Qualitative Methods in Psychology

Theory and Practice

Chinchu C Psychologist, Trainer & Research Consultant

Association for Social Change, Evolution and Transformation(ASCENT)

How do we know truth?

Nimmy, the lady claims that Misha, their cat loves her ‘The Most’ than anybody else in the world And John, her boyfriend, claims Misha loves him more

How do we know what is True ? Image Courtesy: https://laughingsquid.com,

Concept and Content Courtesy: ANNEMARIE ZAND SCHOLTEN, University of Amsterdam

Idealism: Reality exists only in our minds.

Realism: External reality exists; Universal concepts like ‘Love’ and ‘Gravity’ exist too.

Objectivism: Applies Realism. External Psychological and Social Phenomena (Intelligence, Social Cohesion…) exist.

Constructivism: Social Phenomena are mental constructions. Meaning of ‘Happiness’ or ‘Femininity/Masculinity’ depend on culture and contexts

Interpretivism: Applies Constructivism: The observer’s experience can be different from the participant’s experience

Hermeneutics(വ്യാഖ്യാനം), Phenomenology(How people

experience the world) and Verstehen (Empathic Understanding)

Does a ‘Truth’ exist?

Qualitative Research generally applies a Constructivist- Interpretivist view Unstructured Interview, Participant Observation etc.

Quantitative Research generally applies an Objectivist-Positivist approach Focuses on counting, measuring and generalizing.

None of these should be taken as water tight compartments.

What we need is Mixed Methods where both methods complement each other, especially in fields like Psychology

The Fundamental Approaches

But why Mixed Methods?

We have all seen such surveys. Is this Qualitative or Quantitative?

Courtesy: http://www.socialresearchmethods.net

Capital Punishment = വ്ധശിക്ഷ

Did the respondent understand the term "capital punishment"?

Does the respondent have any idea about alternatives to capital punishment (otherwise how can they judge what's "best")?

Did the respondent read carefully enough to determine that the statement was limited only to convicted murderers (for instance, rapists were not included)?

Does the respondent care or were they just circling anything arbitrarily?

Was the respondent mentally alert (especially if this is late in a long survey or the respondent had other things going on earlier in the day)?

What was the setting for the survey (e.g., lighting, noise and other distractions)?

Was the survey anonymous? Was it confidential?

In the respondent's mind, is the difference between a "1" and a "2" the same as between a "2" and a "3" (i.e., is this an interval scale?)?

Data needs to be as naturalistic as possible (ഒട്ടം രൂപമാറ്റം വ്രാതെ)

Researcher is the tool Validation is done during the earlier stages itself.

Real-life data collection can also enhance validity

Reflexivity is incorporated for continuous scrutiny.

Personal Reflexivity : How your own values, expectations, beliefs, interests etc. have shaped this research

Epistemological Reflexivity: How is the design constructed, How was the research question formed; What were the other possible questions, their consequences…..

The issue of Reliability. How dependable the data is ? Is replication really possible?

Some General Principles

“I am frequently reminded of the old joke about the individual who explained that he was looking for his missing keys under the street lamp because ‘the light is better there’ . . . The ‘street lamp’ draws us to it by its apparent capacity to facilitate our search”

Lorion, R.P. (1990) Evaluating HIV risk reduction efforts: ten

lessons from psychotherapy and prevention outcome strategies, Journal of Community Psychology, 18: 325–36

Framing your Research Question

Semi-Structured Interview is an effective tool for data collection

Used in

Phenomenology,

Grounded Theory,

Thematic Analysis…

Interview as a Data Collection Tool

FGD can be more productive than personal interviews because of its collaborative nature

The researcher should be aware of group dynamics at play

Less artificial than interviews

Researcher plays the role of moderator

6 to 8 participants

Interactions should be similar to normal, real-life discourse

FGD as Data Collection Tool

Done in Natural settings

Can be Structured or Unstructured

Used heavily in Ethnography and Action Research

Involves Participation, Documentation, Informal Interviewing, and Reflection

Substantive, Methodological and Analytical notes need to be taken

Participation is of utmost importance in Participant Observation. Mere Observation won’t suffice

Observation Schedules may come in handy

Observation

Interpretation has a long history, beginning from classical hermeneutics to the data science and social media analysis

Realist interpretation: A straight forward description of events

Phenomenological Interpretation : Mapping the experiences of the actors

Social Constructionist Interpretation: Deconstructing the narration/event, with assuming different perspectives

Interpretations can be based on Suspicion or Empathy

Suspicion: To reveal a hidden truth; working like a detective. Remember Freud. Involves some assumptions

Empathy : Trying to get close to the experience of the subject. No underlying assumptions. Not necessarily tied to theories

The role of Interpretation

Thematic Analysis

Case Studies

Phenomenology

Grounded Theory

Discursive Psychology (Discourse Analysis)

Narrative Analysis

Visual Methods

Some Methods

A form of pattern-seeking in data.

Can be used to address Realist, Phenomenological or Constructionist questions

What do I want to know & What data do I collect: Both questions answered by the Research Question

Coding – Inductive ( Coding frame emerges from data) or Deductive ( pre-existing coding frame)

Second level of coding (Categorization) can be done before theme identification

Mere listing of themes is not the goal. You should make sense of the themes, their possible inner meanings, implications, an overall story that connects the identified themes … etc.

Thematic Analysis

Focus on the particular, not general (Idiographic approach)

Attention to Contexts

Triangulation is used

Temporal element ( Describes changes over time)

Concerned with Theory

Intrinsic V/s Instrumental

Single V/s Multiple

Descriptive V/s Explanatory

Naturalist V/s Pragmatic

Case Studies

Study of Subjective Experiences; Draws largely from Husserl

Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) is used widely in Psychology

It attempts to describe the experiences through their interpretation by the subject

Open-ended and non-directive interviewing

Analysis should record both experience and interpretation

Reading Identifying and labeling emergent themes Clustering themes Labeling Clusters Summarizing with tables and quotes.

Integration of cases and layered Interpretation are optional

Writing Up

Phenomenology

Introduced by Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss (1967); they wanted to move away from theory.

Categories: Start as descriptive labels and move on to abstract analytic categories

Category names are in vivo

Coding: The layered process to define categories

Constant Comparative Analysis: Moving back and forth between similarities among and differences between categories; building up sub categories and linking categories

Negative Case Analysis: Instances that do not fit a category

Theoretical Sensitivity: Revisiting the data based on new understanding

Grounded Theory

Theoretical Sampling: Collecting further data based on emerging categories

Theoretical Saturation: A point where no new categories emerge

Memo writing: A written record of theory development; An important part of the process

A Process for Grounded Theory

Research Question

Data Collection (Full Version/Abbreviated Version)

Data Analysis (Coding and Categorizing)

The Report (Introduction, Method, Results, Discussion, Reference)

Grounded Theory

Fit of data and categories – Explain the Why of each category

Theory Integration /Coherence– Relationship between units should be clear and apparent

Reflexivity - The role and position of researcher to be acknowledged

Proper and Comprehensive Documentation

Theoretical Sampling and Negative Case Analysis

Transferability : The extent of Generalization possible

Credibility: Ways to verify the findings/data

Ensuring Quality

Always be careful and never jump into conclusions

Criticize and question your own convictions and

Coming of Age in Samoa, Margaret Mead and Fa’apua’a Fa’amu and Fofoa

How a single interview shook the whole field of Anthropology, and still remains a hot topic

A word of Caution

Elliott, R., Fischer, C.T. and Rennie, D.L. (1999) Evolving guidelines for publication of qualitative research studies in psychology and related fields, British Journal for Clinical Psychology, 38: 215–29

Henwood, K. and Pidgeon, N.F. (1992) Qualitative research and psychological theorising, British Journal of Psychology, 83(1): 97–112

Willig, C. (2008). Introducing qualitative research in psychology: Adventures in theory and method (2nd edition ed.). Berkshire, UK: Open University Press

References