qualitative and mixed research methods - rtu e-studiju · pdf file ·...

Qualitative and Mixed

Research Methods

Elias A. Hadzilias, Dr. Eng. NTUA

[email protected]

October 2011

http://www.rtu.lv/en

Elias Hadzilias – SCD 2010 IESEG School of Management 2 Dr. Elias A. Hadzilias – RTU Wednesday 19/10/2011 2

Agenda

Course information

Epistemological perspectives

Qualitative research strategies

Research design elements


Learning outcomes

Demonstrate knowledge of the theoretical foundations of qualitative and mixed methods research

Develop a practical application of qualitative theory to research and evaluation

Understand qualitative approaches to research and implications of each approach in respect to research design methodologies

Apply the methods and concepts of qualitative research

Synthesize information from different sources and present it in an organised and meaningful report

Design and evaluate a qualitative research project

Formulate your own research agenda your doctoral studies


Evaluation

The RTU doctoral students will be evaluated on the basis of an individual course project of 2000 words that has the following requirements: identify a specific phenomenon to be studied

conduct a brief literature review

articulate a rationale for the use of qualitative methodology

select a qualitative tradition to study the identified phenomenon

create research questions and suggest data collection and data analysis methods.

Students are not required to conduct data collection and/or analysis. They should only recommend suitable methods.

This individual course project will be sent electronically to the lecturer in a Word (doc/docx) or Acrobat Reader (pdf) format at [email protected] by Monday 21/11/2011 18:00 GMT.


Systems, Research, Applied vs Basic


What is a system?

What is a system?

A system is a group of connected entities and activities which interact for a common purpose. e.g. the car is a system in which all the components operate together to provide transportation.

Easy answer – the story behind how something happens (e.g. why the house gets warmer when you turn on the thermostat)

Hard answer – What isn’t a system? Where does one end and another begin?


Open and closed systems

Closed – if you understand the parts you understand the system; probably not a critical human element

Open – the system is greater than the sum of the parts; critical human elements; interaction with the environment; difficult to draw a line where the system ends and other systems or environments begin


System characteristics

A Goal or Objective

Input

Process

Control

Feedback/Monitor

Output

Environment

Boundary


What determines the complexity of a system?

Number of elements

Interrelationship of elements

Interrelationship of system with other systems

Interrelationship of system with environment

Completeness of system knowledge

Completeness of environmental knowledge

Multiplicity and impact of perspectives

Extent of human element

Reality as perception

Unpredictability


A mechanical system


A manufacturing system

Manufacturing Process

Input of Raw Materials

Output of Finished Products

Environment

Other Systems

Control by Management

Control Signals

Control Signals

Feedback Signals

Feedback Signals

System Boundary


A socio-technical system

A system where humans and machines exist / work together, for instance in a production process.

Information systems in organisations are typically such systems

Developing such systems requires consideration to the needs of both machines and the humans.


A management system

Procedures

People

Facilities Software

Tools

Materials

Equipment


Entropy and information

Entropy ≈ a measurement of disorder

Information ≈ a measurement of order

There is always a difference in entropy between a system and its environment, since system means some kind of order.

Energy is required to maintain a system (the second law of thermodynamics)

Who provides that energy?


The strategy to see systems

“Divide et impera" represents the idea of splitting a large system into manageable components.


The cognitive process

UR 123 - The User shall...













SR 323 - The System shall...













Sequential Thinking

Spatial Thinking

Text Requirements

Modelling Support


What is research

Dictionary:

Scholarly or scientific investigation or inquiry.

Close, careful study.

To study (something) thoroughly so as to present in a detailed, accurate manner

Re-Search

Diligent inquiry or examination in seeking facts or principles; laborious or continued search after truth; as, researches of human wisdom.


Nature of research

Systematic – plan, identify, design, collect data, evaluate

Logical – examine procedures to evaluate conclusions

Empirical – decisions are based on data (observation)

Reductive – general relationships are established from data

Replicable – actions are recorded


Basic vs. applied research

Basic research – type of research that may have limited direct application but in which the researcher has careful control of the conditions

Applied research – type of research that has direct value to practitioners but in which the researcher has limited control over the research setting


Applied research

Applied research is concerned, first and foremost, with the usefulness and application of knowledge.

Its primary focus is on the production of knowledge that is practical and has immediate application to pressing problems of concern to society at large or to specific public or private research clients.

It is research that is designed to engage with people, organisations and interests and is aimed to inform human services, public policy, and other local, national, and international decision makers.


Applied research approach (Ackoff, 1962)

1. Formulating the problem

2. Constructing the model

3. Testing the model

4. Deriving a solution from the model

5. Testing and controlling the solution

6. Implementing the solution


Qualitative research basics


What is qualitative research?

Denzin and Lincoln (1994) define qualitative research:

Qualitative research is multi-method in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of or interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. Qualitative research involves the studied use and collection of a variety of empirical materials case study, personal experience, introspective, life story interview, observational, historical, interactional, and visual texts-that describe routine and problematic moments and meaning in individuals' lives.


Another definition

Qualitative research is an interdisciplinary, transdisciplinary, and sometimes counterdisciplinary field. It crosses the humanities and the social and physical sciences. Qualitative research is many things at the same time. It is multiparadigmatic in focus. Its practitioners are sensitive to the value of the multimethod approach. They are committed to the naturalistic perspective and to the interpretative understanding of human experience. At the same time, the field is inherently political and shaped by multiple ethical and political positions.

Nelson et al (1992, p.4)


…and another definition

Qualitative research is an inquiry process of understanding based on distinct methodological traditions of inquiry that explore a social or human problem. The researcher builds a complex, holistic picture, analyzes words, reports detailed views of informants, and conducts the study in a natural setting.

Creswell (1998, p.15)


Quantitative research definition

Quantitative research is concerned with identifying relationships between variables, and generalising those results to the world at large.

e.g. Winglets and carbon emissions?


How quan and qual see the world…


Qualitative research tools

Qualitative research involves the studied use and collection of

a variety of empirical materials - case study, personal

experience, introspective, life story, interview, observational,

historical, interactional, and visual texts-that describe routine

and problematic moments and meanings in individuals lives.

Deploy a wide range of interconnected methods, hoping

always to get a better fix on the subject matter at hand.


The Qualitative Researcher as Bricoleur

Bricoleur

A ‘Jack of all trades or kind of professional DIY person’

Produces a bricolage, that is a pieced together, close-knit set of practices that provide solutions to a problem in a concrete situation

The solution which is a result of the bricoleurs method is an emergent construction that changes and takes new forms as different tools, methods and techniques are added to the puzzle.


The Qualitative Researcher as Bricoleur uses the tools of his methodological trade.

The choice of research practices depends upon the questions that are asked, and the questions depend on their context, what is available in the context, and what the researcher can do in that setting.

The Bricoleur is performing a large number of diverse tasks ranging from interviewing to observing, to interpreting personal and historical documents, to intensive self-reflection and introspection.



The bricoleur understands that research is an interactive process shaped by his own personal history, biography, gender, social class, race, and ethnicity and those of the people in the setting.

The product of the bricoleur’s labour is a bricolage, a complex, dense, reflexive, collage-like creation that represents the researchers images, understanding and interpretations of the world or phenomenon under analysis.

The bricolage will connect the parts to the whole, stressing the meaningful relationships that operate in the situations and social worlds studied.



Qualitative research attributes

Less use of positivist or postpositivist perspectives

Acceptance of postmodern sensibilities

Capturing the individual’s point of view

Examining the constraints of everyday life

Securing rich descriptions


General characteristics of qualitative research

Bogdan and Biklen (1998) describe five general features of qualitative research:

The natural setting is a direct source and key element

Collection is in the form of words or pictures

Researchers are concerned with how things occur

Construction of a picture while data is being collected vs. knowing what to expect

Special interest in the participants’ thoughts


Qualitative vs. quantitative paradigms: understanding the difference

What can be known?

The ontological question

What is the relationship of the knower to that which can

be known?

The epistemological question

What are the ways of finding out knowledge?

How do we know the world or gain knowledge of it?

The methodological question


What can be known? (the ontological question)

Quantitative

There exists a single reality independent of any observer’s interest in it

Reality operates according to natural laws, many of which take cause-effect form

Qualitative

There are multiple socially

constructed realities

Realities are ungoverned

by any natural laws


What is the relationship of the knower to the known? (the epistemological question)

Quantitative

Objectivist

The observer is detached and excludes any values from influencing the phenomena

Qualitative

Subjectivist

Interactive - researcher and the researched are connected

Findings are a creation of the research process


How do we know the world or gain knowledge of it? (the methodological question)

Quantitative

Interventionist

Confounding influences are controlled to be able to converge on truth

Based on observation and measurement

Priori hypotheses

Deductive (general to particular)

Qualitative

Hermeneutic

A continuing dialectic of iteration, analysis, critique, reiteration…

Leads to joint construction of a case, phenomena and/or theory

Inductive (particular to general)


Quantitative Knowledge

Key Approach:

survey & experiment

Explanation

Prediction and control

Generalisation

Qualitative Knowledge

Key Approach:

interview & observation

Description

Sense making

Particularisation

Contextual

How do we know the world or gain knowledge of it? (the methodological question)



Table 1: Comparison among epistemological perspectives. From Koro-Ljungberg & Douglas (2008)


Phenomenology

Phenomenology seeks to provide a description of the key elements of a phenomenon.

New meaning can be obtained by laying bare the essential aspects of a particular experience and describing what are the common, key elements that make up that experience.

Therefore, in phenomenology researchers ask for a description of the phenomenon that is readily apparent to conscious minds. They do not attempt to describe how individuals arrived at a particular meaning for the experience.

Van Manen noted that phenomenology always involves retrospective reflection on an experience. “ A person cannot reflect on lived experience while living through the experience. For example, if one tries to reflect on one’s anger while being angry, one finds that the anger has already changed or dissipated ” (1990, p. 90).


Bracketing in phenomenology

The term “bracketing” is used to describe the attempt to set aside the meanings brought by both the researcher and the participants, in order to identify the true essence of the experience.

Thus, its goal is to identify the true essence of the experience, unfiltered by either the researcher or the person experiencing the phenomenon.


Constructivism

Constructivism examines the meanings individuals create to describe the world around them.

Meaning occurs as a result of the individual’s interaction with the world and the particular biases of that individual.

Therefore, what is known does not simply mirror the real world; rather, the meanings ascribed to the real world are created by individuals as they experience it.


Social constructionism

Similar to constructivism, and sometimes considered a subset of it, this perspective describes meanings as being socially constructed, as opposed to the individual construction of meaning in constructivism.

“…the focus here is not on the meaning-making activity of the individual mind but on the collective generation of meaning as shaped by the conventions of language and other social processes”

Meaning is created in a social context, through interactions between individuals.

Meaning reflects a shared sense of the world.


Symbolic interactionism

Symbolic interactionism focuses on how people act towards the world around them, based on the meanings that are socially constructed, but interpreted by the individual.

This perspective focuses on obtaining understanding by placing oneself in the place of the individual.

The focus is on understanding the interactions between people and the world, based on the meanings given to the world by that individual.

In contrast to social constructionism, symbolic interactionism is very much uncritical. The researcher accepts the meanings put into place by the culture and explores their implications.


Hermeneutics

Hermeneutics is primarily concerned with the analysis and interpretation of texts.

Interpretation proceeds through the hermeneutic circle, which can be used to describe the relationship between the text as a whole and its individual parts, between the object and the interpreter, and between the interpreter and the interpreter’s background


The role of epistemological perspectives

Why epistemological perspectives are important?

To ensure that research designs are consistent with the assumed view of reality and to make the epistemological perspective explicit in the reporting of the research so that readers will understand the context in which the research was conducted.


Example: industrial design teams operation

From a phenomenological perspective, the interest would center on the experience of being a part of a design team. The focus would be on describing what happens in a team and generating a description that captures the essence of how the team operates. The key question to ask would be: what are the essential elements of the experience of working in a design team?

From a social constructionist perspective, the interest would be on knowing how the design team creates a shared understanding of their activities, roles, or understanding of the design process. The researcher would want to ask the question: what are those understandings, and how did they develop?

From a critical perspective, the interest is with the power relationships in the design team. The researcher would be asking questions regarding how those power relationships were developed (formally or informally), how they influence the working of the group, and what effect they have on those seen not to be in power.


Research strategies


What is a research strategy?

A bundle of skills, assumptions, and practices that the researcher employs as he or she moves from paradigm to the empirical world.


Research strategies according to Creswell (2007)

Narrative

Phenomenology

Grounded theory

Ethnography

Case study


Research strategies according to Meriam (2007)

Basic interpretive

Phenomenology

Grounded theory

Case study

Ethnography

Narrative analysis

Critical research

Postmodern research


Research strategies according to Denzin and Lincoln (2005)

Case study

Ethnography/participant observation/performance ethnography

Phenomenology/ethnomethodology

Grounded theory

Life history

Historical method

Action and applied research

Clinical research


In this course

Ethnography

Phenomenology

Grounded theory

Case study


Ethnography

Ethnography is a description and interpretation of the cultural behaviour of a group. By culture is meant the behaviours, language, and social practices that define the unique aspects of that group. While one might typically think of a culture as referring to ethnicity or religion, any group (such as an institution or organisation), can be considered to have its own culture. Observation of a culture can be used to understand the meaning of the behaviour that occurs within that group.

Ethnography involves in-depth immersion by the researcher in the culture being studied. The researcher is often called a “participant-observer” in that the researcher becomes, as much as possible, a member of the group while at the same time collecting data. Data collection techniques involve interviews, collection of documents and other artifacts, and observations. Ethnographers often record their observations in a field notebook, where they can also record their personal thoughts and impressions. Analysis of the data involves both creating a description of the group’s behaviour as well as analysis of what that behaviour means.


A strict definition of ethnography…

The behaviour of the group is understood by understanding the culturally shared meanings within the group

The study is conducted to understand meanings from the perspective of the people in the group

The group is studied in its natural setting

The design evolves during the study, rather than being pre-defined

A variety of data collection techniques are used within a single study

Data collection occurs over a long period of time


Reading

Cognitive Chrono-Ethnography: A Method for Studying Behavioral Selections in Daily Activities

(Read INTRODUCTION in page 1)


Phenomenology

As an epistemological perspective, phenomenology seeks to identify the single, invariant essence of the lived experience.

Phenomenology as a research strategy involves a set of methods and analysis techniques that are used to identify that essence.


Procedural steps in phenomenology (Creswell, 2007)

1. An understanding of the philosophy of phenomenology, including the concept of bracketing, is needed.

2. Research questions are developed that are focused on having the participants describe their experiences.

3. Interviews are conducted with 5-25 participants who have experienced the phenomenon being investigated. The questions asked focus on how they have experienced the phenomenon and what contexts affect their experiences.

4. The data are analysed, typically by first dividing the transcripts into specific statements, clustering the statements based on psychological concepts, and then bringing these clusters together to create a general description of the experience.

5. The final description of the experience provides an understanding of the underlying, invariant structure that is common for all instances of the experience.


Readings

The constitutive behaviour of granular soils under repeated dynamic loading (Leuven Arenberg Doctoral School Science, Engineering & Technology)

Phenomenology, a Framework for Participatory Design (Read PHENOMENOLOGY, PARTICIPATION & INTERACTION pages 1-2)


Grounded theory

Theory generation from the ground up (data)

Theory that explores social processes – how people interact, take action, engage in response to a particular phenomenon


Ground theory attributes

Data collection and analysis occur simultaneously. As analysis occurs, missing elements are identified, which become targets for further data collection.

Data analysis proceeds through the constant comparative method, in which interview statements are coded, categorised and grouped to develop a theory.

Data collection proceeds until the categories are “saturated”, that is, until no new information is obtained with further data collection.

The theory developed is not necessarily high level theory. It is often what Creswell calls a “substantive-level theory”, which applies to the specific setting or context in which the data was collected.


Reading

Incorporating Discount Usability in Extreme Programming

Read RESEARCH METHOD and THE INTERVIEWS in page 5.


Case study

A case study is characterised by in-depth study of a bounded system.

The boundaries of the case may be defined in terms of time, space or participants. For example, a case may be a classroom, a particular event or an organisation. Within this broad definition of a case study, there are many possible approaches that can be taken, depending on the overall purpose of the study.

The intrinsic case study has as its focus an in-depth understanding of that particular case. The case is not chosen because it is representative of a more general phenomenon, but simply because it is interesting in and of itself.

The instrumental case study is chosen to provide insight into a more general phenomenon. The instrumental case may be chosen because it is representative of that phenomenon, or because it is unusual and provides a useful contrast to the typical case.

The collective case study involves study of several cases that, taken together, provide insight into the general phenomenon.


Case study characteristics

The case has boundaries. Even if the boundaries are not obvious, the researcher needs to define boundaries to limit the case.

The case is a particular example of something.

In analysis the researcher attempts to maintain the case as a single unit. At the same time however, there is often a focus on particular aspects of the case.

A variety of data types and data collection methods are used.


Another case study classification

In exploratory case studies, fieldwork, and data collection may be undertaken prior to definition of the research questions and hypotheses.

Explanatory cases are suitable for doing causal studies. In very complex and multivariate cases, the analysis can make use of pattern-matching techniques.

Descriptive cases require that the investigator begin with a descriptive theory, or face the possibility that problems will occur during the project. Descriptive theory must cover the depth and scope of the case under study.


Reading

A combined methodology for transportation planning assessment. Application to a case study

Read the ABSTRACT (page 1) and the CONCLUSIONS (pages 13-14)


Research design elements


The elements

Research topic and questions

Rationale and significance

Epistemological perspective

Conceptualisation

Literature review

Data collection methods

Analysis methods

Reporting method

Logistics and timeline


The qualitative research process

Identify the Research Question

Review the Literature

Write Report

Specify a Purpose and/or Question

Collect Data

Analyse & Interpret Data


The qualitative research process: the reality…

Identify the Research Question

Review the Literature

Write Report

Specify the Purpose and/or

Question Collect Data

Analyse & Interpret Data


Class activity

What is the problem definition and the research questions in your doctoral study?

Which epistemological perspective have you chosen and which research design?

Have you thought of the various design elements of your study? How do they fit in the categories identified (3.1.1-3.1.9)?


The qualitative research landscape

A Portrait

Individual Cultural Group

A Case

A Concept or Phenomenon

A Theory

(A Biography) An Ethnography

A Case Study

A Phenomenology

A Grounded Theory


Paldies!

Cпасибo!

Thank you!

Σας ευχαριστώ! (Sas efharistό)

Contact me at:

[email protected]

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