minute television program interviews conducted by Mike Wallace• 1968: Interviews with Phil Ochs - an interview of folk singer Phil Ochs conducted by Broadside Magazine• 1974: Michael Parkinson/Muhammad Ali - television interview of Ali in his prime

Interview 13

• 1977: Frost/Nixon interviews - 1977 television interviews by British journalist David Frost of former UnitedStates President Richard Nixon

• early 1980s: Soviet Interview Project - conducted with Soviet emigrants to the United States• 1992: Fellini: I'm a Born Liar - Federico Fellini's last filmed interviews conducted in 1992 for a 2002 feature

documentary• 1992: Nevermind It's an Interview - interviews with the band Nirvana recorded in 1992 on the night they appeared

on Saturday Night Live• 1993: Michael Jackson talks to Oprah Winfrey. This became the fourth most watched event in American

television history as well as the most watched interview ever, with an audience of one hundred million.• 1993: Birthday Cake Interview - an interview of Dr. John Hewson that contributed to the defeat of his party in the

1993 Australian federal election• 2002-3: Living with Michael Jackson - a 2002-3 interview with Michael Jackson, later turned into a documentary• 2003: February 2003 Saddam Hussein interview - Dan Rather interviewing Saddam Hussein days before the 2003

invasion of Iraq• 2008: Sarah Palin interviews with Katie Couric - Katie Couric interviewing Sarah Palin

References• Campion, M.A., Campion, J.E., & Hudson, J.P., Jr. “Structured Interviewing: A Note on Incremental Validity and

Alternative Question Types”, Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 998-1002, 1994• Dick, Bob. Convergent Interviewing. Session 8 of "Areol-Action Research and Evaluation", Southern Cross

University, 2002• Foddy, William. Constructing Questions for Interviews, Cambridge University Press, 1993• General Accounting Office. Using Structured Interviewing Techniques (http:/ / www. gao. gov/ special. pubs/

pe1015. pdf). Program Evaluation and Methodology Division, Washington D.C., 1991• Groat, Linda & Wang, David. Architectural Research Methods, John Wiley & Sons, Inc• Hollowitz, J. & Wilson, C.E. “Structured Interviewing in Volunteer Selection”. Journal of Applied

Communication Research, 21, 41-52, 1993• Kvale, Steinar. Interviews: An Introduction to Qualitative Research Interviewing, Sage Publications, 1996• McNamara, Carter, PhD. General Guidelines for Conducting Interviews (http:/ / managementhelp. org/

businessresearch/ interviews. htm) (http:/ / communities. usaidallnet. gov/ fa/ system/ files/ General+ Guidelines+for+ Conducting+ Interviews. pdf), Minnesota, 1999

• Pawlas, G.E. “The Structured Interview: Three Dozen Questions to Ask Prospective Teachers”, NASSP Bulletin,79, 62-65, 1995

• Trochim, William, M.K. " Types of Surveys (http:/ / www. socialresearchmethods. net/ kb/ survtype. php)",Research Methods Knowledge Base, 2002

• Watts, G.E. “Effective Strategies in Selecting Quality Faculty”, International Conference for Community CollegeChairs, Deans, & Other Instructional Leaders, Phoenix, Arizona, 1993

Focus group 14

Focus groupA focus group is a form of qualitative research in which a group of people are asked about their perceptions,opinions, beliefs, and attitudes towards a product, service, concept, advertisement, idea, or packaging.[1] Questionsare asked in an interactive group setting where participants are free to talk with other group members. The first focusgroups were created at the Bureau of Applied Social Research in the USA, by associate director, sociologist RobertK. Merton.[2] The term itself was coined by psychologist and marketing expert Ernest Dichter.[3]

MarketingIn the world of marketing, focus groups are seen as an important tool for acquiring feedback regarding new products,as well as various topics. In particular, focus groups allow companies wishing to develop, package, name, or testmarket a new product, to discuss, view, and/or test the new product before it is made available to the public. This canprovide invaluable information about the potential market acceptance of the product.Focus Group is an interview, conducted by a trained moderator among a small group of respondents. The interviewis conducted in an unstructured and natural way where respondents are free to give views from any aspect.

Social sciencesIn the social sciences and urban planning, focus groups allow interviewers to study people in a more natural settingthan a one-to-one interview. In combination with participant observation, they can be used for gaining access tovarious cultural and social groups, selecting sites to study, sampling of such sites, and raising unexpected issues forexploration. Their main advantage is their fairly low cost compared to surveys, as one can get results relativelyquickly and increase the sample size of a report by talking with several people at once.[4]

Usability engineeringIn usability engineering, a focus group is a survey method to collect the views of users on a software or website. Thismarketing method can be applied to computer products to better understand the motivations of users and theirperception of the product. Unlike other methods of ergonomics, focus group implies several participants: users orfuture users of the application. The focus group can only collect subjective data, not objective data on the use of theapplication as the usability test for example.[5]

Alan Cooper, in his book "The inmates are running the asylum", suggests that although focus groups might beeffective in many industries, they should not be relied upon in the software industry.

TypesVariants of focus groups include:• Two-way focus group - one focus group watches another focus group and discusses the observed interactions

and conclusion• Dual moderator focus group - one moderator ensures the session progresses smoothly, while another ensures

that all the topics are covered• Dueling moderator focus group - two moderators deliberately take opposite sides on the issue under discussion• Respondent moderator focus group - one and only one of the respondents are asked to act as the moderator

temporarily• Client participant focus groups - one or more client representatives participate in the discussion, either covertly

or overtly• Mini focus groups - groups are composed of four or five members rather than 6 to 12

Focus group 15

• Teleconference focus groups - telephone network is used• Online focus groups - computers connected via the internet are usedTraditional focus groups can provide accurate information, and are less expensive than other forms of traditionalmarketing research. There can be significant costs however : if a product is to be marketed on a nationwide basis, itwould be critical to gather respondents from various locales throughout the country since attitudes about a newproduct may vary due to geographical considerations. This would require a considerable expenditure in travel andlodging expenses. Additionally, the site of a traditional focus group may or may not be in a locale convenient to aspecific client, so client representatives may have to incur travel and lodging expenses as well.

Discussions• Group discussion produces data and insights that would be less accessible without interaction found in a group

setting—listening to others’ verbalized experiences stimulates memories, ideas, and experiences in participants.This is also known as the group effect where group members engage in “a kind of ‘chaining’ or ‘cascading’ effect;talk links to, or tumbles out of, the topics and expressions preceding it” (Lindlof & Taylor, 2002, p. 182) [6]

• Group members discover a common language to describe similar experiences. This enables the capture of a formof “native language” or “vernacular speech” to understand the situation

• Focus groups also provide an opportunity for disclosure among similar others in a setting where participants arevalidated. For example, in the context of workplace bullying, targeted employees often find themselves insituations where they experience lack of voice and feelings of isolation. Use of focus groups to study workplacebullying therefore serve as both an efficacious and ethical venue for collecting data (see, e.g., Tracy,Lutgen-Sandvik, & Alberts, 2006) [7]

Problems and criticismFocus groups are "One shot case studies" especially if they are measuring a property-disposition relationship withinthe social sciences, unless they are repeated.[8] Focus groups can create severe issues of external validity, especiallythe reactive effects of the testing arrangement.[9] A fundamental difficulty with focus groups (and other forms ofqualitative research) is the issue of observer dependency: the results obtained are influenced by the researcher or hisown reading of the group's discussion, raising questions of validity (see Experimenter's bias). Other common (andrelated) criticism involve groupthink and social desirability bias.Another issue is with the setting itself. If the focus groups are held in a laboratory setting with a moderator who is aprofessor and the recording instrument is obtrusive, the participants may either hold back on their responses and/ortry to answer the moderator's questions with answers the participants feel that the moderator wants to hear. Anotherissue with the focus group setting is the lack of anonymity. With all of the other participants, there can not be anyguarantee of confidentiality. Again we have to deal with the issues of the reactive effects of the testing arrangement(See above).Douglas Rushkoff[10] argues that focus groups are often useless, and frequently cause more trouble than they areintended to solve, with focus groups often aiming to please rather than offering their own opinions or evaluations,and with data often cherry picked to support a foregone conclusion. Rushkoff cites the disastrous introduction ofNew Coke in the 1980s as a vivid example of focus group analysis gone bad. In addition there is anecdotal evidenceof focus groups rebelling, for instance the name for the Ford Focus, was created by a focus group which had grownbored and impatient and the irony of this was not picked up by the marketing team.Jonathan Ive, Apple’s senior vice president of industrial design, also said that Apple had found a good reason not todo focus groups : "They just ensure that you don’t offend anyone, and produce bland inoffensive products."

Focus group 16

United States governmentThe United States federal government makes extensive use of focus groups to assess public education materials andmessages for their many programs. While many of these are appropriate for the purpose, many others are reluctantcompromises which federal officials have had to make as a result of studies independent of whether a focus group isthe best or even appropriate methodology.

ArtSwedish artist Måns Wrange has used the concept of the focus group in his work The Good Rumor Project[11]. Inthis instance the focus group situation is used not only as a means to investigate the opinions of the group members,but also to spread an idea (the rumor) across society with the help of the group members.

References[1] Henderson, Naomi R. (2009). Managing Moderator Stress: Take a Deep Breath. You Can Do This!. Marketing Research, Vol. 21 Issue 1,

p28-29.[2] Michael T. Kaufman (February 24, 2003). "Robert K. Merton, Versatile Sociologist and Father of the Focus Group, Dies at 92" (http:/ / www.

nytimes. com/ 2003/ 02/ 24/ nyregion/ robert-k-merton-versatile-sociologist-and-father-of-the-focus-group-dies-at-92. html). The New YorkTimes. .

[3] Lynne Ames (August 2, 1998). "The View From/Peekskill; Tending the Flame of a Motivator" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 1998/ 08/ 02/nyregion/ the-view-from-peekskill-tending-the-flame-of-a-motivator. html?n=Top/ News/ Science/ Topics/ Research). The New York Times. .

[4] Marshall, Catherine and Gretchen B. Rossman. 1999. Designing Qualitative Research. 3rd Ed. London: Sage Publications, p. 115[5] Jakob Nielsen (1993) Usability Engineering. Academic Press, Boston.[6] Lindlof, T. R., & Taylor, B. C. (2002). Qualitative Communication Research Methods, 2nd Edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.[7] Tracy, S. J., Lutgen-Sandvik, P., & Alberts, J. K. (2006). Nightmares, demons and slaves: Exploring the painful metaphors of workplace

bullying. Management Communication Quarterly, 20, 148-185.[8] Nachmais, Chava Frankfort; Nachmais, David. 2008. Research methods in the Social Sciences: Seventh Edition New York, NY: Worth

Publishers[9] Campbell, Donald T., Stanley, Juilian C. Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Research. Chicago, IL: Rand McNally[10] Rushkoff, Douglas, Get back in the box : innovation from the inside out, New York : Collins, 2005[11] http:/ / www. manswrange. com

External links• Focus Groups at Usability.gov (http:/ / www. usability. gov/ methods/ analyze_current/ learn/ focus. html)• The British Market Research Association (http:/ / www. mrs. org. uk/ ) The Industry body governing focus groups

in the UK• Focus Group Principles (archived) (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20041026140011/ http:/ / www.

marketingpower. com/ content1293. php) American Marketing Association• Dos and don'ts for using marketing focus groups (http:/ / www. microsoft. com/ smallbusiness/ resources/

marketing/ market_research/ dos_and_donts_for_using_marketing_focus_groups. mspx) Microsoft

Ethnography 17

EthnographyEthnography (from Greek ἔθνος ethnos = folk/people and γράφω grapho = to write) is a qualitative researchdesign aimed at exploring cultural phenomena. The resulting field study or a case report reflects the knowledge andthe system of meanings in the lives of a cultural group.[1][2][3] An ethnography is a means to represent graphicallyand in writing, the nature of a people.An ethnographer is a participant observer who, following an eight page code of ethics, and using a set of classicalvirtues and a set of technical skills, forms questionnaires, interviews, and the participant's own observations intowhat is called "an ethnography" or "field study" or "case report".[4][5] The typical ethnography is an holisticstudy[6][7] and so includes a brief history, and an analysis of the terrain, the climate, and the habitat. In all cases itshould be reflexive, make a substantial contribution toward the understanding of the social life of humans, have anaesthetic impact on the reader, and express a credible reality. It observes the world (the study) from the point of viewof the subject (not the participant ethnographer) and records all observed behavior and describes all symbol-meaningrelations using concepts that avoid casual explanations.The ethnography, as the empirical data on human societies and cultures, was pioneered in the biological, social, andcultural branches of anthropology but has also become a popular in the social sciences in general—sociology,[8]

communication studies, history—wherever people study ethnic groups, formations, compositions, resettlements,social welfare characteristics, materiality, spirituality, and a peoples ethnogenesis.[9]

A picture of the Izmir Ethnography Museum (İzmirEtnografya Müzesi) from the courtyard.

Data collection methods

Data collection methods are meant to capture the "socialmeanings and ordinary activities" [10] of people (informants)in "naturally occurring settings" [10] that are commonlyreferred to as "the field." The goal is to collect data in such away that the researcher imposes a minimal amount of theirown bias on the data.[10] Multiple methods of data collectionmay be employed to facilitate a relationship that allows for amore personal and in-depth portrait of the informants and theircommunity. These can include participant observation, fieldnotes, interviews, and surveys. Interviews are often taped andlater transcribed, allowing the interview to proceedunimpaired of note-taking, but with all information availablelater for full analysis. Secondary research and document analysis are also employed to provide insight into theresearch topic. In the past kinship charts were commonly used to "discover logical patterns and social structure innon-Western societies".[11] However anthropology today focuses more on the study of urban settings and the use ofkinship charts is seldom employed.

In order to make the data collection and interpretation transparent, researchers creating ethnographies often attemptto be "reflexive." Reflexivity refers to the researcher's aim "to explore the ways in which [the] researcher'sinvolvement with

Ethnography 18

Ethnography museum

a particular study influences, acts upon and informs suchresearch".[12] Despite these attempts of reflexivity, noresearcher can be totally unbiased, which has provided a basisto criticize ethnography.

Traditionally, the ethnographer focuses attention on acommunity, selecting knowledgeable informants who knowthe activities of the community well.[13] These informants aretypically asked to identify other informants who represent thecommunity, often using chain sampling.[13] This process isoften effective in revealing common cultural denominatorsconnected to the topic being studied.[13] Ethnography reliesgreatly on up-close, personal experience. Participation, ratherthan just observation, is one of the keys to this process.[14]

Ethnography is very useful in social research.

Differences across disciplinesThe ethnographic method is used across a range of different disciplines, primarily by anthropologists but alsofrequently by sociologists. Cultural studies, economics, social work, education, ethnomusicology, folklore, religiousstudies, geography, history, linguistics, communication studies, performance studies, advertising, psychology,usability and criminology are other fields which have made use of ethnography.

Cultural and Social AnthropologyCultural anthropology and social anthropology were developed around ethnographic research and their canonical texts which are mostly ethnographies: e.g. Argonauts of the Western Pacific (1922) by Bronisław Malinowski, Ethnologische Excursion in Johore (1875) by Nicholas Miklouho-Maclay, Coming of Age in Samoa (1928) by Margaret Mead, The Nuer (1940) by E. E. Evans-Pritchard, Naven (1936, 1958) by Gregory Bateson or "The Lele of the Kasai" (1963) by Mary Douglas. Cultural and social anthropologists today place such a high value on actually doing ethnographic research that ethnology—the comparative synthesis of ethnographic information—is rarely the foundation for a career. The typical ethnography is a document written about a particular people, almost always based at least in part on emic views of where the culture begins and ends. Using language or community boundaries to bound the ethnography is common.[15] Ethnographies are also sometimes called "case studies."[16] Ethnographers study and interpret culture, its universalities and its variations through ethnographic study based on fieldwork. An ethnography is a specific kind of written observational science which provides an account of a particular culture, society, or community. The fieldwork usually involves spending a year or more in another society, living with the local people and learning about their ways of life. Ethnographers are participant observers. They take part in events they study because it helps with understanding local behavior and thought. Classic examples are Carol Stack's All Our Kin, Jean Briggs' "Never in Anger", Richard Lee's "Kalahari Hunter-Gatherers", Victor Turner's "Forest of Symbols", David Maybry-Lewis' "Akew-Shavante Society", E.E. Evans-Pritchard's "The Nuer" and Claude Lévi-Strauss' "Tristes Tropiques". Iterations of ethnographic representations in the classic, modernist camp include Bartholomew Dean's recent (2009) contribution, Urarina Society, Cosmology, and History in Peruvian

Ethnography 19

Amazonia.[17]

Bronisław Malinowski among Trobriand tribe

A typical ethnography attempts to be holistic[18][19] and typicallyfollows an outline to include a brief history of the culture in question,an analysis of the physical geography or terrain inhabited by the peopleunder study, including climate, and often including what biologicalanthropologists call habitat. Folk notions of botany and zoology arepresented as ethnobotany and ethnozoology alongside references fromthe formal sciences. Material culture, technology and means ofsubsistence are usually treated next, as they are typically bound up inphysical geography and include descriptions of infrastructure. Kinshipand social structure (including age grading, peer groups, gender,voluntary associations, clans, moieties, and so forth, if they exist) are typically included. Languages spoken, dialectsand the history of language change are another group of standard topics.[20] Practices of childrearing, acculturationand emic views on personality and values usually follow after sections on social structure.[21] Rites, rituals, and otherevidence of religion have long been an interest and are sometimes central to ethnographies, especially whenconducted in public where visiting anthropologists can see them.[22]

As ethnography developed, anthropologists grew more interested in less tangible aspects of culture, such as values,worldview and what Clifford Geertz termed the "ethos" of the culture. Clifford Geertz's own fieldwork usedelements of a phenomenological approach to fieldwork, tracing not just the doings of people, but the culturalelements themselves. For example, if within a group of people, winking was a communicative gesture, he sought tofirst determine what kinds of things a wink might mean (it might mean several things). Then, he sought to determinein what contexts winks were used, and whether, as one moved about a region, winks remained meaningful in thesame way. In this way, cultural boundaries of communication could be explored, as opposed to using linguisticboundaries or notions about residence. Geertz, while still following something of a traditional ethnographic outline,moved outside that outline to talk about "webs" instead of "outlines"[23] of culture.Within cultural anthropology, there are several sub-genres of ethnography. Beginning in the 1950s and early 1960s,anthropologists began writing "bio-confessional" ethnographies that intentionally exposed the nature of ethnographicresearch. Famous examples include Tristes Tropiques (1955) by Claude Lévi-Strauss, The High Valley by KennethRead, and The Savage and the Innocent by David Maybury-Lewis, as well as the mildly fictionalized Return toLaughter by Elenore Smith Bowen (Laura Bohannan). Later "reflexive" ethnographies refined the technique totranslate cultural differences by representing their effects on the ethnographer. Famous examples include "DeepPlay: Notes on a Balinese Cockfight" by Clifford Geertz, Reflections on Fieldwork in Morocco by Paul Rabinow,The Headman and I by Jean-Paul Dumont, and Tuhami by Vincent Crapanzano. In the 1980s, the rhetoric ofethnography was subjected to intense scrutiny within the discipline, under the general influence of literary theory andpost-colonial/post-structuralist thought. "Experimental" ethnographies that reveal the ferment of the disciplineinclude Shamanism, Colonialism, and the Wild Man by Michael Taussig, Debating Muslims by Michael F. J. Fischerand Mehdi Abedi, A Space on the Side of the Road by Kathleen Stewart, and Advocacy after Bhopal by Kim Fortun.This critical turn in sociocultural anthropology during the mid-1980s can, in large part, can be traced to the influence of the now classic (and often contested) text, Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography, (1986) edited by James Clifford and George Marcus. Writing Culture helped bring changes to both anthropology and ethnography often described in terms of being 'postmodern,' 'reflexive,' 'literary,' 'deconstructive,' or 'poststructural' in nature in that the text helped to highlight the various epistemic and political predicaments that many practitioners saw as plaguing ethnographic representations and practices.[24] Where Geertz's and Turner's interpretive anthropology recognized subjects as creative actors who constructed their sociocultural worlds out of symbols, postmodernists attempted to draw attention to the privileged status of the ethnographers themselves. That is, the ethnographer cannot escape their own particular viewpoint in creating an ethnographic account thus making any

Ethnography 20

claims of objective neutrality on the part of their representation highly problematic, if not altogether impossible.[25]

In regards to this last point, Writing Culture became a focal point for looking at how ethnographers could describedifferent cultures and societies without denying the subjectivity of those individuals and groups being studied whilesimultaneously doing so without laying claiming to absolute knowledge and objective authority.[26] Along with thedevelopment of experimental forms such as 'dialogic anthropology' and 'narrative ethnography,' Writing Culturehelped to encourage the development of 'collaborative ethnography.'[27] This exploration of the relationship betweenwriter, audience, and subject has become a central tenet of contemporary anthropological and ethnographic practicewherein active collaboration between the researcher(s) and subject(s) has helped blend, in certain instances, thepractice of collaboration in ethnographic fieldwork with the process of creating the actual ethnographic product thatemerges from the research itself.[27][28][29]

SociologySociology is another field which prominently features ethnographies. Urban sociology and the Chicago School inparticular are associated with ethnographic research, with some well-known early examples being Street CornerSociety by William Foote Whyte and Black Metropolis by St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Jr.. Some of theinfluence for this can be traced to the anthropologist Lloyd Warner who was on the Chicago sociology faculty, andto Robert Park's experience as a journalist. Symbolic interactionism developed from the same tradition and yieldedseveral excellent sociological ethnographies, including Shared Fantasy by Gary Alan Fine, which documents theearly history of fantasy role-playing games. Other important ethnographies in the discipline of sociology includePierre Bourdieu's work on Algeria and France, Paul Willis's Learning To Labour on working class youth, and thework of Elijah Anderson, Mitchell Duneier, Loic Wacquant on black America and Glimpses of Madrasa FromAfrica, 2010 Lai Olurode. But even though many sub-fields and theoretical perspectives within sociology useethnographic methods, ethnography is not the sine qua non of the discipline, as it is in cultural anthropology.

Communication studiesBeginning in the 1960s and 1970s, ethnographic research methods began to be widely employed by communicationscholars. Studies such as Gerry Philipsen's [30] analysis of cultural communication strategies in a blue-collar,working-class neighborhood on the south side of Chicago, Speaking 'Like a Man' in Teamsterville, paved the way forthe expansion of ethnographic research in the study of communication.Scholars of communication studies use ethnographic research methods to analyze communication behaviors, seekingto answer the "why" and "how come" questions of human communication.[31] Often this type of research results in acase study or field study such as an analysis of speech patterns at a protest rally, or the way firemen communicateduring "down time" at a fire station. Like anthropology scholars, communication scholars often immerse themselves,participate in and/or directly observe the particular social group being studied.[32]

Other fieldsThe American anthropologist George Spindler was a pioneer in applying ethnographic methodology to theclassroom.Anthropologists like Daniel Miller and Mary Douglas have used ethnographic data to answer academic questionsabout consumers and consumption. In this sense, Tony Salvador, Genevieve Bell, and Ken Anderson describe designethnography as being "a way of understanding the particulars of daily life in such a way as to increase the successprobability of a new product or service or, more appropriately, to reduce the probability of failure specifically due toa lack of understanding of the basic behaviors and frameworks of consumers."[33]

Businesses, too, have found ethnographers helpful for understanding how people use products and services, as indicated in the increasing use of ethnographic methods to understand consumers and consumption, or for new product development (such as video ethnography). The recent Ethnographic Praxis in Industry (EPIC) conference is

Ethnography 21

evidence of this. Ethnographers' systematic and holistic approach to real-life experience is valued by productdevelopers, who use the method to understand unstated desires or cultural practices that surround products. Wherefocus groups fail to inform marketers about what people really do, ethnography links what people say to what theyactually do—avoiding the pitfalls that come from relying only on self-reported, focus-group data.

Evaluating ethnographyEthnographic methodology is not usually evaluated in terms of philosophical standpoint (such as positivism andemotionalism). Ethnographic studies nonetheless need to be evaluated in some manner. While there is no consensuson evaluation standards, Richardson (2000, p. 254)[34] provides 5 criteria that ethnographers might find helpful.1. Substantive Contribution: "Does the piece contribute to our understanding of social-life?"2. Aesthetic Merit: "Does this piece succeed aesthetically?"3. Reflexivity: "How did the author come to write this text…Is there adequate self-awareness and self-exposure for

the reader to make judgments about the point of view?"[35]

4. Impact: "Does this affect me? Emotionally? Intellectually?" Does it move me?5. Expresses a Reality: "Does it seem 'true'—a credible account of a cultural, social, individual, or communal sense

of the 'real'?"

EthicsGary Alan Fine argues that the nature of ethnographic inquiry demands that researchers deviate from formal andidealistic rules or ethics that have come to be widely accepted in qualitative and quantitative approaches in research.Many of these ethical assumptions are rooted in positivist and post-positivist epistemologies that have adapted overtime, but nonetheless are apparent and must be accounted for in all research paradigms. These ethical dilemmas areevident throughout the entire process of conducting ethnographies, including the design, implementation, andreporting of an ethnographic study. Essentially, Fine maintains that researchers are typically not as ethical as theyclaim or assume to be — and that "each job includes ways of doing things that would be inappropriate for others toknow".[36]

Fine is not necessarily casting blame or pointing his finger at ethnographic researchers, but rather is attempting toshow that researchers often make idealized ethical claims and standards which in actuality are inherently based onpartial truths and self-deceptions. Fine also acknowledges that many of these partial truths and self-deceptions areunavoidable. He maintains that "illusions" are essential to maintain an occupational reputation and avoid potentiallymore caustic consequences. He claims, "Ethnographers cannot help but lie, but in lying, we reveal truths that escapethose who are not so bold".[37] Based on these assertions, Fine establishes three conceptual clusters in whichethnographic ethical dilemmas can be situated: "Classic Virtues," "Technical Skills," and "Ethnographic Self."Much debate surrounding the issue of ethics arose after the ethnographer Napoleon Chagnon conducted hisethnographic fieldwork with the Yanomani people of South America.While there is no international standard on Ethnographic Ethics, many western anthropologists look to the American Anthropological Association for guidance when conducting ethnographic work.[38] The Association has generated a code of ethics approved in February 2009 which states that Anthropologists have "moral obligations as members of other groups, such as the family, religion, and community, as well as the profession".[39] The code of ethics goes on to note that anthropologists are also part of a wider scholarly and political network as well as human and natural environment which needs to be reported on respectfully.[39] The code of ethics recognizes that sometimes very close and personal relationship can sometimes emerge out of doing ethnographic work.[39] The American Anthropological Association does recognize that the code is a bit limited in scope mainly because doing ethnographic work can sometimes be multidisciplinary and anthropologists need to familiarize themselves with ethic not only from an anthropological perspective but also from the perspectives of other disciplines.[40] The eight page code of ethics

Ethnography 22

outlines ethical considerations for those conducting Research, Teaching, Application and Dissemination of Resultswhich are briefly outlined below.[41]

• Conducting Research-When conducting research Anthropologists need to be aware of the potential impacts of theresearch on the people and animals they study.[42] If the seeking of new knowledge will negatively impact thepeople and animals they will be studying they may not undertake the study according to the code of ethics.[42]

• Teaching-When teaching the discipline of anthropology, instructors are required to inform students of the ethicaldilemmas of conducting ethnographies and field work.[43]

• Application-When conducting an ethnography Anthropologists must be "open with funders, colleagues, personsstudied or providing information, and relevant parties affected by the work about the purpose(s), potentialimpacts, and source(s) of support for the work." [44]

• Dissemination of Results-When disseminating results of an ethnography the code notes that "[a]nthropologistshave an ethical obligation to consider the potential impact of both their research and the communication ordissemination of the results of their research on all directly or indirectly involved." [45] Research results ofethnographies should not be withheld from participants in the research if that research is being observed by otherpeople.[44]

Classic virtues• "The kindly ethnographer" – Most ethnographers present themselves as being more sympathetic than they

actually are, which aids in the research process, but is also deceptive. The identity that we present to subjects isdifferent from who we are in other circumstances.

• "The friendly ethnographer" – Ethnographers operate under the assumption that they should not dislike anyone. Inactuality, when hated individuals are found within research, ethnographers often crop them out of the findings.

• "The honest ethnographer" – If research participants know the research goals, their responses will likely beskewed. Therefore, ethnographers often conceal what they know in order to increase the likelihood ofacceptance.[46]

Technical skills• "The Precise Ethnographer" – Ethnographers often create the illusion that field notes are data and reflect what

"really" happened. They engage in the opposite of plagiarism, giving credit to those undeserving by not usingprecise words but rather loose interpretations and paraphrasing. Researchers take near-fictions and turn them intoclaims of fact. The closest ethnographers can ever really get to reality is an approximate truth.

• "The Observant Ethnographer" – Readers of ethnography are often led to assume the report of a scene is complete– that little of importance was missed. In reality, an ethnographer will always miss some aspect because they arenot omniscient. Everything is open to multiple interpretations and misunderstandings. The ability of theethnographer to take notes and observe varies, and therefore, what is depicted in ethnography is not the wholepicture.

• "The Unobtrusive Ethnographer" – As a "participant" in the scene, the researcher will always have an effect onthe communication that occurs within the research site. The degree to which one is an "active member" affects theextent to which sympathetic understanding is possible.[47]

Ethnography 23

The ethnographic selfThe following appellations are commonly misconceived conceptions of ethnographers:• "The Candid Ethnographer" – Where the researcher situates themselves within the ethnography is ethically

problematic. There is an illusion that everything reported has actually happened because the researcher has beendirectly exposed to it.

• "The Chaste Ethnographer" – When ethnographers participate within the field, they invariably developrelationships with research subjects/participants. These relationships are sometimes not accounted for within thereporting of the ethnography despite the fact that they seemingly would influence the research findings.

• "The Fair Ethnographer" – Fine claims that objectivity is an illusion and that everything in ethnography is knownfrom a perspective. Therefore, it is unethical for a researcher to report fairness in their findings.

• "The Literary Ethnographer" – Representation is a balancing act of determining what to "show" throughpoetic/prosaic language and style versus what to "tell" via straightforward, ‘factual’ reporting. The idiosyncraticskill of the ethnographer influences the face-value of the research.[48]

eight principles should be considered for observing, recording and sampling data according to Denzin:1.1. The groups should combine symbolic meanings with patterns of interaction.2.2. Observe the world from the point of view of the subject, while maintaining the distinction between everyday and

scientific perceptions of reality.3.3. Link the group's symbols and their meanings with the social relationships.4.4. Record all behaviour.5.5. Methodology should highlight phases of process, change and stability.6.6. The act should be a type of symbolic interactionism.7.7. Use concepts that would avoid casual explanations.

References[1] Geertz, C. (1973). Thick description: Toward an interpretive theory of culture.[2][2] In The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays (pp 3-30). New York: Basic Books, Inc., Publishers[3][3] Philipsen, G. (1992). Speaking Culturally: Explorations in Social Communication. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press[4] Boaz. N.T. & Wolfe, L.D. (1997). Biological anthropology. Published by International Institute for Human Evolutionary Research. Page 150.[5] Maynard, M. & Purvis, J. (1994). Researching women's loves from a feminist perspective. London: Taylor & Frances. p. 76[6] Ember, Carol and Melvin Ember. Cultural Anthropology. 2006. Prentice Hall, Chapter One[7] Heider, Karl. Seeing Anthropology. 2001. Prentice Hall, Chapters One and Two.[8] "Ethnology" at dictionary.com (http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ ethnology).[9] Токарев, Сергей Александрович (1978) (in Russian). История зарубежной этнографии (http:/ / historia-site. narod. ru/ library/

ethnology/ tokarev_main. htm). Наука. .[10][10] [Brewer, John D. (2000). Ethnography. Philadelphia: Open University Press. p.10.][11] (http:/ / www. anthrobase. com/ Dic/ eng/ def/ kinship. html)[12] [nightingale, David & Cromby, John. Social Constructionist Psychology: A Critical Analysis of Theory and Practice. Philadelphia: Open

University Press. p.228.][13] G. David Garson (2008). "Ethnographic Research: Statnotes, from North Carolina State University, Public Administration Program" (http:/ /

faculty. chass. ncsu. edu/ garson/ PA765/ ethno. htm). Faculty.chass.ncsu.edu. . Retrieved 2011-03-27.[14] Genzuk, Michael, PH.D., A Synthesis of Ethnographic (http:/ / www-bcf. usc. edu/ ~genzuk/ Ethnographic_Research. html), Center for

Multilingual, Multicultural Research, University of Southern California[15] Naroll, Raoul. Handbook of Methods in Cultural Anthropology.[16][16] Chavez, Leo. "Shadowed Lives: Undocumented workers in American society (Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology). 1997 Prentice Hall.[17] "University Press of Florida: Urarina Society, Cosmology, and History in Peruvian Amazonia" (http:/ / www. upf. com/ book.

asp?id=DEANXS07). Upf.com. 2009-11-15. . Retrieved 2011-03-27.[18] Ember, Carol and Melvin Ember. Cultural Anthropology. 2006. Prentice Hall, Chapter One[19] Heider, Karl. Seeing Anthropology. 2001. Prentice Hall, Chapters One and Two.[20][20] cf. Ember and Ember 2006, Heider 2001 op cit.[21][21] Ember and Ember 2006, op cit., Chapters 7 and 8[22] Truner, Victor. The Forest of Symbols. remainder of citation forthcoming

Ethnography 24

[23] Geertz, Clifford. The Interpretation of Culture Chapter one.[24] Olaf Zenker & Karsten Kumoll. Beyond Writing Culture: Current Intersections of Epistemologies and Representational Practices. (2010).

New York: Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-1-84545-675-7. Pgs. 1-4[25] Paul A. Erickson & Liam D. Murphy. A History of Anthropological Theory, Third Edition. (2008). Toronto: Broadview Press. ISBN

978-1-55111-871-0. Pg. 190[26] Paul A. Erickson & Liam D. Murphy. A History of Anthropological Theory, Third Edition. (2008). Toronto: Broadview Press. ISBN

978-1-55111-871-0. Pgs. 190-191[27] Olaf Zenker & Karsten Kumoll. Beyond Writing Culture: Current Intersections of Epistemologies and Representational Practices. (2010).

New York: Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-1-84545-675-7. Pg. 12[28][28] Luke E. Lassiter. 'From "Reading over the Shoulders of Natives" to "Reading alongside Natives", Literally: Toward a Collaborative and

Reciprocal Ethnography'. (2001). Journal of Anthropologcal Research, 57(2):137-149[29][29] Luke E. Lassiter. 'Collaborative Ethnography and Public Anthropology'. (2005). Current Anthropology, 46(1):83-106[30] http:/ / oak. cats. ohiou. edu/ ~mv537899/ sc. htm[31] Rubin, R. B., Rubin, A. M., and Piele, L. J. (2005). Communication research: Strategies and sources. Belmont, California: Thomson

Wadworth. pp. 229.[32] Bentz, V. M., and Shapiro, J. J. (1998). Mindful inquiry in social research. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage. pp. 117.[33][33] Salvador[34][34] Richardson,L. (2000). Evaluating ethnography. Qualitative Inquiry, 6(2), 253-255[35][35] For postcolonial critiques of ethnography from various locations, see essays in Prem Poddar et al, Historical Companion to Postcolonial

Literatures--Continental Europe and its Empires, Edinburgh University Press, 2008.[36][36] Fine, p. 267[37][37] Fine, p. 291[38] American Anthropology Association Code of Ethics http:/ / www. aaanet. org/ issues/ policy-advocacy/ upload/ AAA-Ethics-Code-2009.

pdf, p.1[39][39] American Anthropology Association Code of Ethics, p.1[40][40] American Anthropology Association Code of Ethics, p.2[41][41] American Anthropology Association Code of Ethics, p.1-8[42][42] American Anthropology Association Code of Ethics, p.2-3[43][43] American Anthropology Association Code of Ethics, p.4[44][44] American Anthropology Association Code of Ethics, p.5[45][45] American Anthropology Association Code of Ethics, p.5-6[46][46] Fine, p. 270-77[47][47] Fine, p. 277-81[48][48] Fine, p. 282-89

Suggested Reading• Agar, Michael (1996) The Professional Stranger: An Informal Introduction to Ethnography. Academic Press.• Clifford, James & George E. Marcus (Eds.). Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography. (1986).

Berkeley: University of California Press.• Douglas, Mary and Baron Isherwood (1996) The World of Goods: Toward and Anthropology of Consumption.

Routledge, London.• Erickson, Ken C. and Donald D. Stull (1997) Doing Team Ethnography : Warnings and Advice. Sage, Beverly

Hills.•• Fine, G. A. (1993). Ten lies of ethnography. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 22(3), p. 267-294.•• Geertz, Clifford. The Interpretation of Cultures.• Heath, Shirley Brice & Brian Street, with Molly Mills. On Ethnography.• Hymes, Dell. (1974). Foundations in sociolinguistics: An ethnographic approach. Philadelphia: University of

Pennsylvania Press.• Kottak, Conrad Phillip (2005) Window on Humanity : A Concise Introduction to General Anthropology, (pages

2–3, 16-17, 34-44). McGraw Hill, New York.• Marcus, George E. & Michael Fischer. Anthropology as Cultural Critique: An Experimental Moment in the

Human Sciences. (1986). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.• Miller, Daniel (1987) Material Culture and Mass Consumption. Blackwell, London.• Spradley, James P. (1979) The Ethnographic Interview. Wadsworth Group/Thomson Learning.

Ethnography 25

• Salvador, Tony; Genevieve Bell; and Ken Anderson (1999) Design Ethnography. Design Management Journal.• Van Maanen, John. 1988. Tales of the Field: On Writing Ethnography Chicago: University of Chicago Press.•• Westbrook, David A. Navigators of the Contemporary: Why Ethnography Matters. (2008). Chicago: University

of Chicago Press.

External links• Use of ethnographic research in product and service design (http:/ / www. closeupresearch. co. uk/

ethnographic_research. html)• 100 of the Most Influential Ethnographies and Anthropology Texts (http:/ / www. architectonictokyo. com/

100_of_the_Most_Influential_Ethnographies_and_Anthropology_Texts. html)• Ethnographic Praxis in Industry Conference (http:/ / www. epiconference. com)• Genzuk, Michael (2003) A Synthesis of Ethnographic Research (http:/ / www-rcf. usc. edu/ ~genzuk/

Ethnographic_Research. html)• Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History (http:/ / anthro. amnh. org/ anthro. html) - Over

160,000 objects from Pacific, North American, African, Asian ethnographic collections with images and detaileddescription, linked to the original catalogue pages, field notebooks, and photographs are available online.

• Ross Archive of African Images (http:/ / raai. library. yale. edu/ site/ index. php)• Ethnographic material collection from Northern Anatolia and Caucasus -Photo Gallery (http:/ / www. karalahana.

com/ fotograflar/ thumbnails. php?album=9)• Ethnography.com (http:/ / www. ethnography. com) A community based Ethnography website for academic and

professional ethnographers and interested parties• New Zealand Museum (http:/ / collections. tepapa. govt. nz/ ) Images of objects from Pacific cultures.• University of Pennsylvania's "What is Ethnography?" (http:/ / www. sas. upenn. edu/ anthro/ anthro/

whatisethnography) Penn's Public Interest Anthropology Web Site• American Ethnography -- Definitions: What is Ethnography? (http:/ / www. americanethnography. com/

ethnography. php) A collection of quotes about ethnography (Malinowski, Lévi-Strauss, Geertz, ...)• Doing ethnographies (http:/ / www. qmrg. org. uk/ files/ 2008/ 12/ 58-doing-ethnographies. pdf) (Concepts and

Techniques in Modern Geography)• Cornell University Library Southeast Asia Visions (http:/ / dlxs2. library. cornell. edu/ s/ sea/ index. php)• Ethnography for the masses (http:/ / www. 2cv. co. uk/ documents/ 19Ethnography for the Masses. pdf) 2CV's

Practical Application of Ethnography in Market Research• Scott Polar Research Institute (http:/ / www. spri. cam. ac. uk/ museum/ catalogue/ armc/ ) Arctic Material

Culture Collection

Grounded theory 26

Grounded theoryGrounded theory method (GT) is a systematic methodology in the social sciences involving the discovery oftheory through the analysis of data.[1][2] It is mainly used in qualitative research, but is also applicable to quantitativedata.[3]

Grounded theory method is a research method which operates almost in a reverse fashion from traditional socialscience research. Rather than beginning with a hypothesis, the first step is data collection, through a variety ofmethods. From the data collected, the key points are marked with a series of codes, which are extracted from thetext. The codes are grouped into similar concepts in order to make them more workable. From these concepts,categories are formed, which are the basis for the creation of a theory, or a reverse engineered hypothesis. Thiscontradicts the traditional model of research, where the researcher chooses a theoretical framework, and only thenapplies this model to the phenomenon to be studied.[4]

BackgroundGrounded theory method was developed by two sociologists, Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss. Their collaborationin research on dying hospital patients led them to write the book Awareness of Dying. In this research theydeveloped the constant comparative method, later known as Grounded Theory Method.[5]

Four stages of analysis

Stage Purpose

Codes Identifying anchors that allow the key points of the data to be gathered

Concepts Collections of codes of similar content that allows the data to be grouped

Categories Broad groups of similar concepts that are used to generate a theory

Theory A collection of explanations that explain the subject of the research

PremiseGrounded theory method is a systematic generation of theory from data that contains both inductive and deductivethinking. One goal is to formulate hypotheses based on conceptual ideas. Others may try to verify the hypothesesthat are generated by constantly comparing conceptualized data on different levels of abstraction, and thesecomparisons contain deductive steps. Another goal of a grounded theory study is to discover the participants’ mainconcern and how they continually try to resolve it. The questions the researcher repeatedly asks in grounded theoryare "What’s going on?" and "What is the main problem of the participants, and how are they trying to solve it?"These questions will be answered by the core variable and its subcores and properties in due course.Grounded theory method does not aim for the "truth" but to conceptualize what is going on by using empiricalresearch. In a way, grounded theory method resembles what many researchers do when retrospectively formulatingnew hypotheses to fit data. However, applying the grounded theory method, the researcher does not formulate thehypotheses in advance since preconceived hypotheses result in a theory that is ungrounded from the data.[6]

If the researcher's goal is accurate description, then another method should be chosen since grounded theory is not adescriptive method. Instead it has the goal of generating concepts that explain the way that people resolve theircentral concerns regardless of time and place. The use of description in a theory generated by the grounded theorymethod is mainly to illustrate concepts.

Grounded theory 27

In most behavioral research endeavors, persons or patients are units of analysis, whereas in GT the unit of analysis isthe incident.[7] Typically several hundred incidents are analyzed in a grounded theory study since usually everyparticipant reports many incidents.When comparing many incidents in a certain area, the emerging concepts and their relationships are in realityprobability statements. Consequently, GT is a general method that can use any kind of data even though the mostcommon use is with qualitative data (Glaser, 2001, 2003). However, although working with probabilities, most GTstudies are considered as qualitative since statistical methods are not used, and figures are not presented. The resultsof GT are not a reporting of statistically significant probabilities but a set of probability statements about therelationship between concepts, or an integrated set of conceptual hypotheses developed from empirical data (Glaser1998). Validity in its traditional sense is consequently not an issue in GT, which instead should be judged by fit,relevance, workability, and modifiability (Glaser & Strauss 1967, Glaser 1978, Glaser 1998).Fit has to do with how closely concepts fit with the incidents they are representing, and this is related to howthoroughly the constant comparison of incidents to concepts was done.Relevance. A relevant study deals with the real concern of participants, evokes "grab" (captures the attention) and isnot only of academic interest.Workability. The theory works when it explains how the problem is being solved with much variation.Modifiability. A modifiable theory can be altered when new relevant data is compared to existing data. A GT isnever right or wrong, it just has more or less fit, relevance, workability and modifiability.

Grounded theory nomenclatureA concept is the overall element and includes the categories which are conceptual elements standing by themselves,and properties of categories, which are conceptual aspects of categories (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). The core variableexplains most of the participants’ main concern with as much variation as possible. It has the most powerfulproperties to picture what’s going on, but with as few properties as possible needed to do so. A popular type of corevariable can be theoretically modeled as a basic social process that accounts for most of the variation in change overtime, context, and behavior in the studied area. "GT is multivariate. It happens sequentially, subsequently,simultaneously, serendipitously, and scheduled" (Glaser, 1998).All is data is a fundamental property of GT which means that everything that gets in the researcher’s way whenstudying a certain area is data. Not only interviews or observations but anything is data that helps the researchergenerating concepts for the emerging theory. Field notes can come from informal interviews, lectures, seminars,expert group meetings, newspaper articles, Internet mail lists, even television shows, conversations with friends etc.It is even possible, and sometimes a good idea, for a researcher with much knowledge in the studied area tointerview herself, treating that interview like any other data, coding and comparing it to other data and generatingconcepts from it. This may sound silly since you don’t have to interview yourself to know what you know, but youdon’t know it on the conceptual level! And GT deals with conceptual level data.Open coding or substantive coding is conceptualizing on the first level of abstraction. Written data from field notesor transcripts are conceptualized line by line. In the beginning of a study everything is coded in order to find outabout the problem and how it is being resolved. The coding is often done in the margin of the field notes. This phaseis often tedious since you are conceptualizing all incidents in the data, which yields many concepts. These arecompared as you code more data, and merged into new concepts, and eventually renamed and modified. The GTresearcher goes back and forth while comparing data, constantly modifying, and sharpening the growing theory atthe same time as she follows the build-up schedule of GT’s different steps.

On a related note, Strauss and Corbin (1990, 1998) also proposed axial coding and defined it in 1990 as "a set of procedures whereby data are put back together in new ways after open coding, by making connections between categories." They proposed a "coding paradigm" (also discussed, among others, by Kelle, 2005) that

Grounded theory 28

involved "conditions, context, action/ interactional strategies and consequences.” (Strauss & Corbin, 1990, p.96)

Selective coding is done after having found the core variable or what is thought to be the core, the tentative core.The core explains the behavior of the participants in resolving their main concern. The tentative core is never wrong.It just more or less fits with the data. After you have chosen your core variable you selectively code data with thecore guiding your coding, not bothering about concepts with little importance to the core and its subcores. Also, younow selectively sample new data with the core in mind, which is called theoretical sampling – a deductive part ofGT. Selective coding delimits the study, which makes it move fast. This is indeed encouraged while doing GT(Glaser, 1998) since GT is not concerned with data accuracy as in descriptive research but is about generatingconcepts that are abstract of time, place and people. Selective coding could be done by going over old field notes ormemos which are already coded once at an earlier stage or by coding newly gathered data.Theoretical codes integrate the theory by weaving the fractured concepts into hypotheses that work together in atheory explaining the main concern of the participants. Theoretical coding means that the researcher applies atheoretical model to the data. It is important that this model is not forced beforehand but has emerged during thecomparative process of GT. So the theoretical codes just as substantives codes should emerge from the process ofconstantly comparing the data in field notes and memos.

MemoingTheoretical memoing is "the core stage of grounded theory methodology" (Glaser 1998). "Memos are the theorizingwrite-up of ideas about substantive codes and their theoretically coded relationships as they emerge during coding,collecting and analyzing data, and during memoing" (Glaser 1998).Memoing is also important in the early phase of a GT study such as open coding. The researcher is thenconceptualizing incidents, and memoing helps this process. Theoretical memos can be anything written or drawn inthe constant comparison that makes up a GT. Memos are important tools to both refine and keep track of ideas thatdevelop when you compare incidents to incidents and then concepts to concepts in the evolving theory. In memosyou develop ideas about naming concepts and relating them to each other. In memos you try the relationshipsbetween concepts in two-by-two tables, in diagrams or figures or whatever makes the ideas flow, and generatescomparative power. Without memoing the theory is superficial and the concepts generated not very original.Memoing works as an accumulation of written ideas into a bank of ideas about concepts and how they relate to eachother. This bank contains rich parts of what will later be the written theory. Memoing is total creative freedomwithout rules of writing, grammar or style (Glaser 1998). The writing must be an instrument for outflow of ideas,and nothing else. When you write memos the ideas become more realistic, being converted from thoughts in yourmind to words, and thus ideas communicable to the afterworld. In GT the preconscious processing that occurs whencoding and comparing is recognized. The researcher is encouraged to register ideas about the ongoing study thateventually pop up in everyday situations, and awareness of the serendipity of the method is also necessary to achievegood results.

Grounded theory 29

SortingIn the next step memos are sorted, which is the key to formulate the theory for presentation to others. Sorting putsfractured data back together. During sorting lots of new ideas emerge, which in turn are recorded in new memosgiving the memo-on-memos phenomenon. Sorting memos generates theory that explains the main action in thestudied area. A theory written from unsorted memos may be rich in ideas but the connection between concepts isweak.

WritingWriting up the sorted memo piles follows after sorting, and at this stage the theory is close to the written GTproduct. The different categories are now related to each other and the core variable. The theoretical density shouldbe dosed so concepts are mixed with description in words, tables, or figures to optimize readability. In the laterrewriting the relevant literature is woven in to put the theory in a scholarly context. Finally, the GT is edited forstyle and language and eventually submitted for publication.

No pre-research literature review, no taping and no talkGT according to Glaser gives the researcher freedom to generate new concepts explaining human behavior. Thisfreedom is optimal when the researcher refrains from taping interviews, doing a pre research literature review, andtalking about the research before it is written up. These rules makes GT different from most other methods usingqualitative data.No pre-research literature review. Studying the literature of the area under study gives preconceptions about whatto find and the researcher gets desensitized by borrowed concepts. Instead, grounded theories in other areas, and GTmethod books increase theoretical sensitivity. The literature should instead be read in the sorting stage being treatedas more data to code and compare with what has already been coded and generated.No taping. Taping and transcribing interviews is common in qualitative research, but is counterproductive and awaste of time in GT which moves fast when the researcher delimits her data by field-noting interviews and soon aftergenerates concepts that fit with data, are relevant and work in explaining what participants are doing to resolve theirmain concern.No talk. Talking about the theory before it is written up drains the researcher of motivational energy. Talking caneither render praise or criticism, and both diminish the motivational drive to write memos that develop and refine theconcepts and the theory (Glaser 1998). Positive feedback makes you content with what you've got and negativefeedback hampers your self-confidence. Talking about the GT should be restricted to persons capable of helping theresearcher without influencing her final judgments.

Split in methodology

DivergenceSince their original publication in 1967, Glaser and Strauss have disagreed on how to apply the grounded theorymethod, resulting in a split between Straussian and Glaserian paradigms. This split occurred most obviously afterStrauss published Qualitative Analysis for Social Scientists (1987). Thereafter Strauss, together with Juliet Corbin,published Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques in 1990. This was followedby a rebuke by Glaser (1992) who set out, chapter by chapter, to highlight the differences in what he argued wasoriginal grounded theory and why, according to Glaser, what Strauss and Corbin had written was not groundedtheory in its "intended form" but was rather a form of qualitative data analysis. This divergence in methodology is asubject of much academic debate, which Glaser (1998) calls a "rhetorical wrestle". Glaser continues to write aboutand teach the original grounded theory method.

Grounded theory 30

According to Kelle (2005), "the controversy between Glaser and Strauss boils down to the question of whether theresearcher uses a well defined 'coding paradigm' and always looks systematically for 'causal conditions,''phenomena/context, intervening conditions, action strategies' and 'consequences' in the data, or whether theoreticalcodes are employed as they emerge in the same way as substantive codes emerge, but drawing on a huge fund of'coding families.' Both strategies have their pros and cons. Novices who wish to get clear advice on how to structuredata material may be satisfied with the use of the coding paradigm. Since the paradigm consists of theoretical termswhich carry only limited empirical content the risk is not very high that data are forced by its application. However,it must not be forgotten that it is linked to a certain micro-sociological perspective. Many researchers may concurwith that approach especially since qualitative research always had a relation to micro-sociological action theory, butothers who want to employ a macro-sociological and system theory perspective may feel that the use of the codingparadigm would lead them astray." [8]

Glaser's approachGlaser originated the basic process of Grounded theory method described as the constant comparative method wherethe analyst begins analysis with the first data collected and constantly compares indicators, concepts and categoriesas the theory emerges. [9]

The first book, The Discovery of Grounded Theory, published in 1967, was "developed in close and equalcollaboration"[10] by Glaser and Strauss. Glaser wrote "Theoretical Sensitivity" in 1978 and has since written fivemore books on the method and edited five readers with a collection of grounded theory articles and dissertations.The Glaserian method is not a qualitative research method, but claims the dictum "all is data". This means that notonly interview or observational data but also surveys or statistical analyses or "whatever comes the researcher's waywhile studying a substantive area" (Glaser quote) can be used in the comparative process as well as literature datafrom science or media or even fiction. Thus the method according to Glaser is not limited to the realm of qualitativeresearch, which he calls "QDA" (Qualitative Data Analysis). QDA is devoted to descriptive accuracy while theGlaserian method emphasizes conceptualization abstract of time, place and people. A theory discovered with thegrounded theory method should be easy to use outside of the substantive area where it was generated.

Strauss & Corbin's approachGenerally speaking, grounded theory is an approach for looking systematically at (mostly) qualitative data (liketranscripts of interviews or protocols of observations) aiming at the generation of theory. Sometimes, groundedtheory is seen as a qualitative method, but grounded theory reaches farther: it combines a specific style of research(or a paradigm) with pragmatic theory of action and with some methodological guidelines.This approach was written down and systematized in the 1960s by Anselm Strauss (himself a student of HerbertBlumer) and Barney Glaser (a student of Paul Lazarsfeld), while working together in studying the sociology ofillness at the University of California, San Francisco. For and with their studies, they developed a methodology,which was then made explicit and became the foundation stone for an important branch of qualitative sociology.Important concepts of grounded theory method are categories, codes and codings. The research principle behindgrounded theory method is neither inductive nor deductive, but combines both in a way of abductive reasoning(coming from the works of Charles Sanders Peirce). This leads to a research practice where data sampling, dataanalysis and theory development are not seen as distinct and disjunct, but as different steps to be repeated until onecan describe and explain the phenomenon that is to be researched. This stopping point is reached when new datadoes not change the emerging theory anymore.In an interview that was conducted shortly before Strauss' death (1994), he named three basic elements everygrounded theory approach should include (Legewie/Schervier-Legewie (2004)). These three elements are:• Theoretical sensitive coding, that is, generating theoretical strong concepts from the data to explain the

phenomenon researched;

Grounded theory 31

• theoretical sampling, that is, deciding whom to interview or what to observe next according to the state of theorygeneration, and that implies starting data analysis with the first interview, and writing down memos andhypotheses early;

• the need to compare between phenomena and contexts to make the theory strong.

DifferencesGrounded theory method according to Glaser emphasizes induction or emergence, and the individual researcher'screativity within a clear frame of stages, while Strauss is more interested in validation criteria and a systematicapproach.

Constructivist Grounded TheoryA later version of GT called constructivist GT, rooted in pragmatism and relativist epistemology, assumes thatneither data nor theories are discovered, but are constructed by the researcher as a result of his or her interactionswith the field and its participants.[11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18] Data are co-constructed by researcher and participants,and colored by the researcher’s perspectives, values, privileges, positions, interactions, and geographical locations.This position takes a middle ground between the realist and postmodernist positions by assuming an “obduratereality” at the same time as it assumes multiple realities and multiple perspectives on these realities. Within thisapproach, Thornberg has discussed the problems of delaying literature review until the end of the research process,and highlighted how to use literature in a constructive and data-sensitive way without forcing it on data.[19]

CriticismCritiques of grounded theory have focused on i) its misunderstood status as theory (is what is produced really'theory'?), ii) the notion of 'ground' (why is an idea of 'grounding' one's findings important in qualitativeinquiry—what are they 'grounded' in?) and iii) the claim to use and develop inductive knowledge. These criticismsare summed up by Thomas and James.[20] These authors also suggest that it is impossible to free oneself ofpreconceptions in the collection and analysis of data in the way that Glaser and Strauss say is necessary. They alsopoint to the formulaic nature of grounded theory method and the lack of congruence of this with open and creativeinterpretation - which ought to be the hallmark of qualitative inquiry. They suggest that the one element of groundedtheory worth keeping is constant comparative method.Grounded theory method was developed in a period when other qualitative methods were often consideredunscientific. It achieved wide acceptance of its academic rigor. Thus, especially in American academia, qualitativeresearch is often equated to grounded theory method. This equation is sometimes criticized by qualitative researchersusing other methodologies (for example, traditional ethnography, narratology, and storytelling). One alternative togrounded theory is engaged theory. It puts an equal emphasis on doing on-the-ground work linked to analyticalprocesses of empirical generalization. However, unlike grounded theory, engaged theory is in the critical theorytradition, locating those processes within a larger theoretical framework that specifies different levels of abstractionat which one can make claims about the world.[21]

Grounded theory 32

References[1] Patricia Yancey Martin & Barry A. Turner, "Grounded Theory and Organizational Research," The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science,

vol. 22, no. 2 (1986), 141..[2] Faggiolani, Chiara, " Perceived Identity: applying Grounded Theory in Libraries (http:/ / leo. cilea. it/ index. php/ jlis/ article/ view/ 4592),"

JLIS.It, vol. 2, no. 1 (2011). doi:10.4403/jlis.it-4592.[3][3] Glaser, 1967, chapter VIII.[4] G. Allan, "A critique of using grounded theory as a research method," Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, vol. 2, no. 1 (2003)

pp. 1-10.[5] See Glaser & Strauss, The Discovery of Grounded Theory, 1967.[6] Glaser & Strauss 1967[7] Glaser & Strauss 1967[8] Kelle, U. (2005). "Emergence" vs. "Forcing" of Empirical Data? A Crucial Problem of "Grounded Theory" Reconsidered. Forum Qualitative

Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Research [On-line Journal], 6(2), Art. 27, paragraphs 49 & 50. (http:/ / www. qualitative-research.net/ fqs-texte/ 2-05/ 05-2-27-e. pdf)

[9][9] --~~~~Glaser, B. (1965). The Constant Comparative Method of Qualitative Analysis. Social Problems, 12(4), 445, 436.[10][10] Strauss, 1993, p. 12[11] Bryant, A. (2002). Re-grounding grounded theory. Journal of Information Technology Theory and Application, 4, 25–42.[12] Charmaz, K. (2000). Grounded theory: Objectivist and constructivist methods. In N.K. Denzin & Y.S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of

qualitative research (2nd ed., pp. 509–535). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.[13][13] Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing grounded theory. London: Sage.[14] Charmaz, K. (2008). Constructionism and the grounded theory method. In J.A. Holstein & J.F. Gubrium (Eds.), Handbook of constructionist

research (pp. 397–412). New York: The Guilford Press.[15] Charmaz, K. (2009). Shifting the grounds: Constructivist grounded theory methods. In J.M. Morse, P.N. Stern, J. Corbin, B. Bowers, K.

Charmaz, & A.E. Clarke (Eds.), Developing grounded theory: The second generation (pp. 127–154). Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press.[16] Mills, J., Bonner, A., & Francis, K. (2006). Adopting a constructivist approach to grounded theory: Implications for research design.

International Journal of Nursing Practice, 12, 8–13.[17] Mills, J., Bonner, A., & Francis, K. (2006). The development of constructivist grounded theory. International Journal of Qualitative

Methods, 5, 25–35.[18] Thornberg, R., & Charmaz, K. (2012). Grounded theory. In S. D. Lapan, M. Quartaroli, & F. Reimer (Eds.), Qualitative research: An

introduction to methods and designs (pp. 41-67). San Francisco, CA: John Wiley/Jossey-Bass.[19][19] Thornberg, R. (2012). Informed grounded theory. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 56, 243-259.[20] Thomas, G. and James, D. (2006). Reinventing grounded theory: some questions about theory, ground and discovery, British Educational

Research Journal, 32, 6, 767–795.[21] See P. James, Globalism, Nationalism, Tribalism: Bringing theory Back In, Sage Publications, London, 2006; and P. James, Y. Nadarajah,

K. Haive, and V. Stead, Sustainable Communities, Sustainable Development: Other Paths for Papua New Guinea, Honolulu, University ofHawaii Press, 2012

Further reading•• Strauss, A. (1987). Qualitative analysis for social scientists. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.•• Glaser, B. (1992). Basics of grounded theory analysis. Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press.•• Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing Grounded Theory: A Practical Guide Through Qualitative Analysis. Thousand

Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.•• Clarke, A. (2005). Situational Analysis: Grounded Theory After the Postmodern Turn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Publications.• Bryant, A. & Charmaz, K. (Eds.) (2007) The SAGE Handbook of Grounded Theory. Los Angeles: Sage.• Morse, J. M., Stern, P. N., Corbin, J., Bowers, B., Charmaz, K. & Clarke, A. E. (Eds.) (2009). Developing

Grounded Theory: The Second Generation. Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press.• Kelle, Udo (2005). "Emergence" vs. "Forcing" of Empirical Data? A Crucial Problem of "Grounded Theory"

Reconsidered. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Research [On-line Journal], 6(2),Art. 27, paragraphs 49 & 50. (http:/ / www. qualitative-research. net/ fqs-texte/ 2-05/ 05-2-27-e. pdf)

• Mey, G. & Mruck, K. (Eds.) (2007). Grounded Theory Reader (HSR-Supplement 19). Cologne: ZHSF. 337 pages• Thomas, G. & James, D. (2006). Re-inventing grounded theory: some questions about theory, ground and

discovery. British Educational Research Journal, 32 (6), 767–795.

Grounded theory 33

•• Goulding, C. (2002). Grounded Theory: A Practical Guide for Management, Business and Market Researchers.London: Sage.

• Stebbins, Robert A. (2001) Exploratory Research in the Social Sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Glaser•• Glaser BG, The Constant Comparative Method of Qualitative Analysis. Social Problems, 12(4), 445, 1965.• Glaser BG, Strauss A. Discovery of Grounded Theory. Strategies for Qualitative Research. Sociology Press (http:/

/ www. groundedtheory. com/ index1. html), 1967• Glaser BG. Theoretical Sensitivity: Advances in the methodology of Grounded Theory. Sociology Press (http:/ /

www. groundedtheory. com/ index1. html), 1978.• Glaser BG (ed). More Grounded Theory Methodology: A Reader. Sociology Press (http:/ / www. groundedtheory.

com/ index1. html), 1994.• Glaser BG (ed). Grounded Theory 1984-1994. A Reader (two volumes). Sociology Press (http:/ / www.

groundedtheory. com/ index1. html), 1995.• Glaser BG (ed). Gerund Grounded Theory: The Basic Social Process Dissertation. Sociology Press (http:/ / www.

groundedtheory. com/ index1. html), 1996.• Glaser BG. Doing Grounded Theory - Issues and Discussions. Sociology Press (http:/ / www. groundedtheory.

com/ index1. html), 1998.• Glaser BG. The Grounded Theory Perspective I: Conceptualization Contrasted with Description. Sociology Press

(http:/ / www. groundedtheory. com/ index1. html), 2001.• Glaser BG. The Grounded Theory Perspective II: Description's Remodeling of Grounded Theory. Sociology Press

(http:/ / www. groundedtheory. com/ index1. html), 2003.•• Glaser BG. The Grounded Theory Perspective III: Theoretical coding. Sociology Press, 2005.Strauss & Corbin• Anselm L. Strauss; Leonard Schatzman; Rue Bucher; Danuta Ehrlich & Melvin Sabshin: Psychiatric ideologies

and institutions (1964)• Barney G. Glaser; Anselm L. Strauss: The Discovery of Grounded Theory. Strategies for Qualitative Research

(1967)• Anselm L. Strauss: Qualitative Analysis for Social Scientists (1987)• Anselm L. Strauss; Juliet Corbin: Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques,

Sage (1990)• Anselm L. Strauss; Juliet Corbin: "Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria", in:

Zeitschrift für Soziologie, 19. Jg, S. 418 ff. (1990)• Anselm L. Strauss: Continual Permutations of Action (1993)•• Anselm L. Strauss; Juliet Corbin: "Grounded Theory in Practice", Sage (1997)•• Anselm L. Strauss; Juliet Corbin: "Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and

Techniques". 2nd edition. Sage, 1998.•• Juliet Corbin; Anselm L. Strauss: "Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and

Techniques". 3rd edition. Sage, 2008.Constructivist Grounded Theory• Bryant, Antony (2002) ‘Re-grounding grounded theory’, Journal of Information Technology Theory and

Application, 4(1): 25-42.• Bryant, Antony and Charmaz, Kathy (2007) ‘Grounded theory in historical perspective: An epistemological

account’, in Bryant, A. and Charmaz, K. (eds.), The SAGE Handbook of Grounded Theory. Los Angeles: Sage.pp. 31-57.

• Charmaz, Kathy (2000) ‘Grounded theory: Objectivist and constructivist methods’, in Denzin, N.K. and Lincoln,Y.S. (eds.), Handbook of Qualitative Research. 2nd edn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. pp. 509-535.

Grounded theory 34

• Charmaz, Kathy (2003) ‘Grounded theory’, in Smith, J.A. (ed.), Qualitative Psychology: A Practical Guide toResearch Methods. London: Sage. pp. 81-110.

•• Charmaz, Kathy (2006) Constructing Grounded Theory. London: Sage.• Charmaz, Kathy (2008) ‘Constructionism and the grounded theory method’, in Holstein, J.A. and Gubrium, J.F.

(eds.), Handbook of Constructionist Research. New York: The Guilford Press. pp. 397-412.• Charmaz, Kathy (2009) ‘Shifting the grounds: Constructivist grounded theory methods’, in J. M. Morse, P. N.

Stern, J. Corbin, B. Bowers, K. Charmaz and A. E. Clarke (eds.), Developing Grounded Theory: The SecondGeneration. Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press. pp. 127–154.

•• Charmaz, Kathy (forthcoming) Constructing Grounded Theory 2nd ed. London: Sage.• Mills, Jane, Bonner, Ann, & Francis, Karen (2006) ‘Adopting a constructivist approach to grounded theory:

Implications for research design’ International Journal of Nursing Practice, 12(1): 8-13.• Mills, Jane, Bonner, Ann, & Francis, Karen (2006) ‘The development of constructivist grounded theory’,

International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 5(1): 25-35.•• Thornberg, Robert (2012) 'Informed grounded theory', Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 56:

243-259.• Thornberg, Robert and Charmaz, Kathy (2011) ‘Grounded theory’, in Lapan, S.D., Quartaroli M.T. and Reimer

F.J. (eds.), Qualitative Research: An Introduction to Methods and Designs. San Francisco, CA: JohnWiley/Jossey-Bass. pp. 41-67.

• Thornberg, Robert & Charmaz, K. (forthcoming) 'Grounded theory and theoretical coding', in Flick, U. (ed.), TheSAGE handbook of qualitative analysis. London: Sage.

External links• The Grounded Theory Institute (http:/ / www. groundedtheory. com/ ) (Glaser tradition)• Grounded Theory Online (http:/ / www. groundedtheoryonline. com/ ) (Supporting (Glaserian) GT researchers)• Grounded Theory Review (http:/ / www. groundedtheoryreview. com)• Sociology Press (http:/ / www. sociologypress. com)• An Introduction to GT by the Action Research Unit, Southern Cross University Management School (http:/ /

www. scu. edu. au/ schools/ gcm/ ar/ arp/ grounded. html)

Article Sources and Contributors 35

Article Sources and ContributorsQualitative research  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=516720093  Contributors: A.r.steele, Aerion, Aeternus, Aitias, Akiwilson, Alveolate, Andres, Anna Lincoln, AnneArt,Ari Rahikkala, Ashlees2010, Bassbonerocks, Beeandy, BigHaz, Binarypower, BogdanNegoita, Boobmarly, Brobbins, Capricorn42, Caricia Catalani, Caroline Jarrett, CarrieVS, Cdc, Cheekyal,Christian Kreibich, CliffC, Corenny, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DBigXray, DVD R W, Darklilac, Darth Panda, Dcljr, Dekimasu, Discospinster, Dr Runt, Dr devo, Dr.alf, Drhaggis, Dusty98, ESkog,Edkuffel, El C, Entheta, Epbr123, Eshatch, Farmanesh, Fivefor, Flowanda, FlyingToaster, Fordan, Forp, Fraggle81, Freemrpj, Frequencydip, Gentgeen, George100, Giantflightlessbirds,Gregzeng, Gsaup, Gurch, Hasanisawi, Hede2000, Hockeyohara, Hocknlim, Holon, Hoosac, Hrafn, I dream of horses, Ida Shaw, Ifidragonfly, Illuminattile, Immunize, InshaInsha, Iridescent, J04n,JaGa, Jamessmithpage, Jarble, Javierito92, Jaymesbnd007, Jeff3000, JenLouise, Jim McAvoy, Jim0052, Joe Decker, John FitzGerald, JonHarder, Jrw7235, Jtneill, Jtthegeek, JuliancoltonAlternative, Jump off duck, Jungpo, K-UNIT, Katharine908, Kenneth M Burke, Kimjoarr, Kingpin13, Kiwifrankie, Kmasters0, Kurieeto, Kusyadi, Leuko, LiDaobing, Ling.Nut, Linyent2, LizaFreeman, Logan, Loyola, Luk, LutzPrechelt, M3taphysical, Macronyx, MaxPont, Meclee, Meitar, Mel Etitis, Merlien2, Mike Restivo, Mikker, Mikolik, Mjh110101, Mootros, Morimom, MrOllie,Mssclanz, MuZemike, Mycomputer2010, Mydogategodshat, N5iln, NSRATBSU, NYMets2000, Natural hat trick, NawlinWiki, Niclas M., Nijabo, Nurg, Nvsware, OhioRenaissanceMan,Pallominy, Pascal.Tesson, Pdcook, Pensil, Philip Trueman, Phronetic, Pikiwyn, Pinc, Pinethicket, Pion, Piotrus, Poli08, Popeye Doyle, ProfLG, Prolog, Pundit, PureProf, QSR International,Qualitious, Quentin X, RRBstudent, Ra1n, Rastebbins, Rd232, Reconsider the static, RedWolf, Reedy, Reetawowfactor, Regibox, RichardF, Rjwilmsi, Rl, Robsavoie, Rockfang, Ronz, Saayiit,Sam Korn, Seglea, Selket, SemperBlotto, Sergio.ballestrero, Shankar.bharath, Sheldon Rampton, Sheogorath, Shoshanaspice, Sistema13, Skagedal, Spdegabrielle, Steve2011, Steven Walling,Stevertigo, Stustu12, Svetovid, Sydneyej, TastyPoutine, Telfordbuck, Teryx, Tfeliz, ThMuhr, The SK, Themfromspace, Therearenospoons, Thewinchester, Thingg, Thomasmeeks, Timbrooker,Tomsega, TrevorP, Trontonian, Twirligig, Vanished user 39948282, Vdrury, Vrenator, WadeSimMiser, Waiguoren, Warhorus, Washburnmav, Wiki13, Wikipelli, William M. Connolley, Wimt,Woohookitty, XanaX, YAZASHI, Z10x, Zzuuzz, 471 anonymous edits

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Interview  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=515938273  Contributors: 12 Noon, 777sms, Abinanda00, Aceveand, Adw2000, Ahmadmashhour, Alexandria, Anand2027,Andonic, Ankurgarg2009, Arendedwinter, Avmaverick, Axxonnfire, Aza1994, Azraf, BD2412, Bajpaiabhinav, Balcer, Belovedfreak, Benbread, Bizminded, Bobjones1234567890, Bobo192,Bonadea, COMPFUNK2, Calltech, Cam munoz, Captain Segfault, Careerjoy, CowardX10, Craigwb, Crocodile Punter, DFS454, Dalejenkins, Darth Jericho, David Shay, Dd4w2000, Dignaj,Dwarf Kirlston, Eekerz, El C, Elfrida C, Elipongo, Eloquence, EpochFail, Ershailit, Estrose, Evercat, Fabricationary, Flowerparty, Fram, Frecklefoot, Galaxyslayer, Gimboid13, Gogo Dodo, GrV,GraemeL, GreatWhiteNortherner, Green Yoshi, Gsmodi, Gwernol, Hasek is the best, Haunti, HistoryBA, II Andr3w II, IceCreamAntisocial, Ida Shaw, Ilse@, InterviewGuy, InterviewGyan,InterviewPrep, JForget, JamesBWatson, Jason127, Jeremykemp, JoJan, JordoCo, Jtneill, Jumbolino, KAtremer, Katherine, Kiefer.Wolfowitz, Kumbi007, Kurieeto, Kuru, Lawilkin, Levineps,Lotje, MMuzammils, Manop, Mariotime95, Maurreen, Megan 189, Meursault2004, Minkle, Mmoneypenny, Mormegil, Mrt3366, Nakon, Nick Number, OffsBlink, Ohnoitsjamie, Orareol,Pakaran, Pathbinder, Paul2387, Pengo, Petrb, Pgreenfinch, PhnomPencil, Pigironjoe, Pinethicket, Pinku.nagpal, Piotras, Pkgadala, Placement officer kanpur, Pollinator, Prunesqualer, Pschemp,Puuropyssy, Rich257, RichardF, Rintrah, Riyehn, RobertG, Ronz, Rossami, Rothanak, RoverRexSpot, Rsocol, Saifsyed, Scaredda, SchreiberBike, Seaphoto, Shadowjams, Shalinjames, Shawn inMontreal, SimonP, Sippsin, Specstalk, Spencerk, Stephenb, Stillwaterising, StopItTidyUp, Sunemilyne, Swtepy07, SymlynX, Sysys, TakuyaMurata, Tarquin, Tbhotch, The Evil IP address, Thelorax, Thehelpfulone, Theni.M.Subramani, Toussaint, Tregoweth, Trident13, Tvaughn05, Versageek, Voyevoda, Wavehunter, Wavelength, West.andrew.g, Wik, Wknight94, Yawja, Δ, 256anonymous edits

Focus group  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=515017277  Contributors: 38cameron, Abiyoyo, Alex.muller, Alfio, Alking791, Bjornwireen, Bytz, COM691TW,CallamRodya, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Carolphillips, Cferrero, Cgtdk, ChangChienFu, CliffC, Crosbiesmith, Ctbolt, Curb Chain, Danlev, DaveC426913, Davelapo555, Diego Moya,Digital infinity, Dmytro h, Donut44, Dr zoidberg590, Dreish, Eeekster, El C, EricKuhnen, Ewulp, Excirial, Fasstdak, Felyza, Figureskatingfan, Futureobservatory, Gary D, Gregbard, Gsociology,Gtwfan52, Gurch, IP 84.5, Iridescent, JRSP, Jamelan, JenLouise, Jnugget, John254, JohnGabriel1, Joshux, Juhko, Juliancolton, Karl-Henner, Kdkimbell, Kubigula, Kuru, Lockley, Luk,M3taphysical, MarchHare, Marcus Qwertyus, Markus 29, Martin Jensen, Materialscientist, Maurreen, Maustrauser, Mav, Meelar, Mikesmith22, Mikevan, Mild Bill Hiccup, Monkeyman,Monty845, Mv276, Mydogategodshat, Mzajac, NeonMerlin, Nikitafullmoon, Nsevs, ONEder Boy, Optichan, Paidfocusgroups, Patrick, Penbat, Peter McGinley, Philip Trueman, Pigironjoe,Plinkit, Popo le Chien, PureProf, Quagmire, Randomtime, RexNL, RichWoodward, Rjanag, Rl, Robert Brockway, Robofish, RodC, Ronz, Rplal120, SNowwis, Samuel Blanning,Satwantsingh1988, Seymour2007, Skarebo, Smit8750, Socio-logos, Sp, Speedoflight, Tdobias, The Rhymesmith, The Thing That Should Not Be, The sock that should not be, Themlife,Therossm, Thine Antique Pen, Timclynch, Topbanana, Tragen, Usabilis, Verbalcontract, Warut, Web2earn, Will Thompson, Woohookitty, Zetawoof, Zundark, Zzuuzz, 244 anonymous edits

Ethnography  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=516895731  Contributors: 20coconuts, 2ytbal, Aaronpowers, Aboutmovies, Adrian.benko, Aeternus, Alexandria, Alexius08,Amit pande, Anastasiyka0311, Andrewseal, Andycjp, Angryhaggis, Antandrus, Aphilo, Bdean1963, Biggleswiki, Bob Burkhardt, Bobfrombrockley, Bobo192, Burlywood, CRGreathouse,Caroline K. Gibbons, Carolmooredc, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Chasingsol, Chimin 07, Chris the speller, Christopher861, Colonies Chris, Cowardly Lion, Cpiral, D6, DO'Neil,Daniel5127, DarwinPeacock, Davidiad, Denisa, Denisarona, Dgilman, Dina, Dinesh smita, Dkaufman1, Doulos Christos, El C, Electriceel, Elliewoods92, Enver62, Enviroboy, Erianna, Est.r,Eudesplopes, Falsedef, Farras Octara, Flantille, Foant, Fraise, France3470, Frankenpuppy, Fred Bauder, Free Software Knight, Fritzboyle, Geneticstar, GerardM, Gioto, Gregbard, Grigri, Gsaup,Guettarda, HappyInGeneral, Hasanisawi, Hveziris, Hyacinth, IW.HG, Infoeco, Intranetusa, Ish ishwar, Ixfd64, J04n, JaGa, Jauhienij, Jbeyenbach, Jeffrey Mall, Jenks24, Jennab, Jfpierce,Jnothman, Jonathanbishop, JorgeGG, Jrochagzz, Just plain Bill, Jweiss11, Karl smith, Koavf, Korean alpha for knowledge, Ksbayer, LAX, LarryQ, Lcyarrington, Leutha, Levalley, Linyent2,Lola Voss, MER-C, Macukali, Madcoverboy, Martsabus, Matt me, Maynich, Mcld, Mdebets, Meatsgains, Meclee, Mentifisto, Mirv, MisterSheik, Monroem, Moonlight8888, Mortense, MrOllie,Mschlindwein, Mssclanz, Muehleba, N5iln, NawlinWiki, Nel-hinnawy, Neutrality, Nilad, Nimur, Ninky76, Noocene, Notafly, Objectivesea, Onishinx, Pancocheli, Pavlo Shevelo, Perfectblue97,PeterisP, Pigman, Piotrus, Pundit, Qazwer753, Qwertyus, Rambling wrek, Ramir, Raso mk, Retinarow, RichardF, Ridhididi, Rjwilmsi, Rmky87, Rockfang, Rockwurm, Ronz, RuM, Ruthstoops,Ryantjohnston8, Sam Spade, Samian, Sanfranman59, Sapphic, SatuSuro, Seaphoto, Sebesta, Shadowjams, Shanes, Shimmeryshad27, Smilo Don, Snigbrook, Snowcountry1, Sociologyindia,Stephenb, Stephenchou0722, Straussthink, Sunray, Swi521, Sydneyej, Synchronism, Taishan88, Taragui, Tassedethe, Tbhotch, Tfine80, Thadius856, The SK, The Thing That Should Not Be,TheSoundAndTheFury, Themfromspace, Tide rolls, Tommy2010, Toytoy, Tracerbullet11, Transmod, Ultramartin, Vanofspain, Very trivial, WatchAndObserve, Wbrameld, Weaponbb7,West.andrew.g, Wikiedits28, Wikilibrarian, Wikiman2001, Winston Trechane, Wisamzaqoot, Wsiegmund, Xufanc, YURiN, 386 ,عبدالعزيز بن محيسن anonymous edits

Grounded theory  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=515429294  Contributors: A bit iffy, ADoppel, AerobicFox, Alan U. Kennington, Aliakbarjafari, Anti-Nationalist,AxelBoldt, BGarth, Banjaloupe, Classicgt, Cntras, Coffeepusher, Counterfact, CyberRob, D6, Druiffic, Dv82matt, Edward, Egmason, G5rendall, Garyrendall, Gating, Gbhenderson, Gsaup,HenryLarsen, Hocknlim, Inwind, Iranianson, J.delanoy, JenLouise, Jksk, JoeSmack, Juurseller, KYPark, Kai-Hendrik, Knutwien, Kvasilogen, Lyonspen, Madcoverboy, Malcolma, MaxR, Mcld,Merlien2, Mermaid from the Baltic Sea, Michael Hardy, Mootros, Morgan Leigh, MrOllie, OeilDeLynx, Petepsy, Pfhenshaw, Phronetic, Pieleric, PleaseStand, Poderi, Proclubboy, Pundit,Rakkar, Rannpháirtí anaithnid (old), Rastebbins, Rl, Robert Weemeyer, Ronz, Ruchiraw, Sequituriat, Sergut, Stesso, Suzannejb, THB, Tedfrick, Tequendamia, Terrynow1227, The Tetrast, Thewub, Themfromspace, Thepatson, Thulesius, Tide rolls, Tillwe, Tomsega, Topbanana, Tvever, Unionhawk, Walshki, Xaver David, Zibudizz, 77 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 36

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Thed Björk interview 2012.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thed_Björk_interview_2012.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: AlphaZeta, Green YoshiFile:Izmir Ethnography Museum.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Izmir_Ethnography_Museum.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:User:QuintucketFile:Ethnography Museum Budapest architecture.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ethnography_Museum_Budapest_architecture.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution 2.0  Contributors: Julie Lyn from Washington, DC, USAFile:Bronisław Malinowski among Trobriand tribe.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bronisław_Malinowski_among_Trobriand_tribe.jpg  License: anonymous-EU Contributors: Unknown (maybe Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz, 1885-1939)

License 37

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/