quaestus grozdanka bogdanovic · quaestus multidisciplinary research journal 1 quaestus grozdanka...

QUAESTUS MULTIDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH JOURNAL

1

QUAESTUS

NO. 2/ APRIL 2013 Editorial Board

HONORARY EDITORS: MOMCILO LUBURICI,

Professor PhD, President Founder of "Dimitrie Cantemir" Christian University Bucharest

CORINA ADRIANA DUMITRESCU, Professor PhD, Rector of "Dimitrie Cantemir" Christian University Bucharest

EDITORS IN CHIEF: CIPRIANA SAVA,

Associate professor PhD., "Dimitrie Cantemir" Christian University Bucharest, Faculty of Management in Tourism and Commerce Timişoara

LUIZA CARAIVAN, Associate professor PhD. "Dimitrie Cantemir" Christian University Bucharest, Faculty of Management in Tourism and Commerce Timişoara

CONSULTATIVE BOARD: MIRELA MAZILU,

Professor PhD. University of Craiova, Faculty of Social Sciences, D. T. Severin

GHEORGHE LEPĂDATU, Professor PhD., "Dimitrie Cantemir" Christian University Bucharest

ZORAN MARKOVIC, Professor PhD. University of Belgrad, Technical Faculty Bor, Serbia

GROZDANKA BOGDANOVIC, Professor PhD. University of Belgrad, Technical Faculty Bor, Serbia

ECATERINA PUTZ, Professor PhD. University of the West, Timişoara

MARIN BURTICĂ, Prof. PhD. West University, Timişoara

PUIU NISTOREANU, Professor, PhD. ASE Bucuresti

JOZSEF GAL, Associate professor PhD. Szeged University, Hungary

GABRIELA POHOAŢĂ, Associate professor PhD. "Dimitrie Cantemir" Christian University Bucharest

FILIP PAŢAC, Associate professor PhD. "Dimitrie Cantemir" Christian University Bucharest, Faculty of Management in Tourism and Commerce Timişoara

EMILIA GOGU, Associate professor PhD. Dimitrie Cantemir" Christian University Bucharest

DINA LUŢ, Associate professor PhD. UCDC Timisoara

CONSULTATIVE BOARD: MARIUS MICULESCU,

PhD. UCDC Timisoara MIHAELA LAZOVIĆ,

Professor PhD. The College of Hotel Management, Belgrade Serbia

LANGUAGE EDITORS: OANA IVAN,

PhD. candidate, University of the West, Timişoara, LUIZA CARAIVAN


2

ISSN 2285 – 424X

ISSN-L 2285 – 424X

Tiraj: 100 exemplare

Tipar: Editura Eurostampa, Timişoara Bd. Revoluţia din 1989, nr. 26

Tel./fax: 0256-204816 E-mail: [email protected]

www.eurostampa.ro

mailto:[email protected]

http://www.eurostampa.ro/


3

QUAESTUS

MULTIDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH JOURNAL


4

The QUAESTUS journal is published by the

FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT IN TOURISM AND COMMERCE

TIMIŞOARA

DIMITRIE CANTEMIR CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY

TIMIŞOARA, 2013

ISSN 2285 – 424X

Address: Str. 1 Decembrie, nr. 93, Timişoara, cod 300566, România

Phone: 0725923071

Fax: 0256-221355

E-mail: [email protected]

http://www.quaestus.ro/


5

Contents TOURISM AND CONSUMERISM ........................................................... 7

MINERAL WATERS AND RADIOACTIVITY Mircea Goloşie, Cipriana Sava .................................................................................................................... 9 NATIONAL AND TOURIST IDENTITY OF CITIES THE CASE STUDY OF BELGRADE Đorđe Čomić, Slavoljub Vićić ............................................ 15 TOURISM IN THE SMALL REGION OF FEHERGYARMAT AND ITS TOURISM VALUES Jozsef Gal, Katalin Szucs, Constanstantin - Dan Dumitrescu ....................................................................................................... 28 IMPLEMENTATION OF MARKETING IN RURAL TOURISM Ciprian Pavel ................................................................................................................. 36 STANDARDIZATION - THE STRATEGIC OPTIONS OF THE MODERN HOTEL INDUSTRY Novak M. Svorcan ....................................................... 43 CONSIDERATIONS ON THE STUDY OF CONSUMPTION AND CONSUMERS’ BEHAVIOUR Ecaterina Putz .............................................. 56 THE WICS MODEL OF LEADERSHIP: THEORY AND APPLICATION IN HOTEL MANAGEMENT Aleksandar Kontić .......................................... 63 REGIONAL AND NATIONAL SUSTAINABLE COMPETITIVENESS Horia Liviu Popa .............................................................................................. 71

EDUCATION AND CULTURE .............................................................. 83

LEARNING OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES AT COLLEGES OF HOTEL MANAGEMENT IN THE CONTEXT OF KNOWLEDGE APPLICATION IN PRACTICE Ljiljana Kosar, Mihaela Lazović, ........................................... 85 NEW PERSPECTIVES ON FORMAL AND INFORMAL LEARNING: A STUDENTS’ REPRESENTATIONS ANALYSIS Laura Ioana Coroamă .... 98 INTRODUCING THE MULTICULTURAL COMPETENCE TO UNIVERSITY STUDENTS Luiza Caraivan ................................................ 106 A PLEA FOR ECONOMIC HERMENEUTICS Gheorghe Băileşteanu, Anda Laura Lungu ......................................................................................... 112 WHY DO ROMANIANS SPEAK FOREIGN LANGUAGES SO WELL? Oana-Roxana Ivan ......................................................................................... 119

BOOK REVIEWS .................................................................................. 125

THE ENGLISH OF TOURISM Oana-Roxana Ivan ..................................... 127 TREASURES OF THE BANAT REGION BY VIOLETA TRIPA, ARISTIDA GOLOGAN – A TEXTBOOK Eliana Popeţi............................ 131


6


7

TOURISM AND CONSUMERISM


8


9

MINERAL WATERS AND RADIOACTIVITY

Mircea Goloşie

Cipriana Sava

Abstract: One of the important resources that can be found in Romania is mineral waters and thermal waters, some of them being known and exploited since Roman times. The use of these waters in spa tourism is conditioned by the properties of each reservoir and this is the reason why durability is essential. Spa tourism in Romania needs significant investments, reorganization and orientation towards spa and wellness. Key words: mineral waters, spa tourism, radioactivity, durability

Introduction A first step in towards the durable development of tourism would be

making people aware of environmental protection. It is a well known fact that tourism is based on the environment and durable tourism relies on the exploitation of tourist resources so that it satisfies tourists’ requirements, both at present and for future generations.

In order to have tourism develop towards this direction, plans are conceived in order to gather tourism agencies, people inhabiting a certain region and ecologists.

Spa tourism has been recorded for a very long time, as people’s health has determined its development. Mineral waters have been appreciated since Heracles, Herodotus and Aristotle’s times, who have also tried to describe the effects of these waters on people’s health.

In the Roman Empire mud baths were very usual, as were showers and inhalations to treat various wounds and tiredness caused by frequent battles and military campaigns.

Empirical knowledge has switched to scientific knowledge as far as the use of mineral and thermal waters are concerned. An attempt in this respect was made by the Swedish chemist Berzelius in the 18th century.

At present, the forms of this type of tourism have been improved, while the essence remains the same. Spa and wellness tourism are two major forms that use natural resources to treat various diseases. Spa tourism is based on the curative effect of mineral waters. The use of these waters is based on the quantitative and qualitative analysis of thermal and mineral waters.


10

Qualitatively speaking, total mineralization, the content of chemical elements and dissolved gases, emergency temperature, osmotic pressure and radioactivity are measured. Quantitatively speaking, we take into consideration the admitted deposits and the B or C balance category.

Mineral waters and radioactivity On Romanian territory there are numerous resources of mineral and

thermal-mineral waters which have various therapeutic indications. Some of them are known and exploited since ancient times.

The success of spa tourism has been a development factor for many regions in Romania. The procedures that are included in touristic offers are internal treatments – aerosols, mofette, and external – baths.

During the past ten years, there have been no correlations between the real situation of mineral water pools and their effect on people’s health. The economic advantages have been put forward and the scientific recommendations have been concealed. Thus, our studies show that:

- The majority of underground mineral waters have been affected by mining activities that have penetrated into pools and have affected the quality of water. However, abandoned mines do not represent a stop to the negative effect. Abandoning mining activities means that we can no longer control their effects.

- Rain water, which controls the level of phreatic mineral water, is exposed to pollution with nutrients, heavy metals or radioactive metals.

- Protected areas are no longer respected.

Analysis of bottled water supports our theory: - Gamma global 80 – 31.000 mβq/l - Β global = 220 – 2.470 mβq/l - Unat = 0,50 – 75 mβq/l - U238 = 0,35 – 35 mβq/l - Ra226 = 2 – 1000 mβq/l - Thnat = 0,05 – 5,5 mβq/l - Th232 = 0,04 – 4,4 mβq/l

There were many sources of water in areas that were declared mining areas. In many cases the water source became insufficient, but after the closing of mines water levels increased. Water proved to have a high concentration of radioactive elements. This phenomenon can be seen in many regions where there were mining exploitations.


11

The same changes occurred in the case of CO2 treatments – mofettes. Radioactive gases such as radon and thoron infiltrated in many underground sources of carbon dioxide. The infiltration has not been controlled, duet o the lack of balance produced by abandoned mines galleries.

The companies that bottle mineral water are faced with the issue of water contamination. However, they are protected by regulations that do not specify that technical descriptions should be compulsory. Our studies note the fact that some elements are not clear enough or are missing from the product label. Our calculations show that there are:

- Unat = 0,135 ± 0,03 µSv/year - Ra226 = 13,5 ± 10 µSv/year or - Unat = 12,5 ± 2 mβq/year - Ra226 = 9 ± 0,5 mβq/year

Fig. 1. Geo-thermal resources researched by drilling and areas for future research.

Map taken from Negoiţă, V (1970).

These are only some of the average values identified by our study. Maximum values are around 102. Comparatively, German regulations state that the uranium level should be 1µgr/l, which is much lower than Romanian regulations impose.


12

Another aspect is that of thermal waters. The drilling process started in 1885 at Baile Felix, at 51 meters deep, and identified underground thermal waters. In 1893, at Caciulata, and then, in 1902 at Timisoara the drilling process continued to identify thermal waters.

Capitalizing on geo-thermal water also included a project to use these waters for heating houses. However, the project stopped duet o the fact that pipes became filled with silt. Nevertheless, medical treatment remained the highest potential for these waters. The high content of radioactive gas is another issue. Outdoor pools should be filled with waters at maximum level. However, duet o the fact that the thermal water level is conditioned by consumption or weather conditions, the pools are filled with water below the maximum level (about 0.3 – 0.5 meters below), without taking into considerations the problems created by the accumulated radioactive gas.

Fig. 2. Conditions of accumulations of radioactive gases in a covered pool.

Fig. 3. Pool with thermal water at Baile Felix, Romania.


13

Radon and thoron are harmless if they do not enter the human body by inhalation or osmosis. The study that were carried on the health of people who work with thermal and radioactive waters shows that there is a high rate of diseases and deaths.

If we compare the map of aquatic potential with the map of mining exploitations and we add geothermal anomalies, we will conclude that studies should be made on radioactive substances in these areas. However, at the moment economic studies are a priority. Figure 4 shows an anomaly in the development of vegetation in radioactive waters.

Fig. 4. Vegetation in radioactive waters

Avoiding negative effects on tourists’ health should become a priority. In order to respond correctly and clearly to tourists’ questions about exposure to radioactive gases, two studies are necessary and urgent:

- Tourists’ exposure to all types of irradiation – medical, accidental, professional, involuntary;

- The real situation of medical treatments on necessary doctor prescriptions.

The nongovernmental organization “Hobby Club Jules Verne” has gathered numerous data on this issue and interdisciplinary studies are the basis for future researches.

Conclusions Measurements have indicated the fact that radioactivity in various

concentrations of mineral and thermal-mineral waters may constitute an issue for tourists’ health. Acknowledging real values of radoactivity offers the possibility to exploit waters accordingly, diminishing the dangers to which tourists and consumers of bottled water are exposed.


14

References Airinei S., 1987 Geothermics Applied to Romania]. Editura Stiinţifică şi

Enciclopedică, Bucureşti, Romania. Cohuţ I., Bendea C., 2000 Romania update report for 1995-1999. World

Geothermal Congress 2000, Japan. Negoiţă, V., 1970, Etude sur la distribution the temperatures en Roumanie,

Rev.Roun.geo1.geophys.géol.,serie geophys 14 ONG Hobby Club Jules Verne, baza de date proprie.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

CIPRIANA SAVA is Associate Professor at the Faculty of Management in Tourism and Commerce Timişoara, „Dimitrie Cantemir” Christian University. She holds a PhD. in Management and is the author of a large number of books, articles and studies in the field of tourism, regional and rural development. The latest titles are: Turismul industrial – o provocare actuală, Timişoara, Eurostampa, 2010, Turismul în contextul dezvoltării regionale durabile, Timişoara, Eurostampa, 2010. Cipriana Sava is also a member in „Asociaţia Româna de Ştiinţe Regionale” (ARSR), in the „European Regional Science Association” (E.R.S.A.), and in the „Science Association International” (RSAI).

MIRCEA GOLOŞIE, is an engineer in telecommunications. He has implemented the first integrated communication systems at “Politehnica” University in Timisoara. He has also developed transmission systems for remote areas, such as abandoned mines. He developed a system of mobile laboratories to research the contaminated areas. His interests include old engineering, paleo-engineering. He has published scientific articles and books on durable development. He is member of various international organizations and a specialist on emergency situations (DEF- Environmental Danubian Form; TIEMS - The International Emergency Management Society).


15

NATIONAL AND TOURIST IDENTITY OF CITIES

THE CASE STUDY OF BELGRADE

Đorđe Čomić

Slavoljub Vićić

Abstract: The paper explores some key aspects of postmodern urban theory, empirical aspects of the common identity of European cities, their importance for the development of intra-continental tourism, acculturation and process of integration. In the context of the theory of consumer society and the concept of "experience society", the cities are treated as producers of touristic experiences. Based on the accepted explanatory framework and criteria, the focus of research is on the particular case of Belgrade, which simultaneously possesses the national and European identity. The results of the research related to important events, attractions, associations and symbols, based on the opinion of foreign tourists, are presented using previously established methodology and empirical data. Then the Top 10 ranking tourist attractions of the Tourist Organization of Belgrade, and a list of ten most visited attractions by tourists, are critically analyzed. The mutual comparative analysis of Top 10 list of attractions in Belgrade by two foreign sites, and their comparative analysis with the previous list of TOB is also presented. In this way, by identifying the touristic focal points which stand out as key markers of hybrid - local and European identity of the capital of Serbia. Finally, based on the analysis of successful experiences of European cities, one can determine the main directions for the reconstruction of the identity of Belgrade, as well as the creation of its new brand and touristic image. Key words: Europe, cities, identities, tourism, Belgrade

Introduction Modern consumer society is the "experience society" in which the

meaning of life is seen in the constant succession of experiences, and in that context, almost all goods and services are promoted as generators of pleasant experiences. Today we can talk about a whole postmodern "phenomenology of consumer experience." The success of human existence is increasingly measured by the number and intensity of pleasant experiences that occur from the moment of birth until death. Analogously, tourism is a "hunt for experiences" too, and traveling itself is important event in human life and contributes to its enrichment. Experience is the main objective of tourist


16

travel, its psychological essence, as tourists embark on a journey constantly seeking new and different experiences that can’t be realized at home. In this context, the tourism product - the city, can also be defined as a generator of various experiences. The city produces, organizes and provides experiences to meet the identified needs of target market segments. The experience begins with a visual perception of tourist attractions and is linked to the aesthetic experience of the given built environment. Here is an inseparable blend of urban architecture, the attractiveness of the immediate environment in which it is located, as well as human activities that take place on site.

Cities are emerging as an important origin and destination of tourist flows, well integrated into the transportation network in the international and transcontinental levels.

They are the kind of space where it is very difficult to identify the tourist function. Namely, given the large number of urban functions, there is a methodological problem of precise separation of the tourists from other categories of visitors. For the tourist the cities are attractive not only because of cultural and architectural monuments, entertainment, shopping and nightlife, but for overall socio-cultural environment. The original tourism, promoted by Stendhal in France and Italy, was mainly an urban type, while the beaches, mountains and deserts came later. Today, cities make a significant share of the total tourist traffic of individual countries. The symbolic power of the cities for tourists is so strong that a large number of countries are mixed or equalized, with its capital and largest city. There are few tourists who will go to England and not to get around London, to France without seeing Paris, to Germany and not visit Berlin.

Hybrid urban identity and tourism The city is geographically specific phenomenon materialized and

localized in space. City is the subject of appropriation, has its limits and carries a name. It is a product of culture, a spatial unit in which a certain group of people lives, those people are inseparable from a given space (symbolism, history, language, identity). Today, in an era of global tourism, cities are increasingly internationally branded and are in competition with each other. They are in fact mutually differentiated on the basis of diversity of urban landscapes, geographical location, climate, culture, language, cuisine, etc. The city is a concept that encompasses the whole understanding of reality at a specific location (topos). Featuring localized characteristics, the city is a temporary result of a transformation of space, because it is always developing.


17

The identity of the city is its uniqueness, originality, inherent characteristics (differentia specifica). All that makes up its inner being or essential identity (genius loci), and relies on the size, shape, geographical coordinates, social life, people, atmosphere, rhythm of life, symbolic value, material and spiritual heritage, present and future. However, the core identity is inseparable from relations with other cities, because the process of comparison comes to what makes it different from other cities in the narrower or wider environment and the world. The "comparative analysis of the city identity" can be done in two ways: 1) From within - by the very people living in the city who have traveled the world as tourists and compared their own city with all other cities that they have seen; 2) From outside - by visitors and tourists from many countries coming to a city and comparing it with the city from which they came, and with all the other cities that they have previously visited. From comparative analysis and cross data obtained in this way one can get an objective view of the city's identity or identify the degree of its similarities and differences compared to other cities, its strengths and weaknesses as a tourist attraction. Analyzing the complexity of the notion of identity Stojković (1993:17) argues that: "The dialectical nature of identity is reflected in the fact that it identifies and distinguishes, because one individual (human or group) is identical to other individuals (groups) only if different from other individuals (groups)". So each identity, collective or individual, including the identity of cities and tourist destinations, is based on the existence of the opposite, antipodes, different others.

Although the identity is often based on "constant" elements (Šešić, 2002:21): material heritage, institutions, stable traditional forms of human behavior, the new cultural policy at the same time have to take care of the most valuable cultural achievements - they are in a constant process of transformation and make the city alive and active organism, interesting for the settlement or frequent visits. According to the Foot (2001), in contemporary cultural life, myths and legends, memories that were formed for centuries in European cities, are not only used as part of a cultural policy for the preservation of cultural heritage or "cultural tourism" in various forms, but even more in the process of "branding" that is developed in order to qualify the city as a product. In this context, programs are created with the aim to encourage "European identity", for example the program "European Capital of Culture" is often used to promote a positive image as well as new urban myths, to restore the identity of individual cities.

Cities are the basis and reference for creation of individual and collective identity, or religious (Rome, Jerusalem, Mecca), national (Dublin,


18

Barcelona, Bilbao) and trans-national cultural identity (Brussels, London, New York, Toronto). They use the collective memory and media, including cultural references: political symbols, events, monuments, churches, institutions, etc. Cities are strong source of local and national identity, and because of this, they are very attractive for tourism (tourists are commonly found in the role of outside observers, and rarely accept active participation and immersion in local identity and interaction with the culture of the population).

Observation of cities in a different way, as pointed out by Radošević (2009: 220), becomes apparent in late 80's, when the European Union had taken a series of studies on European cities. These studies located the cities in the regional context and analyzed the specific urban factors that accounted for some of them to be more successful than others. Urban and regional analysis, over the next decade, pulled the discourse of globalization which made a great impact. The literature on the world system "pulls" the cities from the previous national and local context and places them in the new global network. The special character of European urban regions becomes apparent through the interpretation of globalization.

A growing number of cities in the world seek to differentiate their own brand and image to enhance their unique identity, in order to leave a better impression of their own citizens, but also to attract and impress visitors by providing a wide range of visual, aesthetic and other experience. With that in mind, tourism has a growing impact on urban aesthetics, urban design and architectural features of the built environment. In this context, the visual approach to planning, places an emphasis on impressive monumental buildings and capital structures as a major pole of attraction (touristic "focal point" or "spatial nuclei") to visitors.

Monumental architecture with broad axes, vistas and boulevards, large squares (Place de la Concorde in Paris, Unter den Linden in Berlin), with strong symbolic meaning, grouped historical, religious and iconic building (Sagrada Familia in Barcelona, Opera in Paris, the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, the Reichstag in Berlin), museums (the Louvre in Paris, the Prado in Madrid) street scenes (socio-cultural appeal of the space), are all the favorite tourist attractions. Finally, tourists are very attracted by historic centers and the core of some cities (Florence, Venice, Prague), modern cities and parts of cities (Brasilia, Defense) or some post-modern cities that are created as a tourist attraction and a spectacle in itself (Las Vegas).

Tourism emerges as one of the many complementary functions of each city, particularly global cities and large towns that have a high tourist attraction in themselves, but also a great symbolic significance, as incarnated


19

and represent the spirit, history and culture of the entire nation (Rome, Paris, London, Berlin, Prague etc.). Big cities are also the great generators of demand, as well as very important tourist destination (receptive centers), whose appeal is based not only on the architecture and the cultural and historical monuments, but also on many other aspects such as cultural environment, events, business tourism, night life, entertainment, shopping, etc. Here, tourism is in complementary and synergistic relationship with other economic sectors and functions of the city.

Tourism reconstructs, restores and "resurrects" places that are in the economic and demographic decline (Venice, Bruges). It, in fact, brought "new life" to the neglected, or abandoned places and objects, replacing the old industries (failed due to the exhaustion of natural resources on which they are based or the occurrence of new technologies that have done them obsolete and unnecessary) with tourism as a new dominant or unifying activity that encourages the development of numerous complementary economic sectors. In this context, it is particularly important to point out that tourism is an "environmentally clean" activity, alternative to "dirty industries" which left a certain vacuum and discontinuity in the process of economic and social development.

Finally, tourism leads to the gradual removal of borders and differences between tourist places in receptive countries and non-tourist places in the emitting countries. This occurs due to the simultaneous action of two convergent processes. The first is related to the transfer of culture and civilization standards from generating to receptive countries and places in the context of globalization and international tourism. The second relates to the tourists, who travel abroad more and more often, and each time return to the place of residence from which they started, bringing back new experiences and knowledge eager to apply at home. The imported "aesthetics of vacation" change the urban environment of generating countries - return homogenization ("boomerang effect" of tourism). This feedback effect operates within Europe as a result of intense intra-continental tourist movement between cities, which often leads to a mutual takeover and to imitation (benchmarking), leading to the homogenization of urban space.

However, each city strives to maintain its original identity and to differentiate its own tourism product and image in relation to other competing cities. With that in mind, the case study of Belgrade will be analyzed.

Belgrade is in the "crisis of identity" as a former capital of communist Yugoslavia and now as the capital of post-communist Serbia. The city still


20

has a negative global image and the search for a new identity and different image is necessary.

Belgrade’s identity between Balkan and Europe Belgrade is in the "crisis of identity" as a former capital of communist

Yugoslavia and now as the capital of post-communist Serbia. The city still has a negative global image and the search for a new identity and different, better image is necessary. Serbia, often condemned by the International community as the "main culprit" regional state (the breakup of former Yugoslavia, civil wars in Croatia and Bosnia, the criminalization of society, the assassination of Prime Minister Đinđić, (non)cooperation with War Crime Tribunal in Hague, conflict and the unresolved status of Kosovo etc.), still bears the geopolitical "stigma" within Europe and beyond, on a planetary scale. Belgrade, the capital of the globally “notorious country”, represents its synonym, symbol and quintessence of everything that Serbia is, both in positive and negative sense. As Serbia is still not completely free of the negative political and tourist image, Belgrade bears the consequences of that in amplified form, because the capital city is for most foreigners the "head" of Serbia, as is the case with other major cities (Paris - France, Berlin - Germany, Moscow - Russia etc.).

When it comes to tourist attractions of Belgrade per se, it is evident that it does not have significant number of material remains of the past like cultural-historical monuments, monumental buildings, squares, ambient units, and other strong focal points that would be attractive to tourists. The destruction of the city throughout history has led to its "de-materialization", so it lost much of the material remains of the past, and the tourist offer of this kind is quite scarce. At the same time, there is neither impressive examples of the contemporary architecture with aesthetic and artistic value attractive for tourists. Unfortunately, some of the most attractive tourist nuclei in the urban fabric are a couple of monumental buildings destroyed during the NATO bombing, which have not yet been restored. They represent the paradigm of aforementioned dematerialization of the city.

From the comparative analysis with other capital cities in Europe, it can be concluded that these cities are more attractive than capital of Serbia. Belgrade, of course, can’t possibly compete with Paris, Rome, Berlin or Prague, it can’t be measured even with Budapest or Bucharest, but it may be more equal in the market race with some cities in the region which are in "the same competitive league," as Zagreb, Sarajevo, Skopje, Sofia and Tirana. Belgrade must, above all, keep the realistic approach in search for possible options, and in this context try to achieve ultimate goals. The


21

prerequisite for this is a critical insight into current state and comparative analysis between Belgrade and other major cities of Europe, as well as access to case studies of cities that have found a successful formula for identity reconstruction, as well as building a positive image and new brand.

There are many dilemmas and concerns about the current identity of Belgrade and its tourist image. So it is necessary to study all relevant research that can contribute to the better understanding of its identity. In this context, a very interesting study of Belgrade’s identity is conducted by Bojana Bursać (2002:273-291). The author explores the perception of identity through different dimensions (collective memory, the physical environment, the relation between the past and present, symbols etc.) and from different angles (the inhabitants of Belgrade, city's representatives in the field of art, culture, education, media and marketing and domestic and foreign tourists). For purposes of this paper only the perception of the identity of Belgrade by the foreign tourists is taken from her research, as it is the only relevant angle when it comes to the tourist image of the city in Europe and the world (all results shown below are expressed in percent).

Historical events by which Belgrade is known to tourists from abroad: 1) NATO bombing in 1999. 29.4; 2) Fifth October 2000, 14.7; 3) Period of Communism 11.8, 4) The wars in Belgrade, 8.8, 5) Turks in Belgrade 5,9; 6) No answer 29.4.

Major tourist attractions in the opinion of foreign tourists: 1) Ambient of Belgrade - Belgrade Fortress 24,5; 2) Entertainment in Belgrade - Skadarlija with bars 18,4; 3) Culture and Museums, 14.3, Museum of Contemporary Art 10,2 , Belgrade and foreign cultural centers 6.1; 4) The parts outside the city center of Belgrade - Zemun with the Danube 8.1; 5) Buildings destroyed during bombing in 1999. 6.1; 6) The natural surroundings of Belgrade - Ada 4.1; 7) Other 8.2.

The first association in connection with Belgrade for tourists from abroad: 1) City of fun and enjoyment (including enjoyment in food) 33.3; 2) The bombing of Belgrade in 1999. 22.2%; 3) The former Yugoslavia 22.2; 4) Sava confluence into the Danube 22.2; 6) Other 0.1.

Belgrade is famous, according to foreign tourists, by: 1) Night life and bars 20,6; 2) Danube, 7.7; 3) Slobodan Milošević and the wars of 7.7; 4) Josip Broz Tito 14.7; 5) Citizens of Belgrade 11.7; 6) Belgrade fortress 8.8; 7) No answer 8.8.

The symbols of Belgrade in the opinion of foreign tourists: 1) Belgrade Fortress 27,4; 2) Skadarlija and bars 13,6; 3) Church of St. Sava


22

13.6; 4) Monument to Prince Mihajilo on Republic Square 13,6; 5) Cyrillic 9.1; 6) Destroyed buildings 9.1; 7) No answer 13.6.

The results of presented research indicate some positive and negative aspects of identity and tourist image of Belgrade in the eyes of foreign tourists. On the positive side (italics) are: fun and pleasure of the city nightlife (bars, clubs, floating restaurants, Skadarlija), Belgrade Fortress (Kalemegdan), Saint Sava Temple, the monument to Prince Mihajilo on Republic Square, a convenient location at the confluence of the Sava and Danube, city residents and institutions of culture (museums, galleries, cultural centers). On the negative side (underlined) are: NATO bombing and destroyed buildings, Slobodan Milosevic and the civil wars that are associated with him, the period of communism and the Turks in Belgrade. However, just to list the positive and negative elements of identity and image of the city in the eyes of foreign tourists is not sufficient to estimate the tourist value of Belgrade. In order to achieve this, it is necessary to conduct a research related to "the intensity of each tourist attraction" (using the scale of 1 to 5, for example), whether it has positive or negative connotations. For example, the remaining buildings destroyed by bombing in 1999. have a negative connotation, but they may have a greater intensity of attraction for foreign tourists than any other attraction in the city that has a positive connotation. Using this approach we can obtain, not only quantitative evaluations of individual attractions, but the overall tourist attractiveness of the city. In this context, of course, data on the number of visitors who visit each of the touristic focal points in the city are also very important.

The issues of Belgrade identity and its main tourist attractions are the subject of research of other tourism organizations in the country and abroad. For example, according to research completed by TOB (Tourist Organization of Belgrade, 2011/2012) the most popular Top 10 tourist attractions in the city are:

Top 10 attractions of Belgrade by the choice of TOB: 1) Belgrade Fortress; 2) Republic Square; 3) Topčider park; 4) Temple of Saint Sava; 5) Royal Palace - White Palace; 6) Skadarlija; 7) Ada Ciganlija; 8) Zemun - Gardoš; 9) Mount Avala and 10) Rivers Sava and Danube.

Top 10 attractions of Belgrade by the choice of tourists: 1) Shopping Center "Ušće"; 2) House of Flowers; 3) Ruined buildings in the NATO bombing; 4) Strahinjića Bana Street; 5) Stadiums of FC "Crvena Zvezda" and "Partizan"; 6) Floating restaurants; 7) Saint Sava Temple; 8) Rivers Sava and Danube; 9) Avala and 10) Ada Ciganlija.


23

Comparative analysis of the ten most important tourist attractions of Belgrade recommended by TOB, and those most visited by tourists, shows certain gap between the image that relevant tourist institutions want to project to the public and most visited attractions by tourists. In fact, only four attractions recommended by TOB are on the preferred list by tourists (indicated in italics). In contrast, some very important attractions such as the Belgrade Fortress (Kalemegdan), Republic Square, the White Palace and Skadarlija are not on the list of attractions that most tourists visit, but there are other attractions that are objectively less valuable, such as: Shopping Centre "Ušće", House of Flowers, buildings destroyed in NATO bombing, stadiums of FC "Crvena Zvezda" and "Partizan" and Floating restaurants. From the comparative evaluation of these two Top 10 lists, it can be concluded that TOB advised important historical, cultural and artistic attractions worth much more than those which are visited by tourists. Consequently, the "superiority" of the first list, and the "inferiority" of second one is evident: Belgrade Fortress - Shopping center "Confluence"; Republic Square - Buildings destroyed in NATO bombing; White Palace - Stadiums of FC "Crvena Zvezda" and "Partizan"; Skadarlija - Floating restaurants, etc. It is apparent that TOB seeks to promote and recommend the most valuable cultural, artistic and ambient nuclei that will best represent the idea of the city. In contrast, it seems that the tourists in Belgrade are not interested in high culture and history, but they are much more interested in "more practical and hedonistic" aspects of tourism such as shopping, sports, entertainment, pleasure and nightlife.

In recent years, the local media in Belgrade, often with undisguised "pride", quoted the writing of the London "Guardian" that Belgrade is on the radar of Western European music fans, while the best known site for backpackers offtrackplanet.com included Serbian capital on the list of Top10 destinations in the category of best entertainment. Many pepole speculate, as Letričin (2011:88-90) believes, that the popularity of Belgrade "as the top place to party" is due to well-known festivals, but the fact is that there are 2500 taverns in town too. The only thing that Belgrade does not lag behind in comparison to other European capitals are places to go out, night life stops and places to party, because of the enormous choice of cafes, clubs, bars, pubs, discotheques, floating restaurants, concerts and festival. However, the night life and shopping attracts mostly tourists from the countries of former Yugoslavia (Bosnia, Croatia, Montenegro, Macedonia) and Bulgaria and Romania, but not the tourists from Western Europe.

The choice of Top 10 tourist attractions of Belgrade is made also by some well-known specialized international tourist sites.


24

Top 10 attractions of Belgrade (www.tripadvisor.uk): 1) Belgrade Fortress;

2) Belgrade Zoo; 3) Bicycle paths; 4) Skadarlija; 5) Temple of Saint Sava; 6) Ada Ciganlija;

7) Church of St.Petka; 8) The National Theatre; 9) St.Mark's Church and 10) The river Danube.

Top 10 attractions of Belgrade (www.igougo.com): 1) Kalemegdan; 2) National Museum; 3) Belgrade Fortress; 4) Ethnographic Museum; 5) Tesla Museum; 6) Princess Ljubica Palace; 7) Avala; 8) Old Belgrade and its attractions; 9) Knez Mihailova Street, and 10) City tour.

From the parallel survey of the above two sites, it can be seen that the selection and hierarchy of attractions are not the same. The lists overlap only in terms of the Belgrade Fortress, while all other attractions are different. When each of these two lists is compared with the choice of Top 10 attractions by TOS, we get divergent results too. List www.tripadvisor.uk site overlaps with a list of TOB in terms of five attractions, namely in 50% (Belgrade Fortress, Skadarlija, the Temple of Saint Sava, Danube and Ada Ciganlija) while the other 5 attractions are not on the list (completely different attractions are recommended).

The selection of the ten most important attractions of the site www.igougo.com is overlapping even less with the list TOB, only 20% or 2 attractions (Belgrade Fortress and Avala), while all other recommended attractions are completely different. Bearing this in mind, we can conclude that the choice of the most important attractions in Belgrade is very different depending on the criteria, which means that we should always bear in mind the relative, changing and dynamic nature of these lists. In that sense Belgrade (TOS) must constantly monitor the variations of taste of tourists, as well as the foreign websites and their perception of Belgrade, and make a new Top 10 list every year, adapted to tourist demand.

Finally, the question is what about some of the most important streets in Belgrade, through which many tourists pass, those streets are tourist attractions themselves? As an illustrative example, we can take two streets in Belgrade. On the one hand, we have Skadarlija, as a typical form of organized, pseudo-authentic space that is intended for tourists, where everything is subordinated to their needs in the retro style of the old bohemian life that no longer exists. Skadarlija is actually kitschy, romanticized nostalgic attempt to “freeze the time” or reconstruct the past.

Bearing in mind that it does not maintain the spirit of the past times, nor the spirit of contemporary Belgrade, we can say that it is just "empty shell" from which the true bohemian life is totally sucked out and dead. This


25

is an artificial and inauthentic tourist area, bad imitation with very weak links with the past, which is gradually transformed into Baudrillard’s "simulacrum". In contrast, Knez Mihajlova Street is the main pedestrian zone of the city, with foreign branded apparel shops, book stores, perfumeries and fashionable cafes, reflecting the actual aspirations of the city towards Europeanization. However, in recent years degradation of the epicenter of the city occurred, because of the numerous shops, department stores, cafes and restaurants closed their doors (the former Department stores "Beograd” - “NAMA” and “Mitić”, restaurant "Queen of Greece," and numerous other smaller shops). The causes of this degradation, depletion, and re-Balkanization of Knez Mihajlova Street, are multiple: excessive rents for commercial space, reduced purchasing power and demand, competition from major shopping centers "Ušće", "Delta City" and others outside the city center and with large parking area. They attract a growing number of customers and influence the change in consumer habits. Finally, in addition to the growing number of dilapidated, abandoned and derelict shops in Knez Mihajlova Street still exist various legal and illegal vendors offering fake French perfumes, umbrellas, ice cream, postcards, jewelry, souvenirs and various knick-knack. This is an authentic, semi-organized tourist area that reflects the local socio-cultural and economic realities and specific genius loci. If a tourist leaves the pedestrian zone and continue towards Sremska Street, subway passage Zeleni Venac and the green market, he will find heaps of illegal dealers of textile and other goods, thus reinforcing the impression of disorganization, chaos, vibrancy and authenticity. From this example, it appears that the city authorities do not always have to "embellish" city streets to make them more attractive for tourists, because the authentic, unedited parts of the city are often more attractive to them. Grooming street by the western model should be a consequence and a reflection of the needs of local people too, and not tourists only. If Belgrade residents have a genuine need to regulate the city and the streets for themselves, not for tourists, then they will experience the streets as authentic reflection of local culture, not as a backdrop, "Potemkin village" or bad provincial imitation of the European cities.

Conclusion Thus, the brand and tourist image of each city must be based on its

authentic identity. Identity, however, is not a given and immutable category, it can be corrected, improved and radically changed in accordance with the spirit of the time, the population’s needs and demands of the tourist market. In the process of (re)construction of identity, it is necessary to critically


26

examine the past and present, so that they are adequately integrated into the vision of the desired identity which is to be constructed in the future. European cities are very different (Lisbon - Salzburg, Madrid - Berlin, Athens - Copenhagen, etc.) so in a way, what connects them is the diversity, which is a significant competitive advantage when it comes to tourism because the "difference" is its main resource. In this context, some cities are "inert", because their efforts are concentrated towards maintaining the existing unique identity on which they built a high-ranking tourist image (Venice, Florence, Prague), while other cities are "dynamic" because they seek to transform and radically change their existing identity like Berlin, Barcelona or Bilbao. As Belgrade also falls into the category of cities with “problematic identity”, it is necessary that it builds its own vision and branding strategy for construction of future identity and image by using the successful experiences of other cities. To achieve this goal all national and local potentials must be engaged. Their creative ideas should be incorporated into long-term strategy to meet the aspiration of local people and expectations of tourists.

References Bauman, Z. (1998) Globalization - The Human Consequences, New York,

Columbia. Bursać, B.(2009) Prikaz teorijskih modela u definisanju identiteta grada, Kultura

122-123, Beograd, Zavod za proučavanje kulturnog razvitka. Bursać, B. (2009) Istraživanje identiteta Beograda, Kultura 122-123, Beograd,

Zavod za proučavanje kulturnog razvitka. Gerva, S. - Rose, F.(2010) Mesta Evrope, Beograd, Biblioteka XX vek. Čomić, Đ.(2000) Putovanje kroz geopanoptikon, Beograd, SCUUH. Litričin, L. (2011) Beogradske atrakcije, Hotel, br. 24, Beograd, Press Dub. Liszewski, S.(2007) Tourism spaces and their transformations, Arnhem, Atlas

Reflections . Mamford, L. (2010) Kultura gradova, Novi Sad, MediTerran Publishing Morin, E. (1989) Kako misliti Evropu, Sarajevo, Svjetlost . Paliaga, M. (2007) Branding & konkurentnost gradova, Rovinj, Samostalna

naklada. Rabotić, B. (2011) Selektivni oblici turizma, Beograd,VTŠ. Richards, G. (2007) Globalisation, localisation and culture tourism,

Arnhem,ATLAS. Smith, M. (2006) Thirdspace and the city: Urban transformation and tourism,

Transformation of tourist spaces, Arnhem,ATLAS. Strategija razvoja turizma grada Beograda, (2008) sažetak, radna verzija, Beograd,

Institut ekonomskih nauka (IEN).


27

Šešič, M.D. (2009) Kultura u funkciji razvoja grada, Kultura 122-123, Beograd, Zavod za proučavanje kulturnog razvitka.

Vasiljević. A. (2009) Kreiranje identiteta, »brendiranje grada, Kultura 122-123, Beograd, Zavod za proučavanje kulturnog razvitka.

Urry, J. (1990) The Tourist Gaze, London, Sage. Urry, J. (2000) Consuming Places, London, Routledge. Ward, W. (1998) Selling Places, London, Routledge.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Dr. ĐORĐE ČOMIĆ, (College of Hotel Management, Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected]) full professor, published about 90 articles, projects and books in the field of sociology, psychology and geography of tourism. He got his doctor’s degree (1982) from the Department of Tourism at Belgrade University. He had two specializations abroad: at the Institut Internationale de Glion and the Université de Paris I, Sorbonne. He now works as a professor at the Department of Geography, Tourism and Hotel Management in Novi Sad and at the College of Hotel Management in Belgrade. He is a head of Research and Development Center of the CHM and Editor-in-chief of scientific magazine Hotellink.

Dr. SLAVOLJUB A. VIĆIĆ, (College of Hotel Management, Belgrade, Serbia)

born in Ćićevac 1957, lives and works in Belgrade as a full professor and director of the College of Hotel Management. After graduating from the Faculty of Law, University of Belgrade, he obtained a degree of Master of Law and a doctorate in Law. He is the author and coauthor of several scientific papers in the area of law, sociology and tourism.



28

TOURISM IN THE SMALL REGION OF FEHERGYARMAT AND ITS TOURISM VALUES

Jozsef Gal

Katalin Szucs

Constanstantin - Dan Dumitrescu

Abstract: The level of economic development depends on the traditions, education, culture and needs of a population living in the same area. However, it is important what kind of culture is born or being strengthened in a region. Regarding the traditional folk culture, some areas, namely the less-developed regions can be in a better situation: it is more difficult to drift away from the roots, from the precious traditions. It can happen in this case that despite globalization, sometimes even traditional values are supported, too. Thus, they are not destroyed but the old scenes and customs of life are sustained making a balance between old and new. It is important to keep lasting values alive, which have proved something, and also to intermediate knowledge for others, even for the new generations. This article is aiming to describe the Small Region of Fehergyarmat as one of the most outstanding bases of rural tourism, and also to show how opportunities can be enlivened in the border village tourism.

Introduction „One of the determinant elements and trends of Hungary’s future can

be the network of tourism-centered small regions which reestablish not only society but also life world thus becoming more intelligent.” (Czinkota 2002) In this context, it can be said that the tourism, recreation and leisure services are playing important or increasingly important role in the rural economies. (Kis 2006)

It is not enough to state the intention and the will since the realization itself depends on the conditions and possibilities of each region, all in all, on the small regions. In addition, chances of the small regions depend on partly their role in space structure, their natural and social-economic positions. Those who come to this area today or visit their paternal home can hardly recognize it. Once it brought up writers and poets like poets Kolcsey, Moricz and Petofi who willingly passed their time here, in this land.

This world is a different world now but people living here could remain themselves. Though, it is true that the space of living and the look of the settlements have changed, the nature’s beauty stayed there unchanged


29

and perhaps that is why it became one of the favorite recreation destination of tourists.

Today tourism is said to be the voyage to future which became present where in several places the new world makes interactive participation possible. (Varga 2002)

Picture no 1, Geographical position

Source: www.fehergyarmatiterseg.hu

People need to get to know the life in a village which has brought rural tourism into life, as today’s obvious tourism product and which operates it as an important element of rural development.

We are planning to examine tourism and tourism values of the Small Region of Fehergyarmat and to put it into the public attention.

Description of the small region of Fehergyarmat This region is shown on the map as a part of the Upper Tisza Area. The

people living here also call „Erdohat” the area with gallery forests between the former Ecsedi-marsh to the river Tur. (The integrated program of regional development, rural development and environmental management in the Small Region of Fehergyarmat (2005).

People, the local community have always attached to the natural surroundings. In this respect, rural tourism gives the opportunity to live on, thus improving life quality for people living in villages. It also intends to


30

make values of the families in villages visible and available for the environment. Moreover, it offers a chance of co-operation. It provides those interested in rural tourism with the feeling of value-experience. This study also refers to the tradition-centered tourism of this small region. It examines what importance the tradition-preserving and developing program have in protection and formation of identity in the cultural complex which survived different periods of history and which preserves the importance of the village. (Csorgo 2002) On the other hand, rural tourism reveals the natural beauty of the border areas and the one beyond them, too. It gives the chance for mutual presentation of villages which preserve and develop traditions. It helps them sell their products, promotes international meetings and strengthens co-operation.

In order to maintain themselves in the period of financial problems the settlements of the small regions have united which resulted in the birth of the Small Region of Fehergyarmat. This region abounds in both natural and tourist sights; it is a paradise for water-lovers. The crystal clear water of the Tisza, the monuments of tiny villages hidden in the bends, the romantic atmosphere of the river Tur all offer the opportunity for an active recreation for tourists flying from the noisy towns. (Sights in County Szabolcs-Szatmar-Bereg 2004)

The number of settlements of the small region situated in the eastern part of the country is 49. It is typical that in this group of small villages the number of population does not reach 500 in 17 settlements. Its only small town is Fehergyarmat, which is the centre of the small region, the population of which is 8800 people. The second largest settlement is Tunyogmatolcs with its population of 2700. Only other 5 settlements exceeds the level of 1000 inhabitants. This kind of group of settlements is unique on the Hungarian Plain. (Regional development program of the Small Region of Fehergyarmat, 2005)

The biggest problem of the region is the low level of employment. Though the proportion of the unemployed shows a decreasing tendency at the county level, but actually it is well over the national one.

Regarding the educational level this area has the highest proportion of those who could not complete their primary education, the rate of those who finished the 8 grades is the lowest in the country, and finally, the proportion of those who have a school-leaving exam is also the lowest here. (Regional development program of the Small Region of Fehergyarmat, 2005)

In Fehergyarmat a hospital with 237 beds attends the inhabitants of the region. People living here can reach the capital, which is 300 km away, from Fehergyarmat in 4 hours, by train it is 4 hrs and 45 min with changing the


31

trains once. There is no direct train or coach line from Fehergyarmat to the capital.

Each settlement is provided with system of water and gas-pipes. The electricity-provider is EON Zrt. The network of fixed telephones is provided by T-Com Zrt. The mobile telephone service is fully covered. Most settlements have cable television, internet access.

At county level the sewage disposal is the least solved here. The waste management is solved only partly. It is not typical here to collect selectively. (Szucs K. 2010)

Tourism in county Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg The most frequently related expressions are „dark Szabolcs”, „the

black train”, unemployment. The poorest and the most underdeveloped region of the country. Flooding, inner waters, prejudices all can be found here.

However, those who make a visit here, in the easiest part of the country are surprised very much. Dynamic, developing small towns, a prospering county seat, clean, neat tiny villages, almost untouched nature, population welcoming tourists. (Sights in Hungary, 2001)

Picture no. 2, Natural values


32

Conditions of tourism can be considered as average ones. It is far from the capital and the western border so it is in a disadvantageous situation. The traffic across the border is lively and busy but the main motivation is neither tourism nor recreation but shopping. It involves short time of staying here, and it is of low tourism spending. So do not give the transit of tourism revenue, a significant part (Zsoter B. 2007).

Rivers (Tisza, Szamos and Tur) are significant factors in the tourism of the county building on which water tourism of increasing significance is forecast.

Tourism situation of the small region of Fehergyarmat and its intention for rural development In Hungary rural tourism got a new push at the end of the 80s.

Nowadays people in villages are getting more and more interested in tourism in the small regions. The tourists’ desire, which is not at home. Love nature and peace and quiet (Zsoter B. 2006). This „feeding” to rural tourism has more reasons: on one hand, unemployment is very high and this form of tourism offers some employment, on the other hand, people who live on farming can complete their income with it. Thirdly, even ventures try to gain benefit from rural tourism.

People running away from their everyday life look for their physical-mental recreation in the frame of tourism. They feel that life in the countryside provides town people with mental refreshment. The experience shows that the future is in the hand of people living in regions which preserve and improve traditions. In this region the tradition still preserves the collective memory of communities, and also it is the treasury of material, spiritual and cultural resources.

What we call tradition industry is getting shape: conscious improvement of traditions, what is more invention of new ones. Thus promotion of traditions is realized in parallel with establishment of traditions. These people not only utilize the advantages of globalization but also they are able to reorganize, reconstruct themselves grabbing to their cultural roots. They are striving to inform other people about holidays, events, local folk costumes, craftsmen’s traditions: Gyarmati Vigassagok (Jolly Days of Gyarmat), Szamos Parti Talalkozo (Meeting on the Banks of Szamos), Nemzetkozi Retestalalkozo (International Strudel-Festival), Nemzetkozi Halaszlefozo Verseny (International Fishsoup Competition), Nemzetkozi Szilvalekvar Fozo Verseny (International Plum Jam Competition), Nemzetkozi Diofesztival (International Walnut Festival ), Penyigei Szente-parti Nagyvasar (Fair of Penyige on the Banks of Szente)


33

etc. Exhibition of products, goods typical to the region: embroidery, home-made dogwood berry or plum jam, ornaments made from textile or wood (Korosi 2005). Local gastronomy: doughnuts, „lapcsanka” (local specialty), fried dough („langos”) with dill and cottage cheese, etc. These all have not only tourist but also economic pulling force.

Typical sights: Memorial House of Moricz Zsigmond in Tiszacsecse, Water-mill in Turistvandi, Cemetery in Szatmarcseke and the Sepulchral Monument of Kolcsey, Saint Peter and Paul Church in Fehergyarmat, Kisszekeres Church, Luby-castle in Nagyar, Jam Museum in Penyige, etc.

The inhabitants have covered the old market and built programs on it. These mean regional attractive force which would be useful to transform into a complex system of offers. It can be experienced that there are settlements which made profit from tourism. With their products they can offer famous specialties for visitors.

Nowadays the untouched natural environment is a rare phenomenon. The historic sights preserve traditions for the new generation.

It can be seen that global tourism is going under transformation. The complex service is put in the foreground: only one traditional program does not satisfy the visitor’s need. An interest towards a certain information service can be experienced. Today it is essential to be on the world-wide web, one of the means of inviting visitors is the internet.

Those can prosper who decided to form their ideas together with the service sector.

The new direction of development of tourism should be built on the conditions and opportunities of the region, besides, the results should be utilized, too. Certain houses provide special experiences; landscape architecture strengthens the feeling of being close to nature which offers an imperishable experience.

Since 2005 the venue of the International Meeting of Millers (Nemzetkozi Molnartalalkozo) has been the watermill in Turistvandi, as a unique sight in Europe.

Between 1990 and 2000 the starting point of the international Tisza-tours was Tiszabecs. 1230 people of 10071 tourists were foreigner in this period. There were tourists from America, Far-East, Argentina and from other countries, as well. (Egri 2000) The International Tisza Tour is the least frequented tourist event in the region, though it is one of the favorite places of water-lovers. They have been returning for years but they can hardly see any changes in the area. As a connecting tourism development cultural, religion and eco-tourism, hunting, fishing, riding and cycling tourism can be mentioned, too.


34

Conclusions This region is really attractive and beautiful. What mean the real

appealing forces of the region are the untouched beauty of nature, clear, winding rivers? The experience proves that those who visit this land can return fresh and relaxed. Some of the inhabitants know and hope that tourism can become one of the sectors of success in the region. There are many tiny villages with various sights, attractions which are unique. Churches, mansions, natural rarities all can be found in this region. Most of the settlements have their own water banks a part of which is navigable, too. It attracts water-lovers and fishermen, as well. People can get to know the old, traditional products, their production, folk costumes, old foods. These events give a good example of co-operation of village councils. They showed that it is possible to live well even in the „backward” area, and not only live from day to day. I hope that Tiszahat will soon become a frequented holiday destination for tourists in our country.

References Czinkota K. (2002): Turizmuskozpontu kistersegek halozat az informacios korban

(Network-centric micro tourism in the information age); eVilag, I. evf. 4. szam, p. 29.

Varga Cs. (2002): Mintha-vilagok helyett minta-vilagok, Az uj turizmus koncepcio (Maybe-world or sample world. The new concept of tourism) (tézisek), eVilag, I. evf. 4. szam, p. 21.

Fehergyarmati Kisterseg integralt telepulesfejlesztesi, videkfejlesztesi es kornyezetvedelmi kozpontja (2005).

Csorgo Z. (2002): Hagyomanykozpontu turizmus (Tradition-oriented tourism), eVilag, I. evf. 4. szam p. 24.

Fehergyarmati kisterseg foldrajzi helyzete (Geographic location of Fehergyarmat subregion), www.fehergyarmatkisterseg.hu 2013.02.18.

Fehergyarmati Kisterseg teruletfejlesztesi programja (Regional development program of Fehergyarmat subregion) (2005).

Kis K. (2006): Videkfejlesztes es a videkgazdasag. (Rural development, rural economy) Szegedi Tudomanyegyetem MFK DARSZK, Hodmezovasarhely (ISBN:963 482 795 0).

Latnivalok Szabolcs-Szatmar-Bereg megyeben (Attractions in Szabolcs-Szatmar-Bereg county) (2004).

Sava,Cipriana (2010) The tourism -In the context of sustainable regional development, Publishing Eurostampa, Timişoara.

Sava,Cipriana (2012) Ideas on the mulinologic tourism development in the region west, Publishing Eurostampa, Timişoara.

Sava, Cipriana (2012) Bega Valley, Publishing Eurostampa, Timişoara.


35

Zsoter B. (2006): Turizmus Mezőhegyesen – A Hotel Nonius bemutatása. (Tourism in Mezohegyes – Inroduction and Presentation of Hotel Nonius) Europai Unios Kutatasi es Oktatasi Projektek Napja c. nemzetkozi konferencia, konferencia CD kiadvany, 2006. 10. 06., Hodmezovasarhely.

Zsoter B. (2007): Examination of Hotel Nonius. Management of Durable Rural Development, Management Agricol, Timisoara, Editura Agroprint Timisoara, 2007., 571-574, ISSN 1453-1410.

NOTES ON THE AUTHORS

JOZSEF GAL (Dr. habil. PhD): engineer, economist, MBA, associate professor; University of Szeged, Faculty of Engineering Department of Economics and Rural Development, Mars ter 7. 6724 Szeged, Hungary; phone: +36 62 546 000; email: [email protected]

KATALIN SZUCS (MSc): graduated engineer of agriculture and rural

development, University of Szeged, Faculty of Engineering Department of Economics and Rural Development, Mars ter 7. 6724 Szeged, Hungary; phone: +36 62 546 000.

CONSTANTIN – DAN DUMITRESCU (PhD), engineer, University professor,

“Politehnica” University of Timişoara, Faculty of Management in Production and Transportation, Department of Management, Remus str. no. 14 Timişoara, Romania, phone.+40721519295, email: [email protected].




36

IMPLEMENTATION OF MARKETING IN RURAL TOURISM

Ciprian Pavel

Abstract: Because estimates of growth in the choice of Romanian and foreign tourists to rural pensions can be observed the growing need to ensure higher efficiency of marketing activities. And given the growing importance of actions to protect the product quality and the environment is observed the need for marketing of rural tourism that respects the perspectives of conservation of natural, cultural and human, necessary for responsible and ethical tourism. As competition and demand conditions change over time, the strategic marketing programs must be adapted appropriately to the corrections in the marketing plan for the results of marketing to lead to sustainable tourism. Key words: rural tourism, eco and agro-tourism, marketing, strategic marketing program

Introduction Rural tourism market is the result of interference of the two

components: demand and supply of rural tourism. The evolution of rural tourism activity is not reflected only by analyzing fluctuations indicators that emphasizes supply situation: number of rural tourist accommodation structures, existing accommodation capacity, accommodation capacity in operation. There are also two other important indicators with which (to complete the image of changes) the rural tourism activity is facing. They capture the state of rural tourism demand and are represented by the number of tourists arriving in reception rural tourism in Romania and the number of overnight stays related to those units.

National Association of Rural, Ecological and Cultural (ANTREC), estimates an increase of about 15% of Romanian tourists opting in 2013 for rural pensions in the context of a general increase in domestic tourism1.

1 http://www.capital.ro/tendinte_ale turismului_rural

http://www.capital.ro/tendinte_ale


37

Implementation of marketing in the rural areas provides superior efficiency in the activities concerning the rural tourism. Peculiarities of application of marketing are defined both consumption and tourism market characteristics and the specific nature of the activities of agritourism businesses.

Perspectives of expansion of rural tourism business Necessity of extending rural tourism business is the result of creating

favorable conditions for harmonization of elements including: offer various types of accommodation; supply of agricultural products, traditional folk art, crafts and folklore is done directly by the farm family and rural community; the offer of natural surroundings and environmental requirements are compatible with tourism activities; offer of paid jobs in rural areas.

Table 1. Establishments of tourists reception and tourist accommodation capacity in

Romania in 2011

Type of establishment

Number of establishments in 2011 in Romania

Existing accommodation capacity(number of beds)

Rooms

Agro-tourist boarding 1210 20683 9668

Hotels 1319 175149 88428 Tourist boarding houses 1050 20499 9788

Others 1424 67172 18054 Total 5003 278503 125938

Source: National Institute of Statistics2 Situation of tourist accommodation structures and accommodation

capacity in Romania shows large share of agro-tourist boarding in total number of accommodation.

Of growing importance given actions of protecting product quality and the environment results the need for marketing of rural tourism that respects conservation the perspectives of natural, cultural and human, necessary for responsible and ethical tourism in agriculture and resources in such a manner that to be sustainable in the long term. Rural tourism can not be divided by ecotourism.

2 www.insse.ro/cms/rw/pages/turism

http://www.insse.ro/cms/rw/pages/turism


38

In the specialized literature there are at least two views on the phenomenon of agritourism: first show that the public interest in the environment can be used to make a product marketing; other claims that same interest can be used for conservation of the resources on which is based the product. These two views are not mutually exclusive, on the contrary can be complementary. What is needed is an effective integration of both views so that agriculture and resources can develop sustainable long term.

Fundamental for a sustainable tourism industry is accepting the key principles underlying the concept of rural tourism:

- Not to deteriorate the resources and be developed in a manner that protects the environment;

- Provide long-term benefits resource, (entrepreneurs) local community and agriculture (benefits may be related to preservation of scientific, cultural, social and economic);

- Provide tourists a direct participation and relevant experience; - To spread education among all participants: tourists, farmers, local

communities, NGOs, agriculture and tourism (before, during and after); - Encourage all participants to recognize the intrinsic value of the

resource; - Involve acceptance of the resource based on her own terms and the

recognition of its limits, in this way spreading a marketing oriented supply and consumption;

- Promote ethical responsibility and moral behavior of the participants to the natural and cultural environment.

These principles, despite the high standard, increasingly begin to practice in eco and agro-tourism operations and are given as an example of best practice in sustainable tourism.

In rural tourism, whit a good marketing and a development plan can be obtained considerable actual and potential economic value. Benefits may include:

- Economic diversification in rural and peripheral regions of industrialization;

- Long-term economic stability; - Trend to higher expenses and longer stay in rural areas; - Demand for local goods and services that benefit the local economy; - Infrastructure development; - Increase farmers' incomes. In recent years the concepts of eco and rural tourism have become key

elements in selling certain products; somehow this reminds us of the tendency of manufacturers to mark products as "green" or to show that take


39

into account environmental cues. It is clear that 'green' sells. Almost every time the prefix "eco" will increase interest in the sale, although in recent years has been a proliferation of advertising in tourism with reference to: eco-tour, eco-travel, eco holiday, eco-adventures, adventures environmentally sensitive eco-safaris, eco-expedition and of course ecotourism.

Rural tourism as tourism generally assumes a prominent profile in economic growth expectations in this regard occur the expectations that tourism establishments to be developed and managed to high environmental standards. Such expectations must be willing to know the meaning of obstacles that stand in the way of rapid and widespread implementation of best practice environmental management in the tourism industry. Consequently tourism industry development requires increased requirements reflected a concern for long-term support resources available to tourism. Changes in industry and agriculture must justify the resources claimed as a requirement for their sustainable management. The major advantage of adapting marketing strategies of rural tourism is that it can identify from the beginning a number of problems that may occur during the execution of development projects.

Any development program is based on evaluation of existing resources, without which no project is feasible. The development of rural tourism in the area chosen is achieved through a series of projects whose application ensures the success of the program. To run a project is necessary to know and understand the requirements of the marketing policies and facts in organizations that will carry out the project and the environment in which it will operate.

One direction of rural tourism development should be characterized by at least two aspects:

-First you need to have continuity, because generally cover’s a bigger time horizon and for achieving them is necessary to have continued efforts. Romanian Governments efforts in transition was aimed at highlighting the errors of previous governments, renouncing in many cases the investments already made and redirecting funding sources. Good initiatives should be taken and continue regardless of political party in power.

-Second, a unified direction for tourism development must be closely linked with the developments in other industries, which provides the infrastructure for tourism services.


40

Implementation of marketing in rural tourism Being in the sphere of the services market, tourism market takes a

series of features determined by the general features of services. Most companies who are present on agritourism market are offering comprehensive packages of goods and services. The main motivation for the utilization of agro-tourism companies is the tourist (client) that identifies and uses service offered. When tourists is purchasing at his home in advance, a voyage, a place to stay, a way of transportation, etc., he get the benefit of them, but not the tourism service itself. The tourist will benefit of tourism service when he reach the chosen tourist destination. The transfer tourism product from the supplier to the consumer is made different from the specific distribution of material goods.

"The product (service) is a immaterial consumer good, invisible, imperceptible that consumed leaves behind a bill in the pocket of tourists and a pleasant memory (or bad) about what was offered"3 . Therefore, the abstract nature of the benefits of travel determines different perceptions and evaluation from consumers, over the same benefits. The decision to purchase a travel product or service is influenced by the fact that it can not be seen, examined and compared before being acquired.

Full satisfaction of tourism demand is achieved through a comprehensive package of goods and services resulting from their combination and which are owned by different tourism enterprises. To ensure complete tourism offer, a tourism company uses the services of many businesses (accommodation, food services, transportation, telecommunica-tions, commercial etc.)

In order to increase the competitiveness of rural tourism products not only domestic and international, tourism entrepreneurs are interested in launching original packages and with a high quality.

Romanian rural tourism entrepreneurs should be familiar with all the particularities of the product policy and it’s components of agro and rural tourism product for being able to adapt better the products to the market demands.

Making an effective marketing strategy program for rural tourism product market involves three elements:

• Specific objectives which must be fulfilled for a target market. They must be subordinated to the objectives of the marketing plan of the company

3 V. Olteanu, Marketing în alimentaţie publică şi turism, A.S.E. Bucureşti l984


41

and so specific that it can allow the management company to monitor and assess the evolution of the tourism product on the market;

• Established marketing strategy marketing plan to achieve competitive advantage in target markets.

• Develop tactical marketing programs necessary to carry out strategic marketing program according to tactical marketing plans and / or strategic.

As competition and demand conditions change over time, should be adapted and strategic marketing programs corresponding to the corrections in the marketing plan.

For a business plan can prepare one or more marketing programs. In the case of a single marketing program, it should contain all necessary actions to achieve the objectives of the marketing plan, and for developing several marketing programs, they are prepared for each market and the marketing mix element.

Combining services is an essential element in achieving a greater diversity of tourism product and is at the same time, a key factor in meeting the highest level of consumer needs and desires4. This combination increases the attractiveness of tourism product while lowering its perishability negative effect.

Marketing program should include both the actions of possible combinations of tourist services as well as their capitalization with other successful programs of destination (entertainment, cultural activities, sports etc.).

In all cases, marketing programs are needed to increase economic efficiency of enterprises in the short, medium or long term, constitute instruments for implementing the marketing plan broken down into time periods, for dimensioning financial resources.

In many tourism businesses, especially those with limited operations, is tried the preparation only of marketing programs.

Establishment of action without goals and strategies developed by following the steps provided in the marketing plan is, in most cases, an error with negative consequences for the future.

Conclusions The effectiveness of a marketing program is given by the degree of

achievement of targets set in the marketing plan. It is determined by

4 Balaure V., I. Cătoiu, C. Vegheş, Marketing turistic, Editura Uranus, Bucureşti, 2005


42

comparative analysis of costs and sales revenue, after which compares the effort and the effect achieved by implementing a marketing program.

Efficiency is a major criterion in all phases of program marketing, in the sense that highlights the efforts of both financial effects of various actions and the program as a whole helping to a proper foundation for future decisions and marketing programs.

In the vision of marketing, profit maximization, as a reason of the existence of any enterprise, equivalent to a modern management, fully adjusted to market requirements, of consumers.

Marketing contribution to the achievement of such management is focused on providing market information necessary for the economic decision-making, in the elaboration of the criteria for evaluation of the activities, in determining the levels of economic and social performance, etc.

Applying tourism marketing functions and using its methods and techniques, rural tourism firms may assess, in better conditions, requirements and demands of domestic and international tourism market, to adapt to these changes to use with maximum efficiency, its own resources to meet the most varied requirements.

References Balaure V., I. Cătoiu, C. Vegheş, Marketing turistic, Editura Uranus, Bucureşti,

2005 Ion Niță, Piața turistică a României.Realități.Mecanisme.Tendințe,ediția aII-a,

Editura Economică, București 2008 Olteanu V., Marketing în alimentaţie publică şi turism, A.S.E. Bucureşti l984 www.insse.ro/cms/rw/pages/turism www.capital.ro/tendinte_ale turismului_rural

NOTE ON THE AUTHOR

CIPRIAN PAVEL is lecturer at the Faculty of Management in Tourism and Commerce, Dimitrie Cantemir Christian University Timişoara. He holds a PhD. in Marketing since 2010, with a thesis entitled Contribuții cu privire la politica de comunicare în marketingul produselor și serviciilor bancare. He is author or coauthor of various books and articles: Politica de comunicare în marketingul produselor și serviciilor bancare, Editura Universităţii de Vest, Timişoara, 2013, Bazele marketingului, Editura Eurobit, Timişoara, 2011. He is a member in AGER and American Marketing Association.

http://www.insse.ro/cms/rw/pages/turism

http://www.capital.ro/tendinte_ale


43

STANDARDIZATION - THE STRATEGIC OPTIONS OF THE MODERN HOTEL INDUSTRY

Novak M. Svorcan

Abstract: Strategic positioning of recognizable tourist identity of Serbia is based primarily on the integration of available resources, advantages and benefits. Their networking in a single field of activity greatly facilitates the identification, analysis, selection, comparison, adjustment, modification, expansion and innovation of the single destination attributes. The basic guidelines and specific proposal branding standardization accommodation deals are formulated with respect to the specific position in the Serbian tourist hotel product developments. The development and implementation of standards is becoming a business imperative because it allows faster influence in today's global economy through clear, unique and specific identity. By finding ways to overcome the consequences of transition and turbulent heritage, we provide the basic prerequisites for the creation of market-verified image, as well as the unequivocal recognition of Serbia as an attractive destination of tourism. Key words: strategy, standard, hotel product, corporate brand

Strategic Management Standardization The necessity of common life in all societies inevitably seeks to

establish certain norms of behavior, shaping customs and traditions as well as evaluating and measuring the different spheres of human existence. In the nineties, under the auspices of the Institute of American National Standards (IANS), the standardization of a different approach known as strategic management standardization was promoted. Although originally inclined towards internal standardization, it quickly became a highly effective system of achieving the strategic objectives of U.S. companies through corporate brands. IANS defines the strategic management of standardization as a separate discipline of management that is focused on the research of all aspects of standardization within a market or industry entity (Svorcan 2011:48). At the same time, we define, recommend and implement all the policies which can possibly be used to attain available advantages and benefits of standardization in order to achieve a higher level of competitiveness.

Inclination of the largest multinationals towards the global market and their compatibility with the spirals of globalization validate the following


44

settings on which the strategic management standardization is based (for more details see: Svorcan 2008:11, Ind 1996:49):

• reduce internal standards in the application of external benefit, • support innovation and creation of standards within the company, • application and use of standards at the corporate level, • networking standards through business strategy, • marketing, sales, control and audit of established standards. Most authors believe that the standards are the basic comparative size

or normal in the evaluation of personnel, assets, operating results or financial performance of a hotel (Svorcan 2011:45). In this sense, we can single out two concepts which complement the definition of standards:

• Unification is a process of equalization (of dimensions, measures, sizes or shapes) and their combination with the primary objective which is to form more products out of a limited number of elements.

• Typology represents an enlarged unification with the main objective to rationally choose some products.

Unification and typology, with standardization, represent processes whose main goal is the removal of systematic differences between individual subjects and concepts that have a unique purpose. Such insight is primarily focused on achieving the overall economy, easier communication in work processes, raising the level of safety, health and environmental protection. Over time, the field of action is extended to the protection of the interests of society and consumers, as well as the elimination of barriers and removing of obstacles (globalization). In most cases, the application of standardization strategies is explained by:

• The need for an effective consumer protection, consumers or end-users regardless of whether it relates to health, safety and economic interests,

• The need to protect the environment, • The need to create conditions for a stable supply and functioning of

markets, • Ensurance of competitiveness in the global market. Strategies of standardization can be treated as a highly effective tool

and mechanism aimed at developing technological processes and systems, economic relations and overall planning of global markets. In this respect, it is predominantly used as a kind of instrument of rationalization and the introduction of order in a variety of criteria in a number of areas. If we contemplate all these areas, we can see a common denominator in the form of documents that define specific rules, guidelines or characteristics for


45

activities or results to optimize the level of regulation. Based on the documents, we can formulate (Holjevac 1998:66):

• classic standards that indicate the major determinants of the quality of a certain category of application,

• regulations on the basis of which we determine the basic composition, types, amounts, conditions and processes and sub-processes, packaging, labels, and much more depending on the category of application,

• manufacturer’s specifications aimed at material products, their ingredients, processing technology, packaging, distribution, durability, etc.,

• technical norms which are measures of protection and safety during production, storage, transport, storage, or use of the service,

• certificates aimed at confirmation of certain tests, treatments or measurements that have been identified and confirmed by the requirements of valid and authorized institutions at national and international levels,

• warranty obligation certificates which oblige the manufacturers to meet these standards and achieve the anticipated level of quality.

The Standardization Strategy in the Serbian Hospitality Industry Standardization strategy is frequently used in the operations of U.S.

hotel chains and groups. At the same time, standardization is the most recognizable strategy because it involves an emphasized and dominant approach aimed at meeting the needs of corporate brand positioned at the national or international market. Strategy formulation includes the mutual coordination of opportunities and threats in the external environment, internal capabilities and intentions (Đuričin, Janošević, Kaličanin, 2010:310). This means that the hotel chain which is characterized by a strong corporate brand chooses one strategy that enables an optimal relationship between its opportunities and projected goals, on one hand and marketing environment, on the other hand. Implementation of the standardization strategy is analyzed as a kind of specialization because it lowers costs and creates a scale economy in the providing service, research, development, innovation, marketing and distribution.

The global dimension of standardization strategy is analyzed as a unifying offer because it allows providing unique and high-quality services regardless of location. However, its most important effect is the promotion of internationalization and corporate image. By applying these strategies subvarieties, today's corporate hotel brands enabled the leaders of this industry to very successfully establish the limits of global market scale with respect to their availability and accessibility. In the case of localization


46

strategy of standardization additional adjustments are frequently imposed due to current legislation on a specific market.

There is great disparity in the application of the strategy of standardization which can be compensated by self-initiated adjustments. Leaders of hotel operations operate on different markets simultaneously, but with variable intensity bids and the necessary modification strategies are needed. These types of modifications are based on the cost of providing adequate policies and possible adjustment sets of identity features of a corporate brand within the price competitiveness and acceptability by the target segments (See: Svorcan, Stojanovic, Smiljanic, Sedlarević 2011:36).

At present, in the semy-globalist business system, there are very few successful hoteliers who do not operate in a network. International hotel chains and groups as well as technological, organizational and market-consistent and well-established corporate hospitality, business style and recognizable brands in the domestic and international tourism market, contribute to the diversity of business activity because they differentiate their utility according to the needs of a number of segments. The objectives and advantages of this way of doing business are manifold. It turned out, that everyone entering the national market, as well as Serbian, did not only achieve one goal, or used only one advantage. In practice, there is always a combination of achieving more goals and more benefits.

New business philosophy has led to the standardization and standardized Serbian hotel products. The aim is to transform the old values and benefits into a new excellence. This is why many investors are trying to purchase facilities under best conditions and adapt them into representative hotel-type accommodation. Consequently, the expansion of tourism and hotel management occurred in the areas which were not in this line of work (Svorcan 2011:296). Therefore, from the standpoint of future investments, one should not be surprised by the bold predictions of some authors that the real potential of Serbia for the development of tourism by 2015. is the achievement of almost 20 million overnight stays, with expected revenues of 1.5 billion Euros (VRS 2008:117).

Implementing different types of contractual arrangements, Serbian hoteliers became members of the large, international system. Concentricity of exclusive global corporate brands is expected in the metropolis, due to development of infrastructure, and because of the greater frequency of reviews.


47

Picture no. 1 - Hotel chains that operate in Serbia

Source: Idea and realization by the author.

The dominance of the U.S. hotel companies that also hold the primacy in all available comparative lists is obvious. However, they had a variety of impacts on the local hotel industry. Thus, the InterContinental Belgrade was the first to introduce the highest standards, procedures and international standards. Hyatt, on the other hand, trained a large number of quality personnel through their loyalty programs directed primarily toward hoteliers (Svorcan 2011). The incorporation of minimum standards by Best Western hoteliers domicile enabled expansion of supply and acceptance of certain other business combinations. Their experiences point to the necessity of application of strategic management standardization.


48

The actual implementation depends directly on the degree of adoption, implementation, and operational standards in practice. In the case of the Serbian hotel industry, the following dimensions are considered:

• in terms of quality of hotel product as established, • from the aspect of the employees in terms of their respect of the

work procedures, • in terms of customer satisfaction as well as alignment and its

application. Aspect of the Hotel Product Creative industries that owe their expansion to the development

information and communication technologies are primarily focused on the end user. Consequently, their value depends on the degree of decoding skills and perceptions of the end-users and, therefore, may or may not be transformed into various financial profits (Hartley 2007:11). The practice, implementation, modification and necessary degree of customization (products, services, processes, sub-processes, forms of organization) through the norms, standards, quality and excellence inevitably leads to new business strategies. They are aimed at hotel guests and integrate concepts of products and services in new ways. One of them may be defined as a concept product.

Although the concept of hotel product is identified with the physical product, it is necessary to make a certain level of distinction to highlight the intangible elements that determine it. The hotel complex is a unique product of tangible and intangible elements for the realization of which an unavoidable presence of guests is required. As such, it entails necessary innovations, improvements and higher business standards via (adapted from: Svorcan 2011:37):

• flexibility to the user, which is caused by his presence; • individuality of service; • twofold character of labor; • simultaneity of production and consumption; • immaterial hotel services; • heterogeneity of organizational forms and practices in the delivery

of services; • not being able to determine the unique and unalterable form by

which to measure quality; • the intricate passing of as many tangible and intangible elements; • inability to storage or resale; • having such uniformity even in the use of parameters in the field of

legal norms;


49

• indirect presentation through the simultaneous creation and consumption of the product;

• unification and interdependence theory and practice of service processes;

• extremely inelastic hotel offer. The above characteristics and features of the product or the extent of

their participation and specialization demonstrate the level of development of the hotel industry of a specific market. Components themselves can be represented as a single cycle of causal relationships aimed at satisfying the needs and demands of hotel guests. International hotel chains and groups are particularly crystallized standard packages of hotel products and thus provide global market dominance.

Normalization, standardization and harmonization of both quantitative and qualitative indicators that enable objective evaluation of service activities are just a prerequisite for the realization of the hotel product. This has a special dimension when we monitor and analyze the changes in desires and demands of hotel guests. It is an indisputable fact that the future development of the hotel industry is moving towards further specialization and standardization of the hotel offer.

The identity of the hotel product artificially produced and presented to the public is referred to as image. From the aspect of corporate brand image is a constant struggle to build lasting loyalty of end users. Elements of the image are displayed as standardized identifiers (for a more detailed distinction of identity and image, see: Eastman 2004:31). They also represent the most demanding elements of the marketing mix. These elements represent the hotel product identity. It is a unique selling proposition which differentiates the hotel from its competition. When specifying the concept of hotel product image is a key component of convergence of products and services. For it can bind and residual material, the material terms and conditions of the character, location, price, style and manner of service, relationships and behavior of the staff, the environment and the unique experience that is based on customer experience. This is why the hotel product is incorporated in the tourism product as complex numerous, diverse, mutually conditioned and related services. The main determinants are related to space or location and attributes of attractiveness. Thus, the spatial factor is one of the main criteria of hotel products typology and represents the material basis of the tourism product (Bakić 2010:121). In this way, hotel manifests itself as a product of an important component of the tourism product that significantly affects his physiognomy, structure, or quality, or the complete profile. The common denominator is the spatial and temporal


50

occurrence of unification and implementation services. However, looking at the hotel product through the prism of the tourism product still comes down to a representative of accommodation as the primary determinant of implementation of these concepts. In this way, the standardized services as part of the product appear as a crucial determinant of the entire hotel industry. Clarifying the conceptual definitions and their preconditions are clarifications of the entire business as a unique mix of products and service concepts, which has a number of characteristics, peculiarities and features. Aspect of the hotel product is a separate entity. It is like a corporate brand divisible only for measurable economic parameters, but in the minds of end-users it is a single unit, a personal experience.

Aspect of the Hotel Staff Hotel practice has proven that the person who sells a standardized

service remains a determinant in the minds of guests. This contributes to priority changing. When we consider the concept of the product the buyers are essential, and if we consider the concept of service the employees are the most important (Svorcan 2011). The synergy of these two models allows the growing emergence of these concepts as well as the higher level of business organization. The direction and intensity of these changes can be traced through the consolidation of the hotel industry, or through the creation of a unique hotel product. Hoteliers are trying to achieve standardization process by creating multiple effects aimed at optimizing business processes in the implementation of hotel product.

When we determine the possibilities of the application of standards it is necessary to take into account the high degree of dispersion of business hotel accommodation. The scope of work of employees is very large and covers all areas. On one side, the employees are in direct contact with the devices and equipment subject to constant technological advances, on the other hand the service users, whose needs, demands and expectations also subject to change. All this affects the hotel organization and staff. It also has a decisive influence on the selection and establishment of standards, policies and operation procedures. It is a well known fact that the employees moved from the category of human resource to the human capital of the company (source: Dimitrovski 2010). In such a constellation, their undocumented years of experience and skills, basic knowledge acquired during training are seen as the basis for the creation of intellectual capital. This capital serves as the basis for generating new value through knowledge management. Some corporate brand hotel chains have gone further in developing and implementing knowledge management through the hotel standards. The


51

attempt to standardize the management of knowledge manifests itself continuously through the superstructure of (adapted from: Cerović Galičić, Ivanovic 2005:335):

• Policies strict behavior as prescribed by hotel management; • Standard Operating Procedures, which represent established ways

of doing business in a certain way. It is this category of strategic management that is the most important in

the hotel industry because it allows the internal, interdepartmental standardization (for more details see: Šandro, Sinčić 2009:124). It is the one that contributes to corporate brand achieves qualitative step forward in the competition. In this sense, we observe the standards related to hotel staff as instruments of the menagment of knowledge and management of capital. Multiple studies and analysis of case studies show that the hotel's standards and norms simplify work processes and increase the speed and productivity in the provision and delivery of services. In this way we achieve competitiveness and profitability of the whole enterprise market. The implementation phases are (Holjevac 1998:63-76):

• prescribing standards, • education, training and education of all employees, • implementation of standards in practice, • continuous control compliance with established standards and

elimination of failures, • improvement of standards with additional retraining employees. Guests’ appeals and complaints are unique. Despite the

professionalism and effectiveness of employee dissatisfaction is inevitable and given. The unknown variable is the cause and the consequence of the technical, service, personal and unexpected observations. Specified classification performance to their solutions and directing attention to possible errors and conflicts. Therefore, it is necessary to apply a methodology while resolving complaints by applying standards of behavior and action, but through specified procedures and rules.

In addition to these roles, the standards of a hotel should allow successful functioning in the intensive-work activities where personnel changes are common and frequent. This prevents the disruption of processes and subprocesses due to recognized practitioners and experts.


52

Aspect of the Hotel Guests Basic determinants of modern hotel business are reflected in the

assumptions of a successful business through both satisfaction and, if possible, overcoming the expectations of guests. The necessity of recognizing their habits and requirements and timely response combines business models through Relationship Marketing and Customer Relationship Management. Only a holistic approach to the relationship between the supplier and the recipient of hotel services can guarantee the carrying value of new quality and profit. System planning, organizing, developing and maintaining long-term mutually beneficial relationship can be obtained through effective communication. It is necessary to emphasize that hoteliers independently design standards that facilitate communication between the guests and the staff (Cerović Galičić, Ivanovic, 2005:336.).

Their synchronization inevitably leads to the achievement of planned quality. On the other hand, meeting the expectations of guests enables the overcoming of Excellence hotel accommodations. It contributes to the establishment of higher prices of hotel services and insures profits. Practice has proven that the guest is always willing to pay a higher price in order to assure quality. That is why the most important part of successful hotel services is complete dedication (Hayes, Ninemeier, 2005:35). Modern guest prospers every day and in every way more. He is educated, informed, technologically sophisticated and demanding.

Some authors explain the requirements of this monster guests. It is partly reflected in the concept of the modern customer demands (adapted from: Galičić, Ivanovic, 2008:48):

• Claim – requires a lack of tension and trouble, peace, rest, and security (physical, fire pervention, health, sanitation, hygiene);

• Character – by trying to stay in a healthy environment, which has its own character features, characteristics and understanding of its needs;

• Charm – by insisting on experience that will exceed their expectations, especially in the relations between prices paid and obtained values;

• Courtesy – to be treated as a king. This aspect requires the absolute and unequivocal focus, kindness, courtesy, service, politeness and attention;

• Cuisine – is a very nice and detailed in the selection of good restaurants, especially in the attractiveness, diversity, and richness to the globality.


53

Superstructure above is reflected in the creation of long-term cooperation and retention through programs. Adequate hotel service, met expectations, the values and benefits that exceed the invested funds, as well as contribute to a unique experience that guests choose the same hotel again, which significantly contribute to the sustainable business of the hotel company. One form of standardizing customer satisfaction is a loyalty program. Frequent hotel user model is essentially a marketing strategy because it allows you to establish solid links (Svorcan 2011). Ability to identify, retain and stimulate loyal guests also subject to standardization, unification and typification. Therefore, the Loyalty Programs are mega binding and retention of in-house guests that unites a number of integrated sub-processes and activities in the form of incentives.

In addition, the hotel industry marketing management encounters another parameter, which is exclusively for hotel product. Kotler calls it social or moral quality. Is referred to as a measure of trust that users have for certain types of hotel products. Mostly based on impressions, expectations and descriptive attributes - positive or less positive (Svorcan 2000:46). Ethical essence of hotel quality, regardless of its relativity, implies that each standardized service, and a measure of value that the guest is provided with, must contain an essential element of hospitality morality. Even though, this moral element changes from the place to the place and from epoch to epoch, it exists in the hotel industry like an axiom.

Conclusion For many years the prevailing opinion in Serbia was that the

implementation of strategy of standardization in the hospitality industry stifles creativity, skill, well trained employees and produces organizational and staffing limitations. However, the market value of hotel products of hotel industry leaders in the region proved the necessity of standardization as permanent process. Today, standardization of hotel product is a unique process that has an enormous effect on operations aimed at achieving and overcoming the design quality.

The application of strategic management standardization greatly increases the intellectual capital of the hotel, and facilitates communication is directed towards satisfying requires, desires and expectations of guests on one hand and the development of new products tailored to the growing needs of higher global markets, on the other hand. Numerous market tests prove that the actual level of the hotel's unreserved support expressed through the product of satisfaction, quality, price, excellence and the experience is always in direct proportion to the profit (for more details see: Hellstrand


54

2010). Application of strategic management standardization reported that quality corporate brand represents the degree of excellence at an acceptable price for eligible expenses. On the other hand, each customer has his/her own evaluation of the obtained values, which is correlated with money, time and energy costs in relation to the offer. Meeting of these interests contributes to creating experiences and satisfaction or overall quality.

The relationship between the expected and actual scale range from dissatisfaction to extraordinary expectations. However, achieving or overcoming expectations does not imply success. It is necessary to achieve unconditional support and loyalty of hotel brands. This is achieved by combining several strategies based on building strong relationships of all participants in the value chain.

References Adolphi, H., (1997): Strategische Konzepte zur Organisation der betrieblichen

Standardisierung, DIN-Normungskunde Band 38, Beuth Verlag, Berlin. Bakić, O., (2010): Marketing u turizmu, Univerzitet Singidunum, Beograd. Balmer, M.T.J., Gray, R.E., (2003): Corporate brands, EJM/37, Emerald EarlyCite. Bedbury, С., (2002): А New Brand World, Viking Pengiun, New York. Cerović, Z., (2003): Hotelski menadžment, FTHM, Opatija. Cerović, Z., Galičić, V., Ivanović, S., (2005): Menadžment hotelskog domaćinstva,

FTHM, Opatija. Dimitrovski, R., (2010): Menadžment znanja kao poslovna strategija, Škola biznisa,

br. 2/2010, VPŠ, Novi Sad. Đuričin, D.N., Janošević, S.V., Kaličanin, Đ.M., (2010): Menadžment i strategija,

CID, Beograd. Galičić, V., Ivanović, S., (2008): Menadžment zadovoljstva gosta, FHTM, Opatija. Greuning, H.V., (2006): Međunarodni standardi finansijskog izveštavanja, MATE,

Beograd. Hart, S., Marfy, J., (2003): Robna marka, CLIO, Beograd. Hartley, J., (2007): Kreativne industrije, CLIO, Beograd. Hayes, D.K., Ninemeier, J.D., (2005): Upravljanje hotelskim poslovanjem, M plus,

Zagreb. Hellstrand, P., (2010): Price Impact on Guest Satisfaction, SQInsight Hospitality

Consulting, H.Q.C., Sherman Oaks. Holjevac, I.A., (1998): Kontroling, FHTM, Opatija. Ind, N., (1996): Korporacijski imidž, CLIO, Beograd. Istman,T.S., Ferguson, D.A., Klein, R., (2004): Promocija i marketing elektronskih

medija, CLIO, Beograd. Kotler, F., Ferč, V, (2006): B2B Brend menadžment, Asee, Novi Sad. Kotler, P., Keller, K.L., (2006): Marketing Management, Data Status, Beograd. Salerno, N., (2005): Independent Hotels start thinking like the chains, Article 20

July 2005, Hotelmarketing.com.


55

Svorcan, M., (2000): Gostoprimstvo, ABC Glas, Beograd. Svorcan, M., Svorcan, N., (2010): Holistički okvir brendiranja u hotelskoj

industriji, Hotel link 13-14, VHŠ, Beograd. Svorcan, M., Svorcan, N., (2010): Imidž u stratеgiјi hоtеlskе markе, Hotel link br.

15-16, VHŠ, Beograd. Svorcan, N., Stojanović, S., Smiljanić, I., Sedlarević, J., (2011): Uloga i značaj cene

u strategiji pozicioniranja hotelskog smeštaja, VIII Forum menadžera hotela i hotelskih domaćinstava, Časopis Turistički svet, januar – februar 2012, Gastro print, Beograd.

Svorcan, N., (2008): Globalni lanci hotelske industrije, VHŠ, Beograd. Svorcan, N., (2009): Međunarodni hotelski lanci, VHŠ, Beograd. Svorcan, N., (2011): Programi lojalnosti – strategijsko opredeljenje ka poslovnoj

izvrsnosti, Hotelska kuća, Zlatibor. Svorcan, N., (2011): Strategija hotelske marke, VHŠ, Beograd. Šandro, Đ., Sinčić, M., (2009): Suvremeno hotelsko domaćinstvo, HoReBa, Pula. Van Gelder, C., (2003): Global Brand Strategy, Kogan Page, London. Vlada Republike Srbije, (2008): Nacionalna strategija održivog razvoja, Beograd.

NOTES ON THE AUTHOR

Dr. NOVAK M. SVORCAN (The College of Hotel Management Belgrade [email protected]) works as a professor at The College of Hotel Management in Belgrade. He obtained his Doctor’s degree at Singidunum University in Belgrade in 2011. His scientific fields of interest are: hotel management, economy, hotel chains, brands, management of quality in the hotel industry. He is the author and coauthor of numerous scientific papers and textbooks. He participated in many national and international conferences.



56

CONSIDERATIONS ON THE STUDY OF CONSUMPTION AND CONSUMERS’ BEHAVIOUR

Ecaterina Putz

Abstract: This paper presents some considerations for identifying and quantifying the factors that trigger consumer behaviour for goods and services (according to motivational research, along with needs, there is a number of other internal variables that influence the manifestation of a certain type of consumer behaviour). Based on these main objectives, the study highlights the appropriate application forms and research methods. Key words: need, request, consumption, consumer behaviour, motivational research

Human society today has as general economic aspects the following

phenomena: the growth and diversification of goods and services, the distribution of demand (in space and time), population growth, increased urbanization process etc. New trends in lifestyle have also emerged: increasing quality demands, the persistence of a “wave of health”, making impulse purchases, fast changing of fashion trends etc.

On these general trends, businesses must substantiate an efficient economic activity, to apply marketing principles that have as main reference framework, the market. For effective use of marketing action it is required to merge all its elements: mix marketing mix, also known as “the 4 P”: product, place, promotion, price. These 4 elements (product, distribution, promotion and price) summarize all the factors by which any economic agent operates on the market and achieves their strategic objectives. The market completes and finalizes the economic activity, checks whether the goods and services accomplish to satisfy the clients’ needs, in the social shape of “product demand”. Therefore, a complex analysis of the market is required, the knowledge, assessment and inclusion of all the facts and factors of its revelators, plus an analysis of the situation and position on the market of each economic agent (in relation to its objective and resources).

The main characteristics of a market are represented in image 1.


57

Image 1. Main characteristics of a market

The market represents, however, only a “zone” in the circuit that helps

accomplish needs so that consumption can appear.

Consumption sphere Market sphere Need

Consumption

Demand

Purchase

The field of marketing investigations and research does not include

only the market sphere; it refers to the sources of demand, by penetrating the vast domain of needs, and to the tracking of the way “products” behave towards their users and final consumers.

The whole of human needs refers to satisfying material demands and work force (connected to the social production), and also to satisfy material and spiritual needs for each individual. Marketing aims to tackle the human needs that can be virtually or potentially satisfied with the help of economic activity’s results. Enlarging the field of investigation (in the sphere of human needs and aspirations) without a direct economic correspondent is unjustifiable in terms of practical economic efficiency.

Consumption needs (as a consequence of society’s historical evolution) reflects the combination of the terms of social existence with individual way of understanding own needs. One should bear in mind that «nevoia reprezintă rodul unei cheltuieli de „energie mintală” sau rezultanta unui


58

sistem de „valori etice”, ce corespund unor stări, opinii sau unui anumit tip de experienţă a oamenilor»1 (trans. <<need is the result of an expenditure of “mental energy” or the result of “ethical values”, which correspond to certain states, opinions or experience of people>>).

Needs are characterized by dynamism, always a step ahead society’s capacity of satisfying them (there is no coincidence in the occurrence of a need and its manifestation as a market demand); they stay for a while in the sphere of aspirations.

Consumption is just a part of needs, i.e. “solvent needs”. The gap between them is kept permanently, this being an actual engine of progress. Consequently, demand expresses the needs only to the extent of a real possibility to satisfy them. On the one hand, a certain offer of “products” is assumed (thus on object for demand), on the other hand there is an adequate purchasing power (a solvency demand). Demand connects the needs of people and actual consumption; it proceeds (naturally) the moment of consumption, representing a potential consumption. Therefore, there is a relationship as follows:

Need ≥ Demand ≥ Consumption

Offer is the main element of economic growth and raises issues

regarding the means used to achieve the mass of products necessary for the society and the possibilities of transforming these products into means of satisfying consumption needs.

Fundamentally, a product is everything a seller provides the buyer in exchange. The product is defined as „“a set of tangible and intangible attributes that a seller offers to potential client and his needs or desires”2.

1 Anzien, E-Psychologie du consommateur, Paris, Ed. Technique Commerciale, 1973. 2 Lush, R.F. și Lush, V.N. – Principles of Marketing, Kent Publishing Co, 1987.

Quantitative offer Cash Quality-structural offer


59

“Product” stands for a physical good or a service; most times there is a connection between the two. A good has a physical form and can be seen or touched (it is tangible and one paid for the buyer becomes its owner). A service is an activity for the benefit of the buyer (is intangible - a buyer cannot inspect or test the service before purchase).

Between demand (or consumption) of goods and services there are tight interdependence relationships. In many cases the goods and services are aiming, on the one hand, the same needs and, on the other hand, the same sources of income; so, between the two forms of demand substitution relationships exist, broadening one takes place at the expense of the other. For example: people can call on public laundries or cleaners and give up on buying washing machines; the demand for public transport services can move towards demand for own cars, and along with it the demand for petrol, lubricants, spare parts etc. (the ration between the price of goods and services prices is an important factor that determines the extent and direction of these movements).

In light of these realities one of the directions that must be addressed is the study of the consumer: what he represents, what are the real and first needs and, what are the elements that can make his consumer behaviour predictable, how can it be influenced from the exterior to behave favourably towards products from the offer (goods and services) etc. Consumer research raises a few questions that need answers.

Consumers must be characterized in a complex way, when and where they usually buy, how they use the product, why they buy it, what do they think about its quality and utility. Therefore, it is an imperative to know the system of consumption and the factors that can influence a consumer’s decision to buy (the influence of the factors “can” and “want”), image no. 2.


60

Image 2. System and factors affecting consumer buying decision

Apportionment of costs

Relation expenses incurred by families

Ways and places to buy

Socio – cultural pressures

Income

Credit

Spendings

Savings

Purchases’ distribution

Spending power

Time power

Willingness to spend

Attitudes disposition

Motivational complex

Personal self

Social self

Society

Technical proposal

Commercial pressures and advertising


61

It is noted that in the structure of consumption the key factors are: income, credit, time power (play an important role in the distribution of costs); fundamental needs, personal self (natural tendencies, deeply known and stable) and social self (tendencies acquired relatively superficial and unstable); socio – cultural pressures (the individual receives from society in general and from his social group, in particular, information, education exercising some of the different pressures), technical proposal (new products that go towards advertising the commercial pressures and consumer perception), consumers’ disposition of attitudes etc.

The truth is that consumers do not perceive all the influences and pressures they are subjected to. Thus, according to contemporary psychology thesis, that human personality is a “self-regulating system” and researchers tried to identify, besides needs, other internal variables that trigger consumer behavior. This is why motivational research appeared (M.R.), their initiation being linked to the name of E. Dichter.3

In a motivational complex rational-type reasons coexist (confidence, economy, durability and ease of use of the product, price, aesthetics, existence of spare parts, punctuality in delivery etc.), next to those affective/ emotional-type (social status, prestige, pride, health, conformism, laziness, ambition, self-approval, artistic refinement, passions, vices, love of children, the family, the opposite sex etc.).

In any consumer behaviour we can identify both types of motivation, their share is not the same, but the role of trigger buying decision (or rejection) can be played by each. With this approach the nature of consumer motivation, the old saying „spune-mi cât câştigi şi eu îţi voi spune cum vei cheltui” (trans. “tell me your earnings and I will tell you your spending”), which was based on the argument that their distribution costs is only based on income, must be replaced with one that better reflects reality: „spune-mi ce eşti şi eu îţi voi spune ce cheltuieli vei face” (trans. “tell me what you are and I will tell you what you spend”).4

Consumer motivation is determined mostly by factors specific for social groups ideation and behaviour, such as: opinions, prejudices, beliefs, customs and traditions, socio-cultural patterns of behavior, attitudes innovative or conservative, etc. It should be noted that for each element there

3 Dichter, E., La stratégie du dѐsire, Paris, Fayard, 1961. 4 Pitroiu A., Matalon, B., L’analyse de la consommation, in „L'economique et les sciences humaines”, Paris, Dunod, 1967.


62

is a combination, in a manner difficult to describe, of very different variations depending on their area, on their geographical range and on their scope in time (political, rational, affective, ethical etc.).

Based on these considerations, the study of demand for goods and services has as the main objective to: identify and quantify factors that contribute to the formation and manifestation of demand, intensity and specificity their action; characterize different segments of buyers and consumers: capturing the so-called “local colour” of consumer behaviour; determine the overall volume of demand and consumption; aspects of marketing activity (distribution channels, forms of sales prices, promotional means used, etc.). To this end, the study of demand must include two approaches (which are mutually interrelated): indirect research is useful (it is based on “office” information sources offered by dynamic series of statistical records, accounting and operational), supplemented with direct methods of studying the application and turn it in purchase and consumption (they allow obtaining “in the field” information through psycho-sociological surveys, polls, tests answers, experiments, exhibitions etc.).

In order to choose the most appropriate forms and methods of research (taking into account the multitude of phenomena to be studied), several principles are enforced: research should be performed in all groups of goods and services each raises a different issue); studies should be carried out continuously, due to the great mobility of consumer behaviour; research results should be known and used with great efficiency, since there is always the risk of depreciation or aging.

References Cătoiu. I., Teodorescu N., Comportamentul consumatorului; Teorie şi practică.

Ediţia Economics, 1997. Foltean, F., Lădar, L., Marketingul, Ed. Brumar, Timişoara 2001. Mihuţ I., Popa M., Consumatorul. Managementul ofertei, Ed. Dacia, 1996. Whiting P. W., Les cinq grandes règles de la vente, Paris, Dunod, 1966.

NOTES ON THE AUTHOR

ECATERINA PUTZ, professor PhD. in Economics at the University of the West, Tmisoara, postgraduate trainings in the country. She teaches undergraduate and postgraduate courses in business economics, management-marketing and management of logistics chain. Her prior research domains are: distribution management, transport logistics systems.


63

THE WICS MODEL OF LEADERSHIP: THEORY AND APPLICATION IN HOTEL MANAGEMENT

Aleksandar Kontić

Abstract: The broadened and diversifying global market at great pace led to the increasing demand for hospitality business and in particular for hotel industry and hotel managements; globalization changes their business environment into fierce battlefield. In order to “win the war” hotel firms need to acquire effective leadership, probably more the ever in their long history. Since nineteenth century, a dozen of leadership theories and models had been proposed, and none of them was able to totally capture all of the many facts—both internal and external to the individual—that make for a successful leader. Relatively recently, Steinberg’s WICS model drew much attention; it offered a fresh view on old problems, being designed to provide the integrative approach based upon the notion that a successful leader needs the critical ability to synthesize wisdom, intelligence, and creativity. If any of the traits mentioned would be lacking, according to this model, the leader will fall into the category of those who failed in his mission. The paper discusses the theoretical and empirical ameliorations provided by Steinberg’s model, its ambiguities, as well as practical applications for hotel management. Keywords: Hotel management, leadership, Steinberg, WICS, critics

Introduction It is an inevitable fact that the times of crisis as a rule produces the

revival of urgent needs for competent leadership; thus starts the search for individuals who would, employing their personal advantages for the benefit of followers, make the decisive effort to undo the harm of economical or political dangers. For centuries, the most question remains: what are those advantages that so sharply differentiate successful leaders from the followers, or from those who tried to lead, but utterly failed to accomplish the task they undertook? If we could understand the nature of successful leadership, then we would eventually be able to nurture them form their early ages, or, we could with more confidence make the appropriate choice between prospective leaders.

The problem appeared in the face of very ambiguity of the notion of successive leader the experience had proved that the same people may be successful leaders in certain period of time, just to fail when the


64

circumstances, or environment in general, had changed. From the other side,a dozen of leadership theories did not meet the standard of rigorous empric evaluation, and non of them have become an comprehenisve theory. Robert Sternberg. psychologist and psychometrician, known for his work in the fields of human intelligence, creativity, thinking styles and leadership, have proposed the relatuvely novel model of succesful leadership, known as „WICS model“. WICS is an acronym for "wisdom, intelligence, creativity synthesized." The basic and entirely new idea incorporated in this model is model is that leadership is not something individual is born with and is not inherited. According to Sternberg, leadership is a matter of presonal decission; whether the decission was correct, and leadership would be succesful, depneds on a combination, or synthesis, of wisdom, intelligence and creativity.

Creativity The issue of human creativity was always one of the most attractive

puzzles since the beginning of human civilization; it is only in last century that creativity was treated as a privilege of minority. Sternberg’s concept of creativity was indeed challenging: he proposed that it is a sum of skills and attitudes which could be used to generate extraordinary ideas and products. Those ideas are relatively novel, high in quality, and appropriate to the task at hand. Sternberg maintains that it is obvious fact that leaders may influence their followers, but with the ideas that may completely lack creativity or other two above mentioned attributes of successful leader. The question that may arise here is the well known question of nature of human creativity: nurture versus nature-in other words, is creativity of constitutional origin, or may be trained as all other human potentials? For Sternberg, creative people have many particular personality traits, that are not innate, but they rest on the conscious decisions. (Sternberg, 2000). In this way, Sternberg revives the old sentence Thomas Edison expressed, maintaining that creativity “consists of 99% of perspiration and only 1% of inspiration”. In this way, he argues that creative personality rest on decision to be creative, and on positive attitudes towards creativity. Those positive attitudes, according to Sternberg, are composed of six distinctive traits: problem redefining, problem analysis, selling a solutions, recognition of value of knowledge, willingness to take sensible risks, and willingness to surmount obstacles.

There are some issues in which proposed model is not supported with detailed analysis: Sternberg states that creative leader should posses the ability to redefine problem, instead of rigidly pushing towards the shared problem definition. In this way, rigidity is character trait that stands against


65

the free and fluent attitudes towards redefining the problem. At the same time, he argues that gifted leaders are more willing to analyze their own strengths and weaknesses, while analyzing the problem. This means he should posses the one important trait that he failed to notice: his personality maturation would enable him to have balanced, healthy and mature narcissism. The same stands when we consider the attitude towards taking sensible risks. In the narcissistic culture, many individuals do not accept the risk to fail-for it may impact their narcissistic equilibrium.

Intelligence Concerning his concept of intelligence and leadership, Williams and

Sternberg post question how important is the high intelligence? They state that, if leader posses much higher intelligence than followers, he may be not able to connect to them, and become ineffective. Williams & Sternberg, 1988). According to this model, intelligence does not have close connection to old, well known models of Bine (Binet, 1905), Spearman, etc. Sternberg points on “successful intelligence”, which is…” in part, the skill and disposition needed to successful life…given one’s own conception of success, within one’s sociocultural environment. ( Sternberg, 1997). They also make distinction between academic and practical intelligence. The first one refers to memory and analytical thinking and depositions that together constitute the conventional notion of intelligence. Academic intelligence is of importance for leadership for it enables retrieval of information, as well as their analyzing, evaluation and judgment.

The second one, practical intelligence, is defined as a composite of skills and dispositions aimed for solving everyday problems. Concerning the leadership, a leader who posses high academic intelligence, but lacks practical one, may have excellent memory skills and may possess enormous amount of information, yet will not be able to use it for practical purposes.

Wisdom According to Sternberg, the concept of composite model needed for successful leadership should posses the third element: wisdom. This additional quality is, according to the author, most important quality, but the rarest. Wisdom is….” At work, when individual use successful intelligence, creativity and knowledge as moderated by values to (a) seek to reach a common good, (b) by balancing intrapersonal (his own), intrapersonal(others) and extrapersonal (organizational) interests (c) over the short and long term to (d) adapt to, shape and select environments” Sternberg, 1998, 2003).


66

Measures Intelligence Creativity Wisdom ART intelligence 1.00 0.55 0.78 creativity 1.00 0.48 BUSSINESS intelligence 1.00 0.29 0.51 creativity 1.00 -0.24 PHILOSOPHY intelligence 1.00 0.56 0.42 creativity PHYSICS intelligence 1.00 0.64 0.68 creativity LAYPERSONS intelligence 1.00 0.33 0.75 creativity 1.00 0.27

Adapted from Sternberg, 2003. p 181

Sternberg’s conception of wisdom, it seems, is not generated from any contemporary personality theory; if we consider the relatively novel psychodynamic conceptions of personality, wisdom, intelligence and creativity are highly inter-correlated. Wisdom is viewed as the outcome of development of healthy narcissism; archaic forms of narcissism, however, are predominant, and only the minority of population may reach the level of wisdom. According to Kohut, and his followers, development of narcissism may be blocked at certain developmental stage, when the urge to satisfy archaic (infantile) narcissistic needs, individual cannot develop its creative potentials, may not apply intellectual abilities, and consequently, cannot attain wisdom. (Kohut, 1978-1991) Leaders with archaic narcissistic needs are not able to take risks, for the possibility to fail produces enormous internal tension in them. To loose, means that- often exaggerated (grandiose, omnipotent)- image on oneself would crumble. Therefore, they avoid taking any risks. In another words, applying creative potentials is possible only if the prospect of success is unquestionable. Another outcome of high levels of narcissistic vulnerability causes the severe lack of practical intelligence; when avoiding facing difficult problem in effort to solve it, they abstain to learn on their own mistakes.

Finally, the imperative to present themselves authentically as ones who will seek to reach a common good means to put the interest of others before his own. This is not an easy task for personality with strong archaic


67

narcissistic needs: he is to search for fulfillment of self, and not having firmly established attitudes for concern for others. From the other side, the sense of his existence is amorphous, without contemplation for any effort that will benefit the future. More or less, for him, life is “here and now”. “To live for the moment is the prevailing passion -- to live for yourself, not for your predecessors or posterity”9. (Lash, 1979)

WICS and other theories of leadership Although situational theories of leadership did get support from

research, but Sternberg’s model gives a fresh view on old problem. He states that situation variable is included in the model: what may be considered in one culture may not be treated in a similar way by another. From the other side, people may be creative to the extent which is allowed by environment. According to the contingency models of leadership, the interaction between leader’s traits and the situation will determine leader’s success. There are empirical data that points on the fact that, when leader’s cognitive skills are significantly higher comparing to those of followers, his higher cognitive skills would hamper his effectiveness-just as WICS theory predicts.

Comparing to contingency-based leadership theories, WISC model is congruent in a way that it states that the optimality of actions depends on the situation in which leader has to operate. Again, the decision that is intelligent in one situation is not necessarily intelligent in another

Sternberg argues that… ”Moreover, creativity is largely situational determined. A course of action that was creative some years ago (e.g., an advance forward incrementation) might be at a later time only mildly creative (e.g., a small for-ward incrementation). Similarly, a wise course of action depends on who the stakeholders are, what their needs are, the environmental constraints under which they are operating, the state of the organization at the time, and so on.” (Sternberg, 2003, p. 109)

The influential model of transformational leadership, developed by Burns and followers (Burns (1978, Bass, 1985, 1998, 2002; Bass & Avolio, 1994, 1995; Bass, Avolio & Atwater, 1996; Sashkin, 2004), postulates two essential ways of leadership, transactional and transformational: according to WICS model, transactional leaders are primarily concerned with the adaptive

9 For extensive elaboration of this topic, see Lash, C.(1979) The Culture of Narcissism: American Life in an Age of Diminishing Expectations W.W. Norton, New York


68

function of practical intelligence, aiming to modify their behavior to adapt to the environment. From the other side, transformational leaders emphasize the shaping function of practical intelligence, by modifying the environment to suit their leadership goals.

Conclusion Sternberg’s WICS model tries to synthesize previous models of

leadership, offering the composite of traits that, according to the author, in a way incorporate old models. However, it seems that at the same time it incorporate their failures as well. The empirical studies gave the correlations, presented in Table 1. (For example, negative correlation between creativity and wisdom.) That may raise the question of terminological imprecision and overlapping. It also seems to present a step back to the old theory of traits, which does not necessarily need to be misleading. Particularly problem is the conception of wisdom, for it seems to be burdened with many valued-oriented connotations.

It is probably extremely difficult to design the model of leadership that will cover all the facts —both internal and external to the individual—that are decisive for leader to be successful. The WICS model is based upon the notion that a successful leader decides to synthesize wisdom, intelligence, and creativity. Creative skills and dispositions are needed to form ideas, academic skills and dispositions to evaluate them as good or bad, practical skills and dispositions to make the ideas work and convince others of the value of them: wisdom-based skills and dispositions to are needed to promote that the ideas are in the service of the common good rather than just the good of the leader or small group of followers. A leader with less creative ideas cannot cope successfully with novel and difficult situations; a leader who does not possess intelligence will lack correct decisions whether his or her ideas are viable. Finally, leader with under-developed practical intelligence is unable to implement his or her ideas effectively. Wisdom would, according to this model, provide that implementing ideas are contrary to the best interests of the followers.


69

References

Amabile, T.M. 1983. The Social psychology of creativity. New York: Springer. Antonakis, J., Cianciolo, A.T. & Sternberg, R.J. 2004. Leadership: Past, present,

and future. In J. Antonakis, A.T. Cianciolo & R.J. Sternberg (Eds.), The Nature of leadership, 3-15. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Bales, R.F 1954.Interaction process analysis: A Method for the study of small groups. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley

Bass, B.M. 1985. Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York: Free Press.

Bass, B.M. & Avolio, B.J. (Eds.) 1994. Improving organizational effectiveness through transformational leadership.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Bass, B.M., Avolio, B.J. & Atwater, L. 1996. The Transformational and transactional leadership of men and women.International Review of Applied Psychology,45, 5-34.

Binet, A. & Simon, T. 1905. Méthodes nouvelles pour le diagnostic du niveau intellectuel des anormaux. L'Année psychologique,11, 191-336.

Burns, J.M. 1978. Leadership.New York: Harper & Row. Cianciolo, A.T. & Sternberg, R.J. 2004. A Brief history of intelligence. Malden,

MA: Blackwell. Fiedler, F.E. 1978. The Contingency model and the dynamics of the leadership

process. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology 11, 59-112. New York: Academic Press.

Fiedler, F.E. & Link, T.G. 1994. Leader intelligence, interpersonal stress, and task performance. In R.J. Sternberg & R.K. Wagner (Eds.). Mind in context: Interactionist perspectives on human intelligence, 152-167. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Frensch, P.A. & Sternberg, R.J. 1989. Expertise and intelligent thinking: When is it worse to know better? In R.J.Sternberg (Ed.), Advances in the psychology of human intelligence,5, 157–188. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Kohut, H. (1966). Forms and transformations of narcissism. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 14:243-272.

Kohut, H. (1972). Thoughts on Narcissism and Narcissistic Rage. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 27:360-400.

Kohut, H. (1978-1991) The Search for the Self. Selected Writings of Heinz Kohut: 1950-1981. P. Ornstein, ed. Four volumes. New York: International Universities Press.

Lash, C.(1979) The Culture of Narcissism: American Life in an Age of Diminishing Expectations W.W. Norton, New York

McGregor, D. 1957, November. The Human side of enterprise. Management Review, 46(11), 22-28, 88-92.

Spearman, C., & Jones, L. W. (1950). Human ability. London: Macmillan. Sternberg R.J. (Eds.), The Nature of leadership, 171-196. Thousand Oaks, CA:

Sage.


70

Schank, R.C. & Abelson, R.P. 1977. Sternberg, R.J. 1985. Beyond IQ: A Triarchic theory of human intelligence. New

York: Cambridge University Press. Sternberg, R.J. 1999. The Theory of successful intelligence. Review of General

Psychology 3, 292–316. Sternberg, R.J. 2003. WICS: A Model for leadership in organizations. Academy of

Management Learning & Education, 2, 386-401. Sternberg, R.J. 2004. Culture and intelligence. American Psychologist, 59(5), 325–

338. Sternberg, R.J. & Vroom, V.H. 2002. The Person versus the situation in leadership. Leadership Quarterly, 13, 301–323. Vroom, V.H. & Jago, A.G. 1998. Situation effects and levels of analysis in the

study of leaders participation. In F. Yammarino & F. Dansereau (Eds.), Leadership: The multi-level approaches,

145-159. New York: JAI. Vroom, V.H. & Yetton, P.W. 1973. Leadership and decision making. Pittsburgh,

PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.

NOTES ON THE AUTHOR

ALEKSANDAR KONTIĆ, (psychologist, The College of Hotel Magement, Belgrade, [email protected]) M.A. works as a professor at The College of Hotel Management in Belgrade. His scientific fields of interest are: psychology, hotel management, hospitality business, leadership in hotel industry. He is the author and coauthor of numerous scientific papers and textbooks. He participated in many national and international conferences.



71

REGIONAL AND NATIONAL SUSTAINABLE COMPETITIVENESS

Horia Liviu Popa

Abstract: The progress of Romania and Europe, deeply threatened by global crises, growing stronger since the beginning of the 21st century, requires a broader systemic approach in integrated sustainable management, governance and technologies development, in the most various domains of the real world. The present paper aims at strengthening progress-related research and general systemic models of progress based on integrated strategies of sustainable competitiveness. A new unitary methodology for integrated sustainable competitiveness strategies is elaborated, the original correlation vision – mission- aim – objectives – strategic axes being applied at euro-regional level. The paper develop the new research sub-domain called “sustainable integrated competitiveness”, highly important for Romania and the EU in future decades. Key Words: systemics, progress, sustainable competitiveness, Europe, Romania

Introduction After 1960, when globalization and its related disturbances became

more and more evident, the on-unlimited time sustainable progress of Mankind in the Universe requires a more extended, innovative and deeper integration of all resources, policies and management, technologies and Nature protection, culture-related cooperation and competitiveness. The first steps in this process have already been taken. At the beginning of the 21st century, when the global economic crisis and the climate crisis have attained their climax, sustainable progress requires new advanced competitive strategies (organizational, local, regional, national, continental and global), which are evolving in ever longer periods of time of 30 – 50 - 100 years, and more integrated at MACRO & Mezo & micro levels.

The present article aims at studying in details the progress-related research and general systemic models of sustainable competitiveness strategies, oriented towards their practical application, first of all at regional and national level. The present article makes a minute analysis of a new research and action sub-domain called “sustainable integrated competitiveness”, highly important for Romania and the European Union in the years (EU 2020 Strategy) and decenniums to come.


72

Sustainable progress As a general rule the sustainable progress Ps(t,g) is defined by the

real systems SR evolution whose characteristics is the cyclic (cycles c and generations g), on unlimited term increase of:

- integrated sustainable competitiveness Kis(t,g) (Resource availability in the proximal external environment, Competing capability, Flexibility, Value, Demand in the proximal external environment, Efficiency),

- of the structural-functional complexity W(t,g), - of the diversity Z(t,g) and - of the B(t,g) welfare of entities in the hierarchy of the system internal

and external environments in a single / more living space-time-resources domains Dstr(t,g) (Popa, Pater, Cristea, 2008:14; Costanza, 2009: 7).

In the “planet Earth” space-time-resources domain, the evolution of human civilization and culture in the last 50,000 years has developed into three self-included space-time-resources sub-domains: natural Dnat(t,g), social-human Dumn(t,g), moral – economic – political – security Deps(t,g). These sub-domains, traversed periodically by numerous crises, can be characterized by means of three types of integrated sustainability:

- natural sustainability Tnat(t,g), which must ensure over an unlimited period of time normal life conditions for the biosphere and which contains successive Tumn(t,g) and Teps(t,g)

- social-human sustainability Tumn(t,g), which must ensure over an unlimited period of time the premises for the existence and evolution of Mankind;

- moral, economic, politic, security (military) sustainability Teps(t,g) which must ensure over an unlimited period of time the existence of human society in the Universe, including other planets as well in the future.

It is obvious that natural sustainability Tnat(t,g) precedes social-human sustainability Tumn(t,g) and this one precedes moral, economic, politic, security (military) sustainability Teps(t,g).

In any space-time-resources domain Dstr(t,g), sustainable progress is determined by total sustainable competitiveness Ktots (t,g), (in all environments and for all resources, on unlimited time) and relies on cyclic multiple clustering, as consequence of optimum / sub-optimum, qualitative and quantitative development of systems of systems {SS}, present in periodical stability, self-regulated by natural and / or artificial factors, with inherent periods of disturbances and crises.

The sustainable integrative competitiveness Kis(t,g) means the ability and the capacity of a (SS) system of systems to optimise from an integrative-hierarchy perspective its internal environment, to be a winner in


73

the coopetition (cooperation and / or coopetition in successive-parallel cycles and generations) of its external environment, without causing damage, to simultaneously achieve welfare, for a unlimited („sustainable”) period of time within Dstr(t,g) living domains .

The sustainable competitiveness (on unlimited term) of a country federation, of a country or region is not any more determined by individual organizations / companies but by clusters, by integrative total innovation (in the domain of resources, technologies, management and policies, culture of competitiveness) in inoclusters, industries, economic sectors, public administration and communities. As in the Universe, innovative clusters (inoclusters) produce sustainable progress and welfare in all domains. That is the reason why, cluster-based competitiveness at local, regional, national, federal and global level and clustering have become during the last decade the main topics of economic and technologic policies of developed countries, of the EU countries and of all advanced countries (Porter, 1998; Ketels, 2004; Press, 2006; Garelli, 2006; Barrio, 2010).

Methodologies for integrated sustainable competitiveness strategies By their specificity, long- / prospective- term policies and management

are integrative and oriented towards competitiveness increase, in terms of expansion, stagnation or crisis. The integration methods in the domain developed after 1995 (Porter, 1998; Popa, 2002; Garelli, 2006; NGA, 2007; OECD, 2007; Sölvell, 2008; Kotler, 2009) present a great diversity of topics, from the company level to a national and federal approach.

The increase of sustainable total competitiveness Ktots(t,g) follows the development and progressive integration of the two ways to improve competitiveness at organizational, local, regional, national and federal / continental level, as they were homologated after1980:

- macro and mezzo governmental integrated policies, oriented towards sustainable total competitiveness (value), at regional, national and international level, and connected to those policies that foresee world governance,

- elaboration and constant application of new methods, structures and programs at all levels, especially at mezzo and micro levels, meant for increasing sustainable competitiveness of organizations, based on strong public-private partnerships (PPPP) able to develop sustainable competitiveness integrative management, clusters and organization networks competitive on the global market.


74

The integrated policies and management of competitiveness process (country P, region R, county J, area Z, locality L, cluster C) takes place continuously, having cycle (Popa, Pater, Cristea, 2008:67) of two years for P, R, J, Z, L, C and of less than one year for network RF, firm F, business A and function f. The policies and management process meet four periods that can be named suggestively, as follows:

I. Where and to what extent are we competitive? (analysis of competitiveness)

II. Where and to what extent we intend to get? (planning and decision for competitiveness increase)

III. How can we get there? (organization and execution for competitiveness increase)

IV. Are we competitive where we intended to get? (control and adjustment for competitiveness increase).

The description of policies and management of integrated competitiveness (Popa, 2008) illustrates the first and the most important way of integration, the operational-structural (innovative clustering) one that refers to the set of EK competitive entities. This attracts the creation and development of new management and policy based integrated methods and techniques (Popa, 2002).

The second way is the one of competitiveness culture and refers to the EK most important resources: human resources (persons with their skills and competences) and social resources (competitive team spirit).

The third way is the informatics one, which becomes more and more complex and important at the same time with the acceleration of globalization and the expansion of IT&C.

Correlation vision-mission-aim-objectives-axes in the integrated sustainable competitiveness strategies The correlation „vision – mission - aim – objectives – axes” in

sustainable competitiveness strategies integrated strategies is an extremely complex problem. In any space-time-resources domain Dstr(t,g), sustainable progress relies on cyclic multiple clustering, as consequence of optimum / sub-optimum, qualitative and quantitative development of some systems of systems {SS}

- present and maintained in periodical stability, self-regulated by natural and / or artificial factors, with inherent periods of disturbances and crises, and, at the same time.

- firmly oriented, in an innovative, offensive, integrative-competitive way towards progress (Table 1), based on sustainable inoclusters.


75

The principle of the correlation “vision – mission - aim – objectives – strategic axes” in the integrated strategies of sustainable competitiveness is presented in Figure 1 for the complex case of Banat region in Romania-Serbia cross-border area, 2010 - 2015 (Iovescu, Popa, 2009:112).

7 Environments: Mnat – natural environment;

Mdpl – demo-psycho-linguistic environment;

Mscu – socio-cultural environment;

Mpja – political-juridical-administrative environment;

Msec – socio-economic (business) environment;

Mino – innovation environment;

Msem – security environment.


76

Level

K(t,g) Growth

MACRO (continental, national, euro-

regional, regional) Enormous complexity (7 environments, all 7

categories of resources)

Mezo (county, zone, local, branch)

Very great complexity (7 environments, all 7

categories of resources)

micro (clusters, networks, firms,

businesses) Great complexity

(≥2 environments, all 7 categories of resources)

Com

bine

d gr

owth

way

s of

the

com

peti

tive

ness

K

Gov

ern

men

tal

pol

icie

s a

nd

O

rgan

izat

ion

al p

oli

cies

► government economic macro-stability policies • classic • modern

► global macro-stability policies (7 environments & all resources)

► economic competitiveness policies (2 environments & all resources) cluster-based

► total competitiveness policies (value, in 7 environments & all 7 resources) cluster-based

► government economic mezo-stability policies • classic • modern

► global mezo-stability policies (7 environments & all resources)

► economic competitiveness policies (2 environments & all resources) cluster-based


► economic

competitiveness policies (2 environments & all resources) cluster-based


Met

hod

s, s

tru

ctu

res,

pro

gram

mes

► competitiveness valuation methods

► Competitiveness Councils and Centres (CCK)

► Organizations Networks to Competitiveness Oriented (ONKO)

► Govern & Employers & Unions &

► Romanian Competitiveness Partnership (PRK)

► Governmental Competitiveness Programmes (GKP) for • Continent (C) • Economic

Unions (EU) • Countries (N) • Euro-regions

(ER) • Regions (R), • MACRO-Branches

/ Sectors (B / S) ∼ Industry ∼ Agriculture ∼ ….


► Competitiveness Councils and Centres (CK)

► Organizations Networks to Competitiveness Oriented (ONCO)

► Administration & Employers & Unions &

► Competitiveness Public-Private Partnerships (PPK)

► Governmental Competitiveness Programmes (GKP) for • Counties (J) • Zone (Z) • Localities (L) • Mezo-Branches /

Sectors (B / S) ∼ Industry ∼ Agriculture ∼ ….


► Integrative Management of the Competitiveness and Value (IMKV) • Development • Promotion • Learning • Implementation

► Competitiveness Centres and Networks (CCK) for • IMKV

development (R&D)

• IMKV implementation

• Competitiveness culture

► Organizational Competitiveness Programmes (OKP) for • Clusters (C) • Firm • Networks

(FN) • Firms (F) • Businesses (B)


77

VISION 2010-2030: Banat – a dynamic, sustainable competitive and prosperous euro region

AIM 2010 – 2015: Increase of sustainable competitiveness of Banat as multi-ethnic and multi-cultural region

OBJECTIVES and STRATEGIC AXES (OAS) of BANAT 2010 - 2015

offensive objectives

stability objectives

A2 International aggressiveness of Banat economy

E4 Orientation and export in the global economy

V6 Product assimilation and added value within Banat

R8 Risk acceptance and promotion (strong entrepreneurial spirit)

N10 Postponing of quality, environment and bio-diversity level

A1 National / International attractiveness of Banat economy

AS1 Cooperation AS 3 Infra-structure AS 6 Tourism AS 8 Develop-ment of human, social resources

AS1Cooperation AS 2 Competiti-veness AS 5 Rural development

AS1Cooperation AS 5 Rural development AS 6 Tourism

AS 8 Develop-ment of human, social resources

AS1Cooperation AS 5 Rural development AS 8 Develop-ment of human, social resources

AS1 Cooperation Fighting postponing through AS 7 Environment

E3 Orientation and export in the proximity economy

AS1Cooperation AS 2 Competiti-veness AS 5 Rural development AS 8 Develop-ment of human, social resources

E3 & E4 Flexible equilibrium through AS 2 Competiti-veness AS 9 Anti-crisis & post-crisis pro-grams 2010-2013

AS1Cooperation AS 2 Competiti-veness AS 5 Rural development


AS1Cooperation AS 2 Competiti-veness AS 8 Develop-ment of human, social resources

AS1 Cooperation

Fighting postponing through AS 7 Environment

V5 Richness of

natural / human resources of Banat region

AS 2 Competiti-veness AS 3 Infra-structure AS 6 Tourism

AS1Cooperation AS 2 Competiti-veness

AS 5 Rural development AS 8 Develop-ment of human, social resources



AS1 Cooperation

Fighting postponing through AS 7 Environment

R7 Social cohesion for Banat stability and welfare

AS 4 & AS 5 Urban & Rural development AS 8 Develop-ment of human, social resources


AS1Cooperation AS 4 & AS 5 Urban & Rural development AS 8 Develop-ment of human, social resources

AS1Cooperation AS 4 & AS 5 Urban & Rural development AS 8 Develop-ment of human, social resources

AS1 Cooperation Fighting postponing through AS 7 Environment

N9 Protection of natural environment and biodiversity in Banat region

AS 3 Infra-structure AS 4 & AS 5 Urban & Rural development

AS1Cooperation AS 2 Competiti-veness AS 3 Infra-structure

AS1Cooperation AS 2 Competiti-veness

AS 7 Mediu AS 8 Develop-ment of human, social resources

AS1Cooperation AS 2 Competiti-veness AS 8 Develop-ment of human, social resources

AS1 Cooperation

AS 7 Environment

Fig. 1. Vision, aim, objectives O and strategic axes AS of Banat region in Romania –

Serbia cross-border area 2010 – 2015


78

The strategic vision (2010 – 2030), aim (2010 – 2015) and mission of Banat region are part of the national strategies and policies of the two countries and of the European Union from 2010 to 2030, are oriented towards the dynamic progress of the cross-border area and will significantly contribute to the sustainable progress of both Romania (RO-SNDDR 2008; RO-SDTR, 2008) and Serbia (RS-NSDS, 2008; RS-RRSB, 2009):

Vision 2010 – 2030: Banat – a dynamic, sustainable competitive

and prosperous Euroregion Aim 2010 – 2015: Increase of sustainable competitiveness of Banat

as multi-ethnic and multi-cultural region. These are part of the „Global Movement” Program (OECD-WBP,

2009; Giovannini, 2009), initiated in 2004 by OECD for measuring and accelerating Mankind progress.

A great number of countries and regions all over the world, including the European Union, have joined the program. The accession of facilitators (chambers of commerce in Banat region, economic development agencies, professional associations etc.), of determinants (local / regional public administration bodies in Banat area) and organizations within Banat company networks to the complex „Global Movement” Program for measuring and accelerating Mankind progress, in joint cooperation with OECD and EU, is of utmost importance for both Romania, Serbia and the DKMT euro-region. The region of Banat can thus become one of the EU pilot euro-regions to attain sustainable progress, to transfer the expertise acquired towards other regions and euro-regions.

As an emergent region belonging to the two European emergent countries, Romania and Serbia, the region of Banat can attain sustainable progress (on unlimited term) if it succeeds to harmonize / integrates the two categories of complementary but contradictory objectives (Figure 1):

• Stability objectives A1 Attractiveness of Banat economy at national / international level E3 Orientation and sale / export in the proximity Economy V5 Exploitation of natural, human and social resources (values) of

Banat region R7 Social welfare cohesion, with no significant promotion of the Risk

(of extended entrepreneurship) N9 Protection of Natural environment and of biodiversity • Offensive, sustainable competitiveness objectives A2 International aggressiveness of Banat region


79

E4 Orientation towards / export in the global Economy V6 Assimilation (conception, investments, production) in Banat region

and high products added Value R8 Accepting and promotion of the Risk (strong and competitive

entrepreneurship) in Banat region N10 Relatively negligence and postponing in attaining quality

standards of Natural environment and of biodiversity in Banat region, of investors in search for profit and export-derived profit.

The stability acquired on the basis of actual tendency of social-economic changes does not lead to progress, either in Europe (ESPON, 2007; EC-EERP, 2008) or in Romania, Serbia or Banat region. We expect the “Strategy for sustainable competitiveness of Banat region in Romania-Serbia cross-border area 2010 – 2015” to be optimal oriented towards stability and sustainable competitiveness standards.

The complex SWOT analysis and the study of opportunities in Banat region have produced the main Strategic Action Directions which define the axes of the Strategy for sustainable competitiveness of Banat region in Romania-Serbia cross-border area 2010 – 2015 (Figure 1):

AS 1 Cooperation in Romania-Serbia cross-border area AS 2 Increase of competitiveness in Romania – Serbia cross-border area AS 3 Development of transport and energy infrastructure AS 4 Urban development AS 5 Rural development AS 6 Tourism development AS 7 The environment AS 8 Development of human and social resources and of social services AS 9 Anti-crisis and post-crisis programs for 2010-2013.

Each strategic axe presents in details (Iovescu, Popa, 2009) policies, programs and projects for the period 2010 – 2015, correlated to the existing EU, national, regional and local strategies for 2005 – 2030 in Romania and Serbia.

Conclusion This paper develops new concepts and methods in the sustainable

competitiveness integrated strategies. It elaborates a unitary method for the policies and competitiveness management according to criteria based on country, regions, county, areas and clusters.

The present article makes a minute analysis of a new research and action sub-domain called “cluster-based sustainable integrated


80

competitiveness (for unlimited term)”, highly important for Romania and the European Union in the years and decenniums to come.

References Barrio A.M. (2010): Global Challenges and Threats: Europe and US Approaches,

UNISCI Discussion Papers, No. 22, January 2010, p.142-160, ISSN 1696-2206.

Costanza R. et.al. (2009): Beyond GDP: The Need for New Measures of Progress, The Pardee Papers, no. 4, January 2009, Boston.

EC-EERP (2008): A European Economic Recovery Plan, Commission to the European Council, Com (2008) 800 Final, Brussels.

ESPON (2007): Territorial futures. Spatial scenarios for Europe, Brussels, May 2007.

Garelli S. (2006): Top class competitors: how nations, firms and individuals succeed in the new world of competitiveness, J. Wiley and Sons, ISBN 0-470-02569-7.

Giovannini E. et.al. (2009): A Framework to Measure the Progress of Societies, Working paper, OECD, Paris, September 2009.

Ketels C. (2004): European Clusters, in Structural Change in Europe. Innovative City and Business Region, Hagbart Publications, Boston.

Kotler P., Caslione J.A. (2009): Chaotics: The Business of Managing and Marketing in The Age of Turbulence, AMACOM Publishing, New York, ISBN 978-0814415214.

NGA (2007): Cluster-Based Strategies for Growing State Economies, National Governors Association, Center for Best Practices, Washington D.C., 44 p.

OECD (2007): Staying Competitive in the Global Economy, OECD Publishing, Paris, ISBN 9789264034259 .

OECD-WBP (2009): Measuring and Fostering Well-Being and Progress: The OECD Roadmap, Busan, Corea.

Popa H.L. ş.a. (2002): Management strategic, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, ISBN 973-35-1524-8 167.

Popa H.L., Pater R.L., Cristea S.L. ş.a. (2008): Managementul competitivităţii serviciilor, Editura Politehnica, Timişoara, ISBN 978-973-625-648-6.

Popa H.L. (2008): The competitiveness management of clusters, Scientific Bulletin of the “POLITEHNICA” University of Timişoara, Romania, Transactions on Management. Engineering Economy. Transportation Engineering, Tom 53 (67), Fasc.2, p. 5-32, ISSN 1224-6050.

Iovescu M., Popa H.L. et.al. (2009): Strategie de dezvoltare economică a Banatului în Regiunea transfrontalieră România – Serbia 2010-2015 / Strategija ekonomskog razvoja Banata iz srpsko - rumunskog pograničnog Regiona 2010-2015, Editura Politehnica, Timişoara, ISBN 978-606-554-012-5.

Porter, M.E., (1998): The competitive Advantage of Nations, Free Press, New York.


81

Press K. (2006): A Lifecycle for Clusters? The Dynamic of Agglomeration, Change, and Adaptation, Physica-Verlag, Heidelberg, ISBN 978-3-7908-1710-2.

RO-SNDDR (2008): Strategia Naţională pentru Dezvoltare Durabilă a României. Orizonturi 2013-2020-2030, Guvernul României, Bucureşti.

RO-SDTR (2008): Conceptul Strategic de Dezvoltare Teritorială România 2030, Guvernul României, Bucureşti.

RS-NSDS (2008): National Sustainable Development Strategy, Belgrade. RS-RRSB (2009): Regionalna Razvojna Strategija BANAT 2009-2013, Regionalni

centar za društveno-ekonomski razvoj – Banat, Zrenjanin, Maj 2009. Sölvell Ö. (2008): Clusters. Balancing Evolutionary and Constructive Forces, Ivory

Tower Publishers, Stockholm, ISBN 978-91-974783-3-5.

NOTE ON THE AUTHOR

Professor HORIA LIVIU POPA PhD is a Romanian and Euro-regional expert in “Sustainable Progress Engineering, Management and Governance” domain (Competitiveness Engineering, Management and Governance; Organizations and Clusters Competitiveness Management and Marketing; Industrial Engineering). Is the author of 30 books, 189 scientific papers publish in Romania and international, 84 national and international research – development – consulting projects, 4 patents. He teach “Competitiveness Engineering, Management and Governance”, “Innovation Management”at University Politehnica of Timisoara, Management Faculty and at University Dimitrie Cantemir, Tourism and Commerce Faculty of Timisoara ([email protected] ).



82


83

EDUCATION AND CULTURE


84


85

LEARNING OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES AT COLLEGES OF HOTEL MANAGEMENT IN THE CONTEXT OF

KNOWLEDGE APPLICATION IN PRACTICE

Ljiljana Kosar, Mihaela Lazović

Abstract: The specificity of management in hospitality requires a vast variety of knowledge and skills of employees. The heterogeneity of the professional profiles correlates with numerous and various services which are integrated in a hotel product. Besides the practical, technical, marketing and managerial knowledge, in recent years a due attention has been paid to communication skills in direct contact between hoteliers and guests. The fundamental goal of colleges of hospitality management is to master the functional knowledge based on the optimization of the relationship between theory and practice. The curriculums of such institutions focus on foreign language learning. The approach to teaching foreign languages must synthesize basic professional expertise in hotel management, with special emphasis on communication skills. The organization of foreign language teaching, the content of the curriculum and leveling of skills will be presented in this paper on the example of The College of Hotel Management from Belgrade. Mastering communication skills in foreign languages is a priority goal of foreign language teaching at The College of Hotel Management. This objective is, in part, realized by organizing and implementing student practical training abroad, where, in direct contact with guests, the students apply their knowledge. Key words: hospitality, foreign language learning, knowledge, communication, application

Introduction Human recourses are an important component of quality in all domains

of tourism. Their significance is especially prominent in providing services. In this context, hotel and tourism industry can be singled out due to their specific qualities. Particularly the hotel services are heterogeneous and spatially and functionally incorporated in an integral whole. Numerous basic and supplementary services are provided in hotel facilities in order to meet different needs of tourists. The quality of their services represents the quality of the hotel product. Professional and qualified personnel signify a condition for an excellent realization of the mentioned services. The diversity of services requires heterogeneous professional profiles. Specialized knowledge and skills of the staff are prominent in the hotel industry. This fact directly influences the quality of the hotel product. The dynamic changes of 21st century life style


86

have a direct impact on the needs and requirements of tourists and hotel guests. This means that the quality of the services must be adjusted to accommodate these changes. In other words, the knowledge and skills are to be conceived as dynamic categories which may undertake constant changes and innovations. In this sense, educational institutions in the field of tourism and hospitality have a great responsibility to adjust their curriculums and theoretical and practical courses to the contemporary demands.

Professional education in the field of tourism and hospitality takes place at different levels of the educational system: secondary vocation schools and university education which may involve studying at colleges and universities. The education must be correlated with the specific characteristics of the profession. The quality of the education must be perceived as a complex progression. The courses may be theoretical, practical and field. The evaluation of courses involves a complex analysis of economic conditions, teaching materials and aids, characteristics of teachers and students. The students’ role is more and more important in the process of evaluation of the quality of education. This is why the students are actively involved in the evaluation process in order to improve the quality of education and to adapt it to their professional needs. The fundamental objective of the educational system in the field of tourism and hospitality is to train professionals for working in the industry. This is why we insist on practical knowledge.

It has been said numerous times that people are the essence of tourism. The education provided by tourism and hospitality educational institutions should present competent professionals who will prove the importance of the human factor in providing good service and meeting the needs of tourists. Due to the fact that tourism is a global phenomenon which implies constant verbal communication between people from different countries, the foreign language learning is an essential skill without which a successful business cannot exists. For this reason, foreign language learning at the tourism and hospitality universities represents a crucial part of the learning process. It is necessary for the students to master the language of their profession during their education. This means that language teachers need to know the essence of tourism and hospitality and the way they are manifested in practice.

The Features and Components of the Quality of the Educational Process in the Toursim and Hospitality Educational institutions which train students for working in the tourism

and hospitality industry are numerous all over the world, especially in Europe, which continues to be a leading global tourism destination. This fact


87

shows how much attention is paid to the development of tourism as well as its contribution to national economies. EU countries focus their new political strategy on solving the unemployment problem, and in this context tourism has been recognized as an activity that can seriously contribute to solving this problem. It is logical that an adequate education precedes employment.

Young people are extremely interested to study at the mentioned institutions. It is primarily a result of certain conceptions about associating work and travel, making contacts with different cultures, as well as staying at attractive locations and luxurious hotel facilities. These conceptions are often one-sided because of the unawareness of the specific requirements in terms of mastering a variety of complex and multidisciplinary knowledge as well as working conditions that require a variety of mental and physical efforts.

Bearing all this in mind, a precondition of a quality education is an adequate selection of future students. This includes testing their psychological and physical abilities and aptitudes, and pointing out the most important features of working in the tourism and hospitality industry. Thus, activities that precede the teaching process should streamline future students and give them clear notions about their future careers. These activities have become common in education fairs organized in major cities, and where the interested young people can inform themselves about the most important issues about their final career choice.

All educational institutions tend to enroll more students with a clear and unambiguous choice, and less undecided, who have ''accidentally'' chosen to study tourism and hospitality. In this way, we create a favorable climate for the realization of our goals and the achievement of high quality education. One of the initial goals of such education is to create a positive attitude towards the profession, to encourage motivation for continued learning and active participation in class, as well as to achieve a vision of the future where young people see themselves not only as successful business people, but also as good tourism and hospitality professionals.

The complexity and diversity of tourism and hospitality industry gives rise to different teaching conceptions. In secondary vocation schools, a due notice is paid to mastering the basic general knowledge and techniques, i.e. elementary operative skills depending on the fields of specialty which exist within the tourism and hospitality profession. College and university educational system insists on acquirement of organizational, creative and managerial skills. Depending on the concept of teaching, there is a comprehensive approach that seeks to form a general profile of tourist and hotel experts, as well as a specialized approach that focuses on particular segments of this business. Specialized approach is particularly evident in the


88

hotel industry, where the learning process is directed towards the accommodation sector, restaurant industries, gastronomy, and within these sectors it is further subdivided.

Contemporary teaching trends in the field of tourism and hospitality industry indicate a growing orientation toward specialization. This is the result of monitoring the economy needs by the educational institutions that are the creators of curriculums and the ones who implement them. Specialized curriculums have a specific structure that implies certain correlation between theory and practice. Consequently, the fulfillment of certain conditions for the performance of both types of instruction is requisite. It is particularly important to provide the financial conditions for conducting practical courses. This implies that adequate space and equipment for practical tourism and hospitality courses must be provided. In developed countries, tourism and hospitality colleges and universities have their own restaurants and travel agencies where the students work with practical training instructors. Such objects, even though they represent school laboratories, often operate commercially, which means that they are designed for all types of customers. However, to successfully incorporate students into practical work during their studies, a prior training period without customers must be provided. Consequently, it is necessary to organize a good preparatory practical training with small groups, in order for the instructors to be able to devote adequate attention and time to each student. For putting this into practice, it is necessary to have an adequate number of well-equipped training classrooms and good instructors who will be able to recognize the special qualities and preferences of individual students and encourage them to further widen their knowledge and skills, as well as strive to rectify the weaknesses, if there are any.

The specific method of acquiring knowledge and skills is field work. There are well-chosen and appropriate facilities where the acquired theoretical and practical knowledge is applied. In this way, interactive teaching is provided; it includes the application of knowledge gained in the classroom.

The material quality components involving the practice space and equipment are publically available so the potential students can inform themselves. Curricula with the names, purposes, and program content are also available as well as adequate basic textbooks and supplementary reading materials.

The Law on Higher Education, which presupposes the fulfillment of basic criteria for the accreditation of higher education institutions in Serbia, creates professional bodies and organs that prescribe mandatory standards,


89

the fulfillment of which is a necessary prerequisite for executing the curriculum. These standards are fully applied to the educational process and all of its tangible and intangible components are reduced to a measurable size. The mentioned standards presuppose available space for teaching and learning for every student, this space is equipped with modern teaching aids, including computer technology and the Internet, rich library and a reading room. Particular attention is paid to the expert assessment of the quality of manuals. In this sense, it is very important that the manuals are compatible with the curriculum, volume textbook, user-friendliness, clarity, adjustment to the students’ needs in terms of special emphasis on what is the most important. The analysis of case studies is considered a particular quality of a textbook. Case studies involve problem solving; they offer choices and provide the most suitable solutions. In addition to case studies, tourism and hospitality textbooks should contain diagrams, illustrations, tables, and similar enclosures that will best contribute to acquiring the specific knowledge and skills. This especially applies to foreign language textbooks, where the practical examples allow the students to easily apply their knowledge in the direct contact with guests from abroad.

The teaching process must favor the students. Therefore, it is of particular importance to evaluate the very progress of the teaching process in the direct communication between the teachers and the students. Given the fact that the commitment to study at a higher education institution is a specific expression of free choice of a young adult, students are considered to be competent to assess the quality of the teacher. This is why the students’ assessment is one of the key components of the quality of teaching.

The standards for the accreditation of higher education institutions established a mandatory evaluation of education by the students. This is accomplished via periodic anonymous surveys according to a standardized questionnaire. It elaborates nine basic criteria for assessing the quality of teachers' work in direct contact with students:

1. The teacher explains in a clear and understandable manner 2. The teacher explains unambiguously and highlights what is the most

important 3. The teacher presents the curriculum at an appropriate pace during the

semester 4. The teacher comes to class well prepared 5. The teacher teaches according to the agreed timetable and is never

late for class 6. The teacher encourages the involvement and participation of students

in class


90

7. The teacher provides useful information about the student (after term papers, exercises, activities in class)

8. The teacher responds to student’s questions and takes into account the students' comments

9. My previous grades in this subject are in correlation with the knowledge I attained.

The first five criteria represent the basis for further improvements of the quality of teaching and establishing interactive cooperation between the teachers and the students. They refer to the teacher’s ability to present the curriculum in a comprehensive way. This is reflected in the clarity and intelligibility of the presentation, selectivity, good lesson plan and acknowledgement of the established timetable. In this case, not only the professional, but also the basic pedagogical quality of teachers whose own example and professional attitude towards teaching influence the behavior of students and their future attitude towards work.

The following three criteria are related to teacher’s creativity and his/her ability to stimulate the students’ creativity, respect their individuality, recognize their specific areas of interest, and support their views and opinions. These criteria represent a novelty in the teaching process. Their adequate application implies the students’ seriousness and maturity as well as the appropriate professional and pedagogical quality of teachers. The appliance of these criteria emphasize both the teachers’ and the students’ intellectual potentials and their interactive communication.

The last criterion refers to the objectivity of giving grades. The application of this criterion is the result of the new approach, which includes periodic checks of the acquired knowledge during the teaching process, by means of colloquiums, term papers, homework, etc. This is particularly important for education in the tourism and hospitality industry because it allows continuous testing of knowledge and skills as well as evaluation of their application in practice. This approach allows the teacher to monitor the development of each individual student and to objectively record his progress, stagnation or decline. This enables the identification of a problem and provides an opportunity to resolve it during the semester.

The Importance of Foreign Language Learning for the Hospitality Management Students Language is a vital tool that we use to communicate with other people

in our daily and working lives. Good communication in foreign language becomes so crucial in today’s world due to the impact of globalization. For


91

global competitors, the most important factor is the ability to communicate on a wider, quicker and clearer basis. Knowledge of foreign languages plays a very important role in the hospitality industry. Hotels and tourism represent a major source of income. Consequently, effective communications are significant for sending messages to potential customers. Foreign languages are used in promotions, invitations and service provision.

Furthermore, foreign languages are important in making a first impression on tourists. Consequently, foreign tourists and visitors will come back again to visit the country.

In terms of communication, foreign languages are very important for business administration, so communicators should not make too many mistakes, since these can cause problems and delay business. Managers must use the language properly and communicate effectively. It is their duty to speak concisely and clearly to their staff or customers. Conciseness and clarity represent a means to achieve success. If managers do not assign work clearly, the staff might misunderstand the message which might cause some conflicts between the managers, the staff and the customers. Then, communication at work is not only an issue of the knowledge of a foreign language but it also means that the managers need to know how to use it properly with respect to different contexts and situations. This will help managers manage and prevent conflicts that can happen in the workplace. Communication at work should be pursued carefully because, in the world of business, mistakes or misunderstandings during agreeing on working conditions or signing contracts can lead to expensive and long-lasting problems. In brief, communication in workplace should involve as few mistakes as possible.

Furthermore, the importance of foreign languages should be emphasized because of the increasing number of foreign customers. Hotel managers and staff must be able to communicate using foreign languages when required. Fluency in foreign languages makes customers satisfied.

In addition, foreign languages may also be used for communication within the hotel or restaurant mostly in cooperation with foreign administrators, managers, employers and other foreign employees.

Moreover, foreign languages can be used as means of obtaining information about foreign customers, foreign employers and employees and their cultures. It helps managers understand other cultures better which may reduce potential conflicts.

Various foreign languages used in different service industries like tourism, hotel and food industries are of great importance. Hospitality industry combines different service industries that include restaurants,


92

lodgings, theme parks, event planning, transportation and other additional fields in the tourism industry. Most hospitality units like restaurants and hotels comprise of different groups of facility maintenance, marketing, management, human resources and direct operations (housekeepers, servers, porters, kitchen workers and bartenders). In all these departments, different foreign languages are used in order to ease the communication between the visitors, mostly tourists, and the employees. The knowledge of different foreign languages and communication skills are of great importance for the hospitality industry because it may ease the communication and help in fulfilling the guest’s requirements. Furthermore, the success of hospitality and tourism sectors is partially dependent on the employees’ foreign language communication skills.

It is well known that language is one of the most powerful tool for communication. With the recent emerging of world globalization, people who speak two or more languages have a variety of advantages to their benefit. The various foreign languages used in the hospitality industry include English, German, French, Italian, Spanish, Japanese, Russian, Persian, Arabic, Chinese etc.

The Organization of Foreign Language Teaching at The College of Hotel Management from Belgrade Besides the practical, technical, marketing and managerial knowledge,

in recent years a due attention has been paid to communication skills in direct contact between hoteliers and guests.

The fundamental goal of the College of Hotel Management from Belgrade is to master the functional knowledge based on the balance between theory and practice. The curriculum of this institution focuses on foreign language learning. The approach to teaching foreign languages must synthesize basic professional expertise in hotel management, with special emphasis on communication skills.

This part of the paper will present the organization of foreign language teaching, the content of the curriculum and leveling of skills at the College of Hotel Management from Belgrade. Mastering communication skills in foreign languages is a priority goal of foreign language teaching at our College. This objective is realized by organizing and implementing student practical training abroad, where the students apply their knowledge in direct contact with guests.

Five foreign languages are taught at the College of Hotel Management: English, Italian, German, French, and Russian. All the students must learn two foreign languages. Business English language is obligatory and it is


93

taught throughout all three academic years. Business Italian, German, French, and Russian are elective languages. Students elect one of the mentioned languages in the first semester and learn it throughout the rest of their education at the College. The curriculum is unified for all five foreign languages taught at the College of Hotel Management.

The aim of the foreign language learning is to familiarize the students with the professional language and business terminology, as well as with intercultural communication. The acquired foreign language competence is expected to enable an efficient communication in the workplace, as well as the use of professional literature written in a foreign language.

Foreign language lessons are divided into two parts: theoretical and practical.

The theoretical frame of Foreign business language taught during the first year of study involves: description of different types of accommodation, hotels, rooms, bathrooms, description of hotel facilities: dining facilities, recreational facilities, conference facilities, etc., the hotel organization: hotel divisions and departments, job descriptions in the hotel industry, job applications, eating establishments and types of restaurants with basic terminology connected to food service, laying the table, food and meals, menu, verbs connected to food preparation and methods of cooking, communication with the guest, description of a meal.

Practical frame of Foreign business language taught during the first year of study involves: communicational skills and practical usage of a foreign language by means of dialogues and monologues, class discussion, student’s project work and PowerPoint presentations.

The theoretical frame of Foreign business language taught during the second year of study involves: levels of service and hotel categorization, reservations, registration or check-in, check-out and paying the bill, hotel services, complaints, dining-room staff, obligations and commitments of the employees, communication between and with the employees in a restaurant: expressing obligation, permission, proposals, orders, offers… types of service, parts of a meal/courses (hors d’oeuvre, appetizer, entrée, soups, main course, dessert, savoury…), the structure of a menu, names of meals, description of dishes (main ingredients, method of preparing and cooking, method of serving), national specialties, kitchen staff, hygiene and safety, kitchen utensils, verbs connected with cooking and preparing food, recipes.

Practical frame of Foreign business language taught during the second year of study involves: communicational skills and practical usage of a foreign language by means of dialogues and monologues, class discussion, student’s project work and PowerPoint presentations.


94

The theoretical frame of Foreign business language taught during the third year of study involves: advertising materials, hotel brochures, promotion of a hotel, describing a resort hotel, front office communications, hotel switchboard, a telephone conversation, hotel reception documentation, informing the guests about the hotel services and amenities, business correspondence (formal letter, e-mail, fax, etc.) description of national cuisines, contemporary gastronomy trends, beverage service in bars and restaurants, wines and wining, cheese, human resources (selection and recruitment).

Practical frame of Foreign business language taught during the third year of study involves: communicational skills and practical usage of a foreign language by means of dialogues and monologues, class discussion, student’s project work and PowerPoint presentations.

The Application of Foreign Language Learning in Practice As it has been previously mentioned, mastering the foreign language

communication skills is one of the essential goals at The College of Hotel Management. This aim is realized during student practical training abroad. It gives our students an opportunity to apply their knowledge of foreign languages in the direct communication with the guests, managers and coworkers.

In the last year, over 150 of our students attended practical training abroad.

The following table shows the countries, places and cities and the total number of students who attended practice there.

Table 1. Students’ practical training abroad, 2012

Country Place / City Number of students

France Adriatic coast 7 Mexico Cancun 6 Greece Khalkidhiki, Crete, Athens 50

Slovenia Kranjska Gora 5 Slovak Republic Bardejovske Kupele 4

Macedonia Lake Ohrid 7 Russia Sankt Petersburg 11 Poland Kielce 6 Spain Marbella 21

Germany Immenstaad, Fehmarn, Hamburg 21

USA Block Island, Dickinson, Highlands, Northeast Harbor, New Jersey, Pittsburgh 29

TOTAL 167 Source: The College of Hotel Management, Belgrade, Serbia


95

When asked to elaborate on their use of foreign languages during practice, the students usually answered that they mostly used the language spoken in the country they went to. This was an opportunity for them to practice communication in English, Italian, Russian, German, and French. If they did not know the language spoken in the country, they mostly used the English language, some of them even learned to communicate at the beginner’s level in the language of the country they had practice in.

Depending on the job assigned to the students, they actively used the language they learned at our College.

Some of the students were working at the reception. They engaged in the conversation about different types of accommodation, hotel rooms, bathrooms, they informed the guests about the hotel services and amenities, their job involved front office communications, hotel switchboard, telephone reservations, they were in charge of hotel reception documentation, i.e. they created control books, wall charts, computer files, guest history records, reservation diaries, arrival lists, etc. Consequently, they were in charge of making reservations, registration or check-in, check-out and settling the bill, and guest complaints.

Other students worked at a restaurant, thus they used basic terminology connected to food service, food preparation and methods of cooking and serving, menu, laying the table. In the direct communication with the guests they described parts of a meal/courses (hors d’oeuvre, appetizer, entrée, soups, main course, dessert, savoury…), menu: the structure, names of meals and beverages, description of dishes (main ingredients, method of preparing and cooking, method of serving), national specialties. Those who worked at the bar learned the names of different beverages and how to prepare and serve cocktails.

All the students who attended the practice considered the knowledge of foreign languages attained at the College of Hotel Management very useful in real and professional life.

Conclusion The quality of education is a basic prerequisite for the achievement of

educational goals in the field of tourism and hospitality, which is to educate competent professionals who will use their knowledge and skills well and who will be able to respond to all challenges. Comprehensiveness and measurable quality of teaching lies in its tangible and intangible components which provide the possibility for the students to evaluate their teacher’s work. This aims to continuously improve the quality of all the participants in the learning process. Responsibility of foreign language teachers is


96

particularly important because the students must be able to use their knowledge of foreign languages in communication with foreign guests. On one hand, there is the contact and communication with foreign guests in the student’s own country or in the region where the communication with managers and employees exercised their native language. And on the other, is the student’s summer practice abroad, where the application of knowledge of foreign languages is realized in two dimensions: in communication with guests as well as with managers and other employees. Apart of the knowledge of the English language which has become a global means of communication in between people, it is important to insist on knowledge of language spoken in the country where the students reside during the practice.

Therefore, the main goal of The College of Hotel Management from Belgrade is to continually improve the student’s knowledge of foreign languages, insisting on all the components of the quality teaching, as well as preparing students for international competitions and summer practice. Raising the level of students’ knowledge of foreign languages, from the point of application in practice, is an important condition for the further strengthening of international cooperation of The College of Hotel Management, both with similar educational institutions, and with the hotel companies.

References Deming, W. E. 1996. Kako izaći iz krize, Beograd, Grmeč. Kosar, Lj., Rašeta, S., 2005. Izazovi kvaliteta, Viša hotelijerska škola, Beograd. Kosar, Lj., 2012. Hotelijerstvo I, VHŠ, Beograd. Maslov, A., 2004. Psihologija u menadžmentu, Novi Sad, Adozes. Milojević, Lj., Nova EU turistička politika: Ka jačem partnerstvu u evropskom

turizmu, Stručni časopis iz oblasti turizma ”Turistički pregled”, br. 5, p. 57-62. Milosavljević, G., 1997. Organizacija treninga, Službeni glasnik, Beograd. The Law on Higher Education, Službeni glasnik RS 76/05. Acreditation Report, 2012. The College of Hotel Management, Belgrade. Documentation about the Student Practical Training, The College of Hotel

Management, Belgrade.


Prof. dr. LJILJANA KOSAR (The College of Hotel Management, Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected]) graduated and obtained her Magister’s and Doctor’s degree at the Department of Tourism at the Faculty of Sciences, University of Belgrade. Since 1979. she has been working at Universities. She was elected full professor in 2003. at the University of Novi Sad (Faculty of Sciences,



97

Department of Geography, Tourism and Hotel Management). Scientific fields of interest: hotel management, classification, categorization, standardization of accommodation facilities, the structure of hotel product, management of quality in the hotel industry. She is the author and coauthor of about 100 scientific papers and 10 textbooks. She participated in numerous national and international conferences.

Dr. MIHAELA LAZOVIC (The College of Hotel Management, Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected]) is a full professor of English language at The College of Hotel Management in Belgrade.

She obtained the title Professor of English Language and Literature (2003) as well as the title of Magister in Linguistics (2009) and Doctor in Linguistics (2012) at the English Language Department at the Faculty of Philosophy, University of Novi Sad.

She published over 20 scientific papers in the field of comparative linguistics and participated in many national and international conferences.

She is also a published translator (English, Romanian and Serbian).


98

NEW PERSPECTIVES ON FORMAL AND INFORMAL LEARNING: A STUDENTS’

REPRESENTATIONS ANALYSIS

Laura Ioana Coroamă

Abstract: Modern society does not envisage school as an exclusive learning environment any more. New technologies and complex interaction and organisational patterns constantly challenge learning modalities and stimulate the emergence of new learning strategies. This proposal focuses on the study of secondary school students’ representations concerning formal and informal learning of English in a Romanian environment. Key words: formal learning, informal learning, learning environment, plurilingualism

Introduction There are many reasons why formal and informal language learning is

an interesting and worthy area of study. Current research has highly focused on formal learning and teaching of foreign languages showing little interest as far as “outside the school learning” is concerned. However, informal learning has a history within educational and social thought, and attitudes towards learning languages in various environments are more complex than one might expect at first.

The present paper represents a part of a wider project that investigates the constructs of formal and informal learning of foreign languages in the Banat region. I am particularly interested in English as a foreign language learnt and taught in a multilingual and multicultural environment.

I will consider the following areas: language biography, students’ representations regarding foreign languages, learning within a community of practice and learning strategies. In particular, I will examine different levels of convergence and discontinuity between these areas.

The specificity of a plurilingual context of research The research I have been conducted for about four years is situated in

the Banat region. This area represents a particular example of linguistic and cultural co-habitation which has given birth to a variety of language learning approaches.

The historic and political evolution of this region, placed at the Serbian and Hungarian borders, led to a continuous reassessment of the linguistic and cultural repertoire of its inhabitants. This is the reason why the population of


99

this area represents the embodiment of European values crystallized through centuries and having a Latin model at its origin. Later on, Byzantine and Slavic influences reshaped the linguistic heritage. Nowadays, the four languages and cultures the most represented are: Romanian, Serbian, German and Hungarian.

However, some historical moments have to be mentioned in order to understand the turning points which caused the creation of a language and cultures creuset in the West of the country. The Banat region has known a powerful phenomenon of colonisations during the 18th and 19th centuries. On one hand, the Hapsburg Empire was trying to restructure its crowded areas, extremely affected by a social and economic crisis. On the other hand, Banat was meant to function as a region which should have protected the empire from possible enemy attacks. Even more, the very rich economic potential of Banat laid at the origin of the Hapsburg colonization. These social movements have also changed the social, linguistic and political structure of the local population, creating thus a new multi-ethnic and plurilingual community. These colonisations have encouraged the emergence of new mentalities and put the basis of another type of education: opened to the acknowledgement of other languages and cultures, based on tolerance and collective thinking and living. In other words, the social phenomena gave birth to an intercultural society, sensible to the foreign element and dynamic from several points of view.

This tolerant and permissive context suffered not only ideological and political transformations but linguistic too when the communist regime was installed. The status of Russian shadowed both the regional minorities’ languages and other foreign languages too. However, in Banat, the former continued to be used especially in private environments, such as the family, groups of friends, etc. The linguistic policies from the last twenty years have prioritized two aspects:

• valorisation of minorities’ languages and • the importance of foreign languages learning from a young age.

The reform of the Romanian educational system has known a dynamic reconsideration between 1997 and 2000. It was characterized by the implementation of a new direction, namely from an ethnocentric educational system towards a flexible one, receptive to linguistic shifts and learners’ needs.

The ecological approach of language learning in a plurilingual region Language learning is powerfully linked to the environment where this

process takes place. The historical conditions presented here have emphasized the continuity of languages in Banat due to their practice in


100

isolated contexts. Therefore, one has to analyse language learning processes in relation with the particularities of the context where this language is practiced.

Taking into consideration the theories of chaos and complexity regarding language learning (Larsen-Freeman 1997, 2002) and perceiving the language class as a social ecosystem, the ecological approach focuses on the elements of the environment that make things happen the way they do. From the point of view of ecological linguistics, context is not only a background for language but it defines it while simultaneously is being defined by it (van Lier 2004). Ecology is the study of predictable and unpredictable influences that have an impact on language learning. This approach actually favours interconnections, centre-multiplicity and the in-between spaces which emerge among learning situations. Thus, the ecological approach is appropriate to our study because it does not ignore the various influences of environmental elements on the learner’s learning activity.

Language learning in Banat includes not only foreign languages, taught in a formal environment, but minority languages too. Therefore, an ecological perspective fits this heterogeneous linguistic structure as language learners are gradually developing various patterns, both of action and knowledge-in-action through their interactions with others and with various contexts such as formal, non-formal and informal contexts.

The evolutionary pattern of the ecological theory rejects the linear process of language acquisition while advancing a complex view of learning:

Ecological linguistics regards language learning not as gradual, linear acquisition, but as emergence. Emergence happens when relatively simple elements combine together to form a higher-order system. The whole is not only more than the sum of its parts, it is of a different nature than the parts. The new system is on a different scale, and has different meanings and patterns of functioning than the simpler ingredients had from which emerged. (van Lier 2004:5)

According to van Lier, in terms of learning, the notion of emergence is tightly related to affordance, a term which indicates a relationship between a learner and the environment where his/her contact with the language takes place. In this paper, I will particularly discuss the formal and informal environment as potentially rich resources of language learning in this plurilingual region.

In order to summarise this part, I will mention the characteristics of the ecological approach: relations, context, patterns and systems, emergence, quality, value, critical perspective, variability, diversity and activity (van Lier 2004).


101

Formal vs. informal learning If formal learning is commonly associated with a specific category of

institutions, such as schools, colleges or universities, defining informal learning becomes a difficult task. I will borrow the characterization provided by the European Commission, according to which:

Learning that is not organised or structured in terms of goals, time or instruction. This covers skills acquired (sometimes unintentionally) through life and work experience, for example:

• project-management or IT skills acquired at work • languages and intercultural skills acquired during a stay abroad • IT skills acquired outside work • skills acquired through volunteering, cultural activities, sports, youth work

and through activities at home (e.g. taking care of a child).

The absence of structure and organisation and the emphasis of life experience shape the content of the informal learning. However, the latter was anticipated and developed by the representatives of social theories of education: E. Lindeman (1926), J.M. Brew (1947, 1955), J. Dewey (1968, 1969, 1978), I. Illich (1973, 1975, 1976). They globally argued the benefits of learning through experience and within a community and pointed out the disadvantages of schooling.

Minorities’ languages in Banat emerged in an exclusively informal environment, supported however by a formal one starting with the schooling age. Nowadays, unfortunately, learning local languages has dramatically decreased, English being promoted as a lingua franca in a variety of environments. Despite this ideological linguistic and cultural shift, English too benefits both from its formal and informal support as it will be discussed in the data analysis part of this paper.

Communities of practice as informal environments of language learning Announced by social theories and developed by Jean Lave and Etienne

Wenger, communities of practice are

re-formed by people who engage in a process of collective learning in a shared domain of human endeavour: a tribe learning to survive, a band of artists seeking new forms of expression, a group of engineers working on similar problems, a clique of pupils defining their identity in the school, a network of surgeons exploring novel techniques, a gathering of first-time managers helping each other cope. In a nutshell: Communities of practice are groups of people who share a concern or a passion for something they do and learn how to do it better as they interact regularly. (Wenger, 2007)


102

They argue that these communities are everywhere and that we are at the same time members in several communities: within our families, at work, in various associations, etc. The students of our study also activate in a multitude of communities where there is potential for language learning: they learn them at school, they take private courses or they attend private language schools. Watching television and films, listening to music with colleagues, families or friends or joining virtual communities are other examples of groups who share the same interest and these activities may led to the emergence of learning.

Students’ representations on their language biography The results presented in this paper are issued from both a quantitative

and a qualitative research. Thus, the analysed data has been gathered from 100 questionnaires filled by secondary school students on a voluntary basis. The respondents were selected from the urban and rural environment and their age is between 11 and 14 years old. The quantitative dimension provided important elements for a more thorough qualitative research consisting of 10 interviews with students who have answered to the previous questionnaires.

As far as their language biography is concerned, the results of the questionnaires have pointed out the following aspects:

• the secondary school students we questioned learn English, French and German in a formal environment;

• 38% of them named Romanian as the language they like to speak at home whilst 49% indicated both Romanian and English as favourite languages;

• when asked to give examples of languages they would like to learn, the students enumerated several languages from languages spoken at home, Serbian or Hungarian, to Korean and Chinese;

• the data analysis identified a pre-school acquisition stage: at home, in cultural centres or by media-related activities.

The interviews, on the other hand, permitted a more detailed analysis as the students felt comfortable in expressing their opinions about language learning and also about the environment they live and learn in. One of the key themes which emerged from these data was students’ perceptions of the plurilingual environment of their region. If the younger ones showed themselves only aware of the rich linguistic repertoire, the 14-year old teenagers also acknowledged the benefits of speaking some of the minorities’ languages: you can find a job easier; you can visit and work in the country where the language is spoken or you can understand what people speak


103

around you. Even more, respondents in whose families, people speak minorities’ languages mentioned the acquisition of partial skills such as oral comprehension, for example: although they refuse speaking in Hungarian they understand it.

Learning languages is also a part of their participation in virtual communities: playing games in networks or communicating with foreign teenagers on common themes. Students feel that languages are tools for accessing information, knowledge in general. Their choice of languages depends both on their cognitive and emotional needs and on the demands of the environment.

English as a foreign language or a new lingua franca? In this contextual framework, English has a special status, being a

language specific both to the formal and informal environment. The majority of subjects included English in several categories as the language they prefer, they speak at home, they learn at school, they watch films and listen to music, etc. Teenagers have also associated English with strong emotional connotations. Furthermore, for 58% of the subjects, this language is very important while for 34% of them is important.

Not only have the students manifested positive representations regarding English but they also have a well-developed feeling of self-efficiency, indicating good (42%) or good enough (41%) when asked to appreciate their language level. The level indicators were mostly communicating abroad (87%), comprehension of films and songs (55%), grades at school (50%). They do not show awareness regarding the different types of environments where they learn the language but they exemplify means of accessing information situated in a variety of contexts.

However, the interviews put forward the relation between the feeling of personal efficiency and informal or non-formal learning. 4 out of 10 students said they have learnt more English outside school: music and films contributing a lot to their learning. They also mention private classes as extremely helpful because, in this case, the teacher focuses only on their needs and problems, a similar situation being more difficult or impossible in a formal context. These results are supported by a 2011 report which states that “personalisation, collaboration and informalisation (informal learning) will be at the core of learning in the future.” (The Future of Learning: Preparing for Change)

English is not only present in teenagers’ daily life but it is also promoted by teachers, media, political, economical and cultural factors which make it almost mandatory in any professional or educational area. In


104

these circumstances, more and more parents require English classes from an early age while, later on, formal learning of English is completed by other activities in which the language is further practiced.

Students’ perceptions about the strategies they use in order to attain certain skills in English underline:

• an eclectic use of strategies which are adapted according to the environmental characteristics;

• the use of task-related and evaluation-oriented strategies in the formal environment;

• the preference for strategies depending on learners’ emotions and needs in the informal environment;

• the development of adaptive skills at a conscious or unconscious level.

Conclusions The purpose of this paper was to open a wide perspective on secondary

school students’ perception on language learning in a specific Romanian region. The data analysis emphasized that Romanian students have positive representations about English learning. They also make use of interrelated skills and learning strategies which they adapt depending on the environment specificity. Adapted learning skills emerge in contextual diversity and reshape the learning and teaching approach. Although English detains a powerful status in students’ representations, other languages are not totally ignored as they are a constitutive part of the context the students live in.

However, an excessive emphasis on English and English learning may gradually lead to the variation of the impact and importance of other languages. As long as students’ perceptions of languages are influenced by others’ opinions as well (teachers, parents, friends, etc.), one should pay attention to the emergence of new language mediators, especially those present in the virtual environment.

References Aden, J. (ed.). 2009. Didactiques de langues-cultures: univers de croyance et

contextes. Paris: Le Manuscrit Université. Babeţi, A. 2007. Le Banat: Un Eldorado aux confins. Paris : Editions de

l’Université Paris IV-Sorbonne. Brougère, G. & H. Bézille. 2007. « De l’usage de la notion d’informel dans

le champ de l’éducation », Revue française de Pédagogie n° 158 : 117-160.


105

Coroamǎ, L. 2010. "Une analyse comparée des univers de croyance des élèves roumains concernant le plurilinguisme" in J. Aden, T. Grimshaw & H.Penz (dir./eds.), Enseigner les langues-cultures à l'ère de la complexité. Teaching Language in Culture in an Era of Complexity. Brussels. P.I.E Peter Lang, Coll GramR.

Demorgon, J. 1996. Complexité des cultures et de l’interculturel. Paris : Anthropos. Illich, I.1973. Deschooling Society. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Kramsch, C. (dir.). 2002. Language acquisition and language socialization:

Ecological perspectives. London: Continuum. Larsen-Freeman, D. 1997. « Chaos/complexity science and second language

acquisition ». Applied Linguistics 18.2 : 141–165. Lave, J. & E. Wenger. 1991. Situated Learning. Legitimate Peripheral

Participation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Penz, H. 2010. "Teaching Strategies for Achieving Understanding in the

Language Classroom" in J. Aden, T. Grimshaw & H.Penz (dir./eds.), Enseigner les langues-cultures à l'ère de la complexité. Teaching Language in Culture in an Era of Complexity. Brussels. P.I.E Peter Lang, Coll GramR.

Van Lier, L. 2004. The Ecology and Semiotics of Language Learning. New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Wenger, E. 2005. La théorie des communautés de pratique. Québec: les Presses de l’Université Laval.

NOTE ON THE AUTHOR

LAURA IOANA COROAMA is PhD student UNAM, CREN EA 2661, INEDUM, University of Maine, France ([email protected]). She has published various articles.



106

INTRODUCING THE MULTICULTURAL COMPETENCE TO UNIVERSITY STUDENTS

Luiza Caraivan

Abstract: The paper analyses the possible definitions of cultural competence taking into account the multicultural characteristic of higher education and of the e-learning environments. It also considers some modalities to make students aware of the importance of becoming culturally competent, as it is one of the main requirements on the job market. It is essential that teachers and instructors should also include the skills to become culturally competent in their curricula. In this respect, teachers have been increasingly preoccupied with culturally-based adaptive education, especially those involved in online learning environments. The paper explores the literature connected to this topic, focusing on relevant conclusions that could be used for future research. The present study also takes into consideration 'the other side', analyzing the feedback from a group of university students who were part of a Business Communication course that integrated aspects of multicultural competence in the curriculum. During the course, various dimensions of culture and cultural differences were identified in order to introduce students to potential situations that could require them to be (multi)culturally competent. Finally, we address the challenges faced both by university teachers and students and we suggest how cultural issues should be solved instead of avoiding them. Some solutions refer to developing culturally appropriate communication, directly addressing critical cultural differences, and last but not least, modifying the educational curricula and process. Keywords: cultural identity, diversity, multicultural education

The multicultural competence requirement Multiculturalism and the acceptance of diversity have become major

issues since the world was defined as a global village and since the “story of our times” reflected “an increasingly interconnected world where concepts that appear to be unrelated actually are related” (Johansson 2006 21). The mobility of people across cultures and countries has caused a “rise of intersections” (Johansson 2006:21). Defining multiculturalism and putting it from theory into practice are two crucial points on official agendas. Nowadays, multicultural competence is a requirement in fields such as literature, arts, health care, education and even business – especially for human resources, and governmental agencies. One of the most circulated definitions of multicultural competence refers to the “ability to understand, communicate with and effectively interact with people across cultures” or with different social and economic backgrounds Martin, Vaughn 2007: 31).


107

Multicultural competence is a process that can be developed over many years, depending on the geographical space and on people’s mentality, as society has to evolve so that multiculturalism can go from theory to practice.

Multicultural competence has also been defined as “the ability in personal and professional contexts to interact respectfully and effectively with diverse individuals and groups in a manner that recognizes, affirms, and values the worth, and protects the rights and dignity of all” (Vernooy, Harris 2010: 2).

Cultural competence is strongly related to culture, which can be seen as a frame of reference for each individual perception of the world. Thus, culture influences traditions, beliefs, experience, education and social status. In this respect, multicultural competence implies having the ability to recognize different cultures, understand their values and appreciate differences. Although communities are not bias-free, efforts should be made to implement the idea that no culture is superior to another.

Multicultural competence can also be defined as “a set of congruent behaviors, attitudes and policies that come together as a system, agency or among professionals and enable that system, agency or those professionals to work effectively in cross-cultural situations” (Cross 1989:13).

A more complex definition sees cultural competence as a “developmental process that evolves over an extended period. Both individuals and organizations are at various levels of awareness, knowledge and skills along the cultural competence continuum” (Borrego, Johnson 2012).

The fact that multicultural competence has been described in a variety of definitions, using various concepts and frameworks can be explained by the diversity of cultures within a community and the variety of domains that require this type of competence.

North American countries have been using this concept since the 1950s, whereas Western European countries have focused upon multiculturalism in the late 1960s. However, Eastern European countries have only been interested in this component since the beginning of the 21st century. In Romania, some steps have been made towards introducing this competence in education, health care and business sectors starting with the year 1991 when several waves of refugees coming from countries at war have entered the Romanian communities. Although Romanian universities have been dealing with foreign students for a longer period of time, the tendency was to integrate them into Romanian communities rather than acknowledge diversity and appreciate difference. Unfortunately, there have also been cases of discrimination and isolation of certain ethnically and culturally diverse groups.


108

As the diversity of students in universities is continually increasing, understanding and integrating the multicultural competence into the curriculum becomes compulsory.

Components of the multicultural competence Some researchers consider that the multicultural competence comprises

three components: awareness, knowledge and skills (Pedersen 2007:10), whereas more recent literature speaks about four components, adding attitude to the list.

Awareness refers to an individual’s position within a certain community and how it affects the individual’s values, beliefs, assumptions and behaviour towards the others. It also implies understanding how an individual’s point of view may result in a type of behaviour that affects the others. Awareness can be simply defined as the ability of understanding difference.

The knowledge component refers to learning specific information about different cultures, about the self and the individuals who are different from the self. However, acquiring knowledge about (in)equality, rights or exclusion and inclusion is not sufficient and may prove to be inconsistent with both individual and collective behaviors.

The third component focuses on the skills to communicate with people from different cultures. Both verbal and non-verbal communication is fundamental when interacting with people from cultures different from our own. It is essential to identify and discuss differences, although communication skills vary from culture to culture.

Finally, the attitude component underlines the difference between acquiring knowledge, increasing awareness and training for communicating with the cultural other, in order to reconsider and redefine the individual’s own values and behaviours about difference.

These four components of multicultural competence should be integrated across curricula so that students should have the knowledge and the skills to recognise otherness. Moreover, students should manifest a positive attitude towards the different cultural other.

Achieving multicultural competence Firstly, multicultural competence, understood as the manifestation of

respect and recognition of cultural values that are different from the self’s cultural values, can be achieved by becoming aware of “personal and culturally learned assumptions or biases” Corey, Schneider 2011). Although comprehension of the cultural other is also influenced by biases, identifying


109

them is an essential step towards introducing this competence in educational processes. Thus, students may be engaged in activities that should encourage them to recognize misconceptions and manage commonly held beliefs, in order to become culturally competent.

Secondly, an important movement towards achieving cultural competence is to increase knowledge about particular cultures. In this respect, direct contact with members of a culturally different community is the key to make students more aware of diversity. Language may be a barrier and communication may be hindered by nonverbal-signs that can be misinterpreted. That is why, students should learn about different cultures.

Thirdly, interaction is a means to facilitate comprehension of the cultural other. When it is appropriate, students may take part in various traditional events that can improve communication.

Universities should incorporate multicultural competence in curricula and should take into consideration the so-called teaching-to-transform process. Transformative teaching is based on acquired knowledge and skills and is aiming to encourage a positive attitude towards the cultural other. At the same time, it stimulates critical thinking as a new component of the multicultural competence. Critical thinking can be defined as a combination between awareness of the self and of the other and the ability to acquire knowledge about the other being as bias-free as possible.

Integrating the multicultural competence in the curriculum The integration of the multicultural competence in Romanian curricula

is not an easy task, especially since the four components are also part of the transformative teaching process.

Nevertheless, we have started to integrate them in the University curricula due to the fact that business students manifested interest in working for multinational companies or for managers with different cultural background. That is the main reason why we have designed communication courses which are meant to offer students the opportunity to discuss a variety of issues that influence their behavior towards different cultures. These issues include race, gender, age, language, ability and disability, social and economic status, religion, national origin, sexual identity.

One of the activities that I have designed in order to make students aware of the importance of the multicultural competence is the following: First of all, students are given list of names and they should guess the nationality and the gender of a person with that name. Secondly, they are offered images of both men and women and they have to give those images an identity. Then, students are asked to make a description of that person based on their


110

perception of a certain culture, taking into consideration the following categories: age, social status, economic status, educational background, religion, nationality, abilities or disabilities. This type of activity raises awareness of how individuals perceive the others and also offers feedback on their knowledge about other cultures. Students’ skills and attitudes may be improved or even altered after receiving feedback, so that their ability to become part of a team and accept diversity should be put into practice.

The reality of the labour market requires students – as future employees - to be culturally competent, due to the fact that companies create their own organizational culture. Organizational culture generally promotes interaction and communication among individuals with various backgrounds, which means it is essential to have the skills to identify and understand the cultural other. An employee who is culturally competent may also adapt in a natural manner to unexpected events. The ability to learn from different cultures and to empathise with the cultural other is always appreciated within a team as it leads to creativity and innovations (Borrego, Johnson 2012).

In this respect, multicultural education should be included in all universities and it should go beyond the accumulation of knowledge and raising awareness. Reconsidering individual attitudes and working on individual skills is essential when speaking about culturally competent students who will become employees, managers, mentors, health care providers, etc. Education providers will have a major role in the near future as more and more culturally different people inhabit the same territory. Although the German Chancellor, Angela Merkel, declared that “the approach [to build] a multicultural [society] and to live side-by-side and to enjoy each other... has failed, utterly failed” (Merkel 2010), we must remember that by integrating the multicultural competence in education and in various curricula there is the possibility to change attitudes and behaviours both of teachers and students, both of the self towards the other and of the other towards the self.

Conclusions The multicultural competence is a highly debated issues and whether it

will be successful or not remains for the future generations to judge. However, the four components of this type of competence: awareness, knowledge, skills and attitude – to which we have added critical thinking as a fifth component, are essential in various fields and sectors. In a multicultural society, teams are created and diversity is managed in a positive way. Culturally diverse communities imply more than race and ethnicity. Finally, universities behave


111

as a community, receiving various students with different backgrounds, while integrating culturally diverse students remains a challenge.

References Borrego, E., Johnson, R. G. 2012. Cultural Competence for Public

Managers. Managing Diversity in Today’s World. CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group. Boca Raton. E-book.

Corey, G., Schneider Corey, M., Callanan, P. 2011. Issues and Ethics in the Helping Professions. Cengage Learning. Belmont. Page Corey, G., Schneider Corey, M., Callanan, P. 2011.

Cross T., Bazron, B., Dennis, K., Isaacs, M. 1989. Towards a Culturally Competent System of Care, volume I. Georgetown University Child Development Center. Washington.,

Johansson, F., 2006. The Medici Effect: What Elephants and Epidemics Can Teach Us about Innovation. Harvard Business School Press. Boston.

Martin, M., Vaughn, B.E., 2007. Cultural competence: The nuts and bolts of diversity and inclusion. In Strategic Diversity & Inclusion Management Magazine, Vol. 1, No. 1,

Merkel, A. 2010. Available http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11559451. Accessed on 1st March 2013.

Pedersen, P. 2007. Ethics, Competence, and Professional Issues in Cross-cultural Counselling. Available http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/15654_Chapter_1.pdf Accessed on 1st March 2013.

Vernooy, J., Harris, C. 2010. Multicultural Competence in the WSU Curriculum: A Proposal. Available http://www.wright.edu/academicaffairs/policies/MulticulturalCompetence.pdf Accessed on 1st March 2013.

NOTE ON THE AUTHOR

LUIZA CARAIVAN is Associate Professor at the Faculty of Management in Tourism and Commerce Timişoara, „Dimitrie Cantemir” Christian University. She holds a PhD. in English literature. She is the author of First Steps in Business English (2009) and Writing for Business (2011). She has also published numerous articles and studies in journals and magazines from Romania and abroad (Orizont – Timişoara, British and American Studies - Timişoara, Romanian Journal of English Studies – Timişoara, Europa –Novi Sad etc).

http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11559451

http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11559451

http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/15654_Chapter_1.pdf

http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/15654_Chapter_1.pdf

http://www.wright.edu/academicaffairs/policies/MulticulturalCompetence.pdf

http://www.wright.edu/academicaffairs/policies/MulticulturalCompetence.pdf


112

A PLEA FOR ECONOMIC HERMENEUTICS

Gheorghe Băileşteanu

Anda Laura Lungu Universitatea de Vest Timișoara

Facultatea de Economie și de Administrare a Afacerilor

Abstract: Starting from Schleiermacher’s theories, who speaks about “special Hermeneutics” as foundation for Universal Hermeneutics, we consider that Economics, in order to progress, must assimilate the term of Economic Hermeneutics as a general theory of the interpretation rules, a meditation on the interpretation activity, with accents on the normative character (Schleiermacher), but also on the phenomenological aspect (Heidegger, Ricoeur, etc). Our scientific approach is intended as a plea for the interpretation of the economic phenomena and processes from an objective–and actual - historical perspective, intransitive, transitive, dogmatic, synchronic and diachronic one. We believe that the foundation of an economic hermeneutical approach can be built on what the Stoics called signification (semeiotike) to which we may add Semantics and Logical Pragmatics. By accepting Semiotics as a foundation for Economic Hermeneutics, we implicitly ought to accept its operational instruments: sign, symbol, symbolic language, semantic trees etc. A modern interpretation theory in economy which we call Economic Hermeneutics, in opposition to the classical theories of Heidegger, Schleiermacher or Gadamer, must, we think, also take over the perspective of Ilya Prigogine’s dissipative structures. This is why we shall operate with terms such as: chance, necessity, determinism, nondeterminism, option, unexpected, foresight, visioning. We see it as a pioneering approach in the economic research. Many issues are for us still in the primary research stage and we would regard it as an achievement if others, starting from some of our hypotheses, could develop a better theory. Key terms: Economic Hermeneutics, Pragmatics, Semantics, Economic Semiotics, Syntax

Short history For laymen, Hermeneutics is the science of interpreting biblical and

literary texts. This leads to the similarity between Hermeneutics and Exegesis. The connection between the two sciences, Hermeneutics and Exegesis, was studied by Fee and Stuart. They emphasize that: “Although the word “hermeneutics” ordinarily covers the whole field of interpretation, including exegesis, it is also used in the narrower sense of seeking the contemporary relevance of ancient texts” (Fee,Stuart 1998: 30). For


113

Heidegger, however, comprehension is not a result of exegesis but the basis of any interpretation or explanation, as a way of being of the interpreter (Dasein). The catalyst of the messages is the Dasein, namely the thinking, whereas the term truth is based on the Greek termaletheia (Clinci 2010) which he translates as “a state of unconcealedness”, of “dis- closure”. As a follower of philosophical Hermeneutics, Heidegger has as a main target of interpretation the transformation of the obscure elements into clear structures, this being the essence of any human activity. For the man, the “Umwelt“ is not essential as such, but important is his understanding and his integration in universality, at a certain historical moment, with his specific features. “This universality of the phenomenon of interpretation is the one which is at the basis of Hermeneutics as science” (Rambu 1998: 4). The nature of universality of Hermeneutics is a premise for the development of the hermeneutic approach in Economics.

Schleiermacher speaks about “special Hermeneutics” as foundation for Universal Hermeneutics, which is, in its turn, materialized into a plurality of forms, of types of Hermeneutics (Schleiermacher 1977: 75).

Nowadays, we can speak about a Hermeneutics of jurisprudence, of arts. Thus, there were developed applications of Hermeneutics in the legal sciences (Legal Hermeneutics), in Arts (Musical Hermeneutics) and so on.

A first conclusion would be that over time Hermeneutics becomes a general theory of the interpretation rules, a reflection on the interpretation activity. Without excluding other approaches, two directions are obvious here: Hermeneutics is an art which establishes clear rules of interpretation (Schleiermacher), a normative character; Hermeneutics is a reflection on the phenomenon of interpretation (Heidegger, Paul Ricoeur and others), phenomenology.

A second conclusion is that in modern approaches, Hermeneutics is no longer the interpretation itself, but the science of conditions, of the object, of the means of interpretation and of practical application. The finality of interpreting is the comprehension, which has contextuality as the main mediator. The interpretation is considered as an assembly of rules which gives arguments for the experience of interpretation and it is adapted to principles and general rules which Hermeneutics includes, theoretically.

The interpretation is intransitive, of acknowledgement, whose finality is self- understanding; transitive, whose finality is to be understood and also normative or dogmatic, such as the theological and the legal one, whose finality is the establishing of the norms of deeds. Hermeneutics is in the same time synchronic, when the prevalence of the search of systematic elements is given, and also diachronic, when the historic character is dominant.


114

Hermeneutics examines the correct structure of an interpretation, of meaning, of context, the order and the connection between different parts, the identification of critic, rhetoric and logical ways, communication, giving arguments and the theoretic and practical use1.

A third conclusion is that in order to achieve the leap of economics into knowledge, which is necessary, because this science has to evolve in the same way as the other sciences have done, the hermeneutic step has become a necessity. This intervention would give more substance to the economic discourse and more strictness to the explanation and the building of scientific theories. In Economics, as it happens in social sciences in general, the natural language is prevalent. This language has to be handled with care because the imprecision and the ambiguity can become vicious for the reasoning or for the conclusions. Therefore, Economics, as well as the other sciences, has to follow the stage of studying the language, of creating a symbolic language, which has to be integrated into a modern interpretative theory, based on Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics and Semiotics. Thus, Economic Hermeneutics can be useful. We believe that it is time for the Economic Hermeneutics to build its own principles and rules which will guide the interpretation, on one hand and their methods of application in the interpretation of the economic phenomena, on the other hand. All these principles, concepts and methods will be named the foundation of Economic Hermeneutics.

The Foundation of Economic Hermeneutics – FEH The classic writers of the Antiquity defined Hermeneutics as the art of

interpretation which is used in decoding the message beyond the text. From an economic perspective, this definition can be rephrased in the following way: the interpretation of the messages given by the economic phenomena and processes. A first element which leads us to FEH is the signification. The Stoics named semeiotike the doctrine about signification. In the modern philosophy, the term was reintroduced as Semiotics (Băileşteanu 2005).

1 The development of these ideas can be found in: Băileşteanu, Gheorghe. 2009. Hermeneutica şi exprerimentul economic. Timișoara: Mirton; Coordonescu, Ion. Curs de hermeneutică. http://facultate.regielive.ro; Puente, Mauricio Beuchot. 2007. Hermeneutica analogică. Bucureşti:Paideia; Heidegger,Martin. 1995. Ontologie. Hermeneutica factităţii, Bucuresti: Humanitas; Eco,Umberto. 2007. Limitele interpretării. Iaşi: Polirom; Georgescu, Ştefan. 1978. Epistemologie. Bucureşti: Didactică și Pedagogică.

http://facultate.regielive.ro/


115

In our hermeneutic operation we will use Logical Semiotics and Economic Semiotics. Logical Semiotics is a part of the metatheory where people study the language of logic systems from three perspectives: syntactical (logical syntax), semantic (Logical Semantics) and pragmatic (Logic Pragmatics) (Enescu 2003). Economic Semiotics is a part of the metatheory where people study the language of economic systems following two targets: the extent of the use of signs in economic theory and practice and in the building of axiomatic systems, able to assure the logic increase of the economic science. From our point of view, the Economic Semiotics, as the general theory of the signs, of creating and using signs, of the signification of the signs, allows the hermeneutic operation an interpretation in “form” and in “content/ substance”, thus facilitating the logical argumentation, another FEH which we take into account. By symbol, the people go from perceiving to understanding, from feeling something to thinking, from surface to essence, from temporary to permanent. (Wald 1979/42) The Economic Semiotics which is based on symbols creates the premises for the development of Economic Hermeneutics, as a science for the interpretation of the phenomena, for the economic and the theoretic processes. Hermeneutics has obtained special results in the field of arts, of literature and it is absolutely necessary wherever we have symbols, signs, as it happens in the economic research and practice. Interpretation is a toil which consists in the decoding of the hidden meaning of economic texts, a meaning which is behind different symbols. Naturally, the economic science includes a scientific field, its object being the interpretation, namely the economic analysis. But the domain, the methods and the results which are obtained by this are far from satisfying the contemporary requirements of a real hermeneutics, because often in the economic sciences, the symbols, the demonstrated theses are so cryptic that it is necessary to have their scientific decline, but not based on common thinking, intuition or chance. As P. Botezatu shows there are several levels of logical understanding of scientific texts, which we can meet in economic sciences (Botezatu 1997: 120): extensional or formal understanding, at the level of symbols only; systematical or contextual understanding, when a criterion of relativity has to be introduced; structural understanding, which follows the elements of the analyzed system, the correlations between them and the meanings which result; intentional understanding, where the notions are interpreted through the prism of the used arguments, abyssal or hidden understanding which takes into consideration the psychic aspects of the subject.

Semantics and Hermeneutics and not the economic analysis can, we say, answer a certain interpretative requirement of the subject, according to Petre Botezatu’s vision. If we accept Semantics as a basis for an Economic


116

Hermeneutics, we will implicitly accept FEH and the tools it uses, such as: signs- symbols, symbolic tree, semantic trees.

Language is a system of signs. The sign has three dimensions: the sign for another sign with whom it associates; the sign for the object which it signifies; a sign for a person who uses it. Thus, we have the necessity for Semiotics as a general science for the system of signs and their laws of functioning. Semiotics, in its turn is divided in: syntax: the theory of the relations between the signs; Semantics: the research of the relations between the signs and the objects they refer to; Pragmatics: the study of the signs reported to the subject who uses the language. Generally and fairly, we have a difference between the signal, which has a communicative purpose and therefore it is studied by the theory of information and the sign- symbol, which replaces something (a signifier which is precisely established), which has a role of signification and it is studied by Semiotics. Taking into account the structural- semantic features, Ch. Peirce, in the late 19th century, classifies the signs in: icons, which are characterized by an exterior, a topologic or a geometric resemblance with the signified objects, with the objects they stand for (for instance, a photograph); indexes, which show the signified objects through the means of some relations of spatial, temporal or causative contingence with the designated objects (for instance, the smoke which indicates the presence of fire); symbols, which do not have anything in common with the essence or the shape of the signified objects (scientific language) (Eco 1982: 19).

The language is a system of signs, controlled by certain rules for the consolidation, the processing and the transmission of information. The natural language is the common language, the spoken one, while the symbolical language is the language which uses symbols.

The semantic trees have the role of organizing the phenomena and the economic processes into a logical structure. A development of this matter can be found in the following book: Economic Semiotics (Băileşteanu 2005: 115- 137).

Another foundation of Economic Hermeneutics is considered to be the Logical Economy, with all the elements used by it: judgment, logical reasoning, tautology, validity, consistence, axioms, and axiomatic systems2.

We intent to have a hermeneutic intervention from the perspective of dissipative structures according to Ilya Prigogine’s approach3, a reason for

2 Additional information on this subject can be found in Băileşteanu, Gheorghe. 2002. Logică economică. Timişoara: Mirton.


117

which we will use other FEH, such as: chance, necessity, determination, indetermination, unexpected, option. Regarding the interpretation of the future, we choose the concepts of foresight and visioning. In such a vision, the projection of the future (the prospective intervention) is done regarding the redesigned present (which gives a certain tendency), the chosen option and the successful critical forces which are supposed to appear in the future. Even if there is only one future, there are several future cycles. By foresight we interpret or read the future from the perspective of present tendencies, regarding things from present to the future. The visioning is an approach from the future to the present, by options and cyclical corrections which are imposed by the unpredictable and by realities.

From a synthetic approach, these would be the main fundaments of an Economic Hermeneutics. To these, others are added, which are going to be taken into account and developed in the present thesis.

Conclusions Our attempt to put the basis of an Economic hermeneutics began from

the realization that in Economics, in general in the social sciences, the natural language is prevalent and it has to be handled with care because the imprecision and the ambiguity can become vicious for the human reasoning or for conclusions. Therefore, Economics, as well as the other sciences, has to follow the stage of studying the language, of creating a symbolic language, able to give a complex and a coherent interpretation of the processes and the phenomena. For achieving this target, an Economic Hermeneutics is necessary. This has to be based on other fundaments than on analysis, but mostly on Semiotics. This happens, because Semiotics is both a science and a tool for each science and it helps them to analyze their language and to use it for various axiomatic constructions. The logical transformation of the economic sciences allows the rebuilding of the theories as a deductive system, with undefined terms and initial sentences, which will later assure the deduction of other sentences with their corresponding theorems.

3 Ilya Prigogine’s theory is presented by Olteanu, Ion. 1982. Dialoguri despre viitor. Bucureşti: Politică, and further developed in Băileşteanu, Gheorghe, Burz, Răzvan. 2008. Viitorul, mari provocări şi megatendinţe. Timişoara: Mirton.


118

Bibliography Băileşteanu, Gheorghe. 2002. Logică economică. Timişoara: Mirton. Băileşteanu, Gheorghe, Burz, Răzvan. 2008. Viitorul, mari provocări şi

megatendinţe. Timişoara: Mirton. Băileşteanu, Gheorghe. 2009. Hermeneutica şi experimentul economic. Timişoara:

Mirton. Băileşteanu, Gheorghe. 2005. Semiotică economică. Timişoara: Mirton. Beuchot, Mauricio Puente. 2007. Hermeneutica analogică. Bucureşti: Paideia. Botezatu, Petre. 1997. Introducere în logică. Iaşi: Polirom. Eco,Umberto. 1982. Tratat de semiotică generală. Bucureşti: Ştiinţifică şi

Enciclopedică. Eco,Umberto. 2007. Limitele interpretării. Iaşi: Polirom. Enescu, Gheorghe. 2003. Dicţionar de logică. București: Editura Tehnică. Fee, Gordon, Stuart, Douglas. 1998. Bilbia ca literatură. Cluj Napoca: Logos. Georgescu, Ştefan. 1978. Epistemologie. Bucureşti: Didactică şi pedagogică. Heidegger, Martin. 1995. Ontologie. Hermeneutica factităţii. Bucureşti:

Humanitas. Olteanu, Ion, 1982. Dialoguri despre viitor. Bucureşti: Politică. Rambu, Nicolae. 1998. Prelegeri de hermeneutică, Bucureşti: Didactică şi

Pedagogică. Schleiermacher, Friedrich. 1977. Hermeneutik und Kritik. Frankfurt am Main:

Suhkamp. Clinci, Daniel. 2010. Heidegger și hermeneutica. Available: http://www.revista-

tomis.ro/Gandirea-secolului-al-XX-lea/heidegger-i-hermeneutica/Imprimare.html (2012-11-28).

Coordonescu, Ion. Curs de hermeneutică. Available: http://facultate.regielive.ro. Wald, Henri, Dinamica simbolului, in România literară, XII, Nr. 42/1979.


GHEORGHE BĂILEȘTEANU is professor at the West University of Timișoara, Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, Management Department and conducts PhD. studies in the above mentioned field. Domains of interest: Risks and Business Evaluation, Business Economics, Economic Theory.

ANDA LAURA LUNGU is professor at the National College „Iulia Hasdeu” in Lugoj and PhD student at the West University of Timișoara, Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, Management Specialization. Domains of interest: Economic Hermeneutics, Economic Phenomena and Processes’ Interpretation Theory, Symbolisation and Meaning in Economics, natural and symbolic language.

http://archive-ro.com/page/776562/2012-11-28/http:/www.revista-tomis.ro/Gandirea-secolului-al-XX-lea/heidegger-i-hermeneutica/Imprimare.html



http://facultate.regielive.ro/


119

WHY DO ROMANIANS SPEAK FOREIGN LANGUAGES SO WELL?

Oana-Roxana Ivan

This work was partially supported by the strategic grant POSDRU/CPP107/DMI1.5/S/78421, Project ID 78421 (2010), co-financed by the European Social Fund – Investing in People, within the Sectoral Operational Programme Human Resources Development 2007 – 2013.

Abstract: According to a Eurobarometer survey on attitudes to multi-language, nearly half of Romanians say they can converse in another language. English is the foreign language that Romanians speak most, followed by French, German and Spanish. In recent years Romanians have progressed in language learning, especially young people, although teachers recognize that the Romanian education system has to make some changes. Beyond the statistics and polls, it is obvious that in recent years the language learning has become important for many Romanians. Key words: foreign language, mother tongue, school curriculum, level of English

The use of foreign languages by Romanians According to a Eurobarometer, less than half of Romanians say they

can have a conversation in another language. English is the foreign language that Romanians speak most, followed by French, German and Spanish. Over 70 percent of Romanians believe that every European should know at least one foreign language and 60 percent believe that English should be the best option. Thus, Carmen Valica, a Radio Romania Actualităţi correspondent, mentions that according to the Eurobarometer survey on attitudes to multi-language, nearly half of Romanians say they can converse in another language, English being the most commonly used. However, only 20 per cent of Romanians use a foreign language on holiday, compared to the European average of 50 per cent.

Androulla Vassiliou, Education Commissioner in the European Committee, explains that although more Europeans believe that speaking a foreign language is important, aspirations are not translated into reality. Vassiliou continues:


120

“98 per cent of respondents say it would be good for their children’s future that they know a foreign language. 88 per cent believe speaking another language than their mother tongue is useful and 84 per cent say that all Europeans should speak a foreign language. Over 70 per cent of Europeans believe that we should know even two foreign languages besides our mother tongue and we believe it, too. Results are therefore encouraging. But when it comes to facts, it is clear that we are working. Only 54 per cent of Europeans say they can converse in at least one foreign language and only one quarter of them speak two languages besides their mother tongue”. (available at: http://www.romania-actualitati.ro/the_use_of_foreign_languages_by_romanians_under_eu_average-42176)

Nonetheless, for Romania the results in this area are below the European average. 48 per cent of Romanians say they can converse in another language, 22 per cent say they can do this in two foreign languages. English is the foreign language that most Romanians speak – 31 per cent, followed by French – 17 per cent, German and Spanish – 3 per cent. The study indicates that 8 per cent of Romanian citizens surveyed indicated Hungarian language as their mother tongue.

Nearly 60 per cent of Romanians believe that English is the most useful language and about 70 per cent consider that it would be most useful for their children. Eurobarometer also shows that Romanians mostly use a foreign language to watch movies or TV programs and listen to radio, since 68 per cent of Romanians, compared to only 44 per cent of Europeans, prefer subtitled films.

If Eurobarometer results rank us below the European average regarding the use of language, those involved in education believe that reality is different. Editor Constanţa Comănici says that in recent years Romanians have progressed in language learning, especially young people, although teachers recognize that the Romanian education system has to make some changes. Beyond the statistics and polls, it is obvious that in recent years the language learning has become important for many Romanians. Even if in school the time for teaching foreign languages is limited, situation that exists in the European Union, the age at which children begin to study a foreign language has dropped to four or even there years. There are kindergartens with exclusive program in foreign languages, most in demand being English, then German or Spanish recently.

Moreover, in secondary school, students study one or two foreign languages at school and increase the number of hours. Often, the study of a


121

foreign language is coupled with private lessons or attending courses organized by paid various companies.

Top 5 foreign languages taught in Romania All schools in Romania have foreign language programs. Students

must study at least one language to an advanced level and a second one at a more basic level. In other cases there are more than two foreign languages available to study and the student can choose from several. Many schools also offer bilingual courses.

During the communist period, the main language taught was Russian and German was the second most common. Nowadays things have changed and the school curriculum is very different.

According to the results of 2008’s “Key Data on Teaching Languages at Schools in Europe” published by The Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency (EACEA), the top language taught in Romania nowadays is English. Some fortunate children start to learn it in kindergarten but usually public schools have a language program which starts in second grade. The explanation is simple: as we can see on the World Language Map, English is very popular all around the world and nowadays it is necessary to have at least a basic command of the language. Furthermore, according to the cited study, the second most popular language is French and the third is German. Italian and Spanish are the next most commonly taught languages.

There is a wide variety of options available and many kids choose a specialized public school or high school because they want to study a certain language and they then continue to learn it throughout the curriculum. In the areas highly populated with minority groups, languages like Hungarian, Ukrainian, Serbian, Slovak, Czech or Croatian are taught too. They do not necessarily classify as foreign languages in these circumstances, as they are available as a result of the structure of society.

Nevertheless, it seems to be the case that all changes in society lead to changes in the learning process. If you were to ask a young Romanian man something in English you would definitely get an answer. This is less likely to happen amongst the older generation of Romanians, as English was not as much of an integral part of the curriculum when they were in formal education.

Youth is the hope Magdalena Bădicescu teaches English at Jose Marti School in

Bucharest and is also part of the evaluation committees at English exams.

http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/index_en.php

http://www.lexiophiles.com/topic/top-foreign-languages-taught-in-schools

http://en.bab.la/news/world-languages.html

http://en.bab.la/news/world-languages.html


122

She says that young people’s interest to study foreign languages has increased in recent years. Bădicescu explains:

“Children and adolescents are very open to foreign languages. Relevant are the results from Cambridge, also from EFTA examinations and TEOFL are exceptional in the world. Romanian students have very good results”. (available at: http://www.romania-actualitati.ro/the_use_of_foreign_languages_by_romanians_under_eu_average-42176)

Since 2004 Daniela Pavoni is the leader representative of foreign language schools in Romania. Specifically, the company organizes courses and summer camps in foreign schools, colleges and universities where they advise young people to study in another country. To this, professor Magdalena Bădicescu explains:

“All the children they send abroad, i.e. over 600 each summer, have an extraordinarily good level of English, and when compared to other nations participating in educational programs it seems that other children of the same age have a much lower level of English. There were cases when groups were being formed only by Romanians since their level of English was so high that they could not have been combined with other foreign students”. (available at: http://www.romania-actualitati.ro/the_use_of_foreign_languages_by_romanians_under_eu_average-42176)

Nonetheless, professor Bădicescu considers that certain aspects of the Romanian educational system could suffer some changes. She explains that in order to be more productive, foreign language classes should be taught to smaller groups of students and not to the entire class. Of course this is a practice in some Romanian schools and it is advisable to be adopted by every school with the purpose of increasing a positive result regarding foreign language learning.

All in all, even if surveys show that Romanians compared to other European citizens do not use foreign languages so often, facts show that there has been done a step forward in increasing people’s interest in foreign languages.

Webography http://www.romania-

actualitati.ro/the_use_of_foreign_languages_by_romanians_under_eu_ average-42176 http://www.lexiophiles.com/english/top-5-foreign-languages-taught-in-romania http://www.quora.com/Why-do-Romanians-speak-foreign-languages-so-well

http://www.romania-actualitati.ro/the_use_of_foreign_languages_by_romanians_under_eu_%20average-42176

http://www.romania-actualitati.ro/the_use_of_foreign_languages_by_romanians_under_eu_%20average-42176

http://www.lexiophiles.com/english/top-5-foreign-languages-taught-in-romania

http://www.quora.com/Why-do-Romanians-speak-foreign-languages-so-well


123

NOTE ON THE AUTHOR

Oana-Roxana IVAN is a PhD student in Philology from the University of the West in Timişoara (Romania). Her thesis centres on the topic of Don Quixote and Tristram Shandy as modern archetypes of failed masculinity. She has an MA on American Studies and a BA on English and Spanish Language and Literature in the University of the West, and a BA on International Relationships and European Studies in the “Babes-Bolyai” University in Cluj-Napoca (Romania). She is a qualified teacher of English and Spanish as foreign languages and has been teaching languages for five years in the state and private educational system. Her field of interest has allowed her to participate in many national and international conferences during the last years.


124


125

BOOK REVIEWS


126


127

THE ENGLISH OF TOURISM1

Oana-Roxana Ivan PhD student

University of the West Timişoara

Tourism is the single largest international trade in the world which makes it virtually impossible for anyone’s life to keep unaffected by it. The English of Tourism is a collection of essays on the use of English in the field of tourism, edited by Georgeta Raţă, Ioan Petroman and Cornelia Petroman and addresses a large variety of readers: from hotel and restaurant staff, lexicographers, professors or researchers, to students, tour-guides, tour-operators or translators from English-, French-, Romanian-, Croatian- and Russian-speaking countries.

The editors decided to gather the essays into two chapters according to their subject of interest; thus a first chapter entitled Tourism contains fifteen papers written by both Romanian and foreign authors, followed by a slightly larger chapter of eighteen essays on Hospitality with a similar authorship of mixed nationality. The book presents a linguistic approach, with a focus on stylistic features and technical lexis, and offers different points of view by analysing the use of English language in the field of tourism, like tourism industry and hospitality, or in some fields related to tourism, such as gastronomy, hotel, restaurant, toilet, sports and adventure tourism, tourist industry advertising.

A few essays focus on the impact of tourism on the evolution of the English language, among which we have Dragana Vuković-Vojnović and Marija Nićin’s English as a Global Language in the Tourism Industry that states the importance of English as a global language in the professional context of the tourism industry, as a result of a questionnaire on the needs analysis of speaking skill tasks, distributed to tourism employees in Novi Sad and Belgrade (two main urban tourist destinations in Serbia). Sara Zamfir, Sara Hauptman and Rachel Tal’s essay on Teaching Lingua Franca:

1 „This work was partially supported by the strategic grant POSDRU/CPP107/DMI1.5/S/78421, Project ID 78421 (2010), co-financed by the European Social Fund – Investing in People, within the Sectoral Operational Programme Human Resources Development 2007 – 2013.”


128

The Significance of English for Bedouin High School Students in Israel aims at examining how the students in the research group (10th graders in Negev Bedouin schools) understand the function and authority of the English language, and how they perceive the impact this language would have on their social, academic and professional future.

Moreover, we have papers that focus on the development of tourism-related concepts, beginning with Georgeta Raţă’s work on the aspect of authenticity in tourism, with a paper on Cultural Tourism: Authenticity Revisited. After a close analysis of the first 24 issues of the Islamic Tourism Magazine, Cornelia Petroman and Ioan Petroman’s Islamic Tourism brings forth the key features of this new kind of tourism that satisfies primarily the Muslim segment of tourists from all over the world and is a novelty for the Christian world. Malaysian Cuisine: A New Fusion Cuisine is Georgeta Raţă, Ioan Petroman, Cornelia Petroman and Ioan Trişcău’s attempt to prove that, despite the independent labels attached to Malaysian cuisine, it goes beyond being described as cross-cultural/ inter-cultural/ multi-cultural to just another type of fusion cuisine, as is the case for Romanian cuisine.

The last aspect of the impact of tourism focuses on the linguistic marketing of a country in Jovana Dimitrijević-Savić, Marta Dimitrijević and Jelena Danilović’s paper on Serbia Marketed Linguistically where we have a study of the different ways of previewing the tourist destinations in Serbia, as they are shaped by their linguascape, which is placed within a particular setting and a heritage frame. The goal is to see how language is used for tourist purposes.

This collection of essays also tackles the problem of morphologically built terms in the field of tourism in communities using one and the same language (in our case, English). Therefore, Anica Perković and Georgeta Raţă, in Tourism Terminology in English of New Zealand, discuss abbreviation resulting from the need for a specialised glossary to understand the various acronyms that represent over half of the tourism terms used in the field of tourism in New Zealand, in comparison to notional words and phrases in general. The English of Eco-Tourism presents Georgeta Raţă, Cornelia Petroman, Ioan Petroman and Anica Perković’s findings on the aspect of combination/compounding of the English vocabulary of eco-tourism such as it is used in Indian tourism sites, based on a common method of quantitative linguistic analysis of the words combined with eco-. The practice of derivation is discussed in Georgeta Raţă, Scott Hollifield, Ioan Petroman and Cornelia Petroman’s study of ‘Definienda’ and ‘Definientia’: The Case of ‘Travel’, where the purpose of the research is to determine if the definitions supplied by English language dictionaries meet the requirements


129

of a proper definition: setting out the essential attributes of the thing defined and avoiding circularity, taking the example of travel-related words.

Furthermore, a group of three essays focus on the English of tourism from a morpho-syntactic point of view. In Georgeta Raţă’s Adjectival Tourism the purpose of the research is to provide Romanian equivalents for English adjectival tourism, assuming there are ways to render these terms in Romanian without having to borrow them from English into Romanian. Another paper on Special Types of Tourism: Tourism in the Countryside, brings forth Georgeta Raţă, Anica Perković and Ioan Petroman’s study on tourism nomenclature nowadays, a field in which the different type of tourism related to countryside and/or nature interfere or overlap resulting in noun phrases such as “agrarian tourism, agricultural tourism, agritourism, country(side) tourism, farm tourism, rural tourism, village tourism”, for which not even the World Tourism Organisation supplies proper definitions. The third essay, ‘Travel’ Collocations, represents Georgeta Raţă’s results of the study of grammar collocations, lexical collocations and special collocations (clichés or idioms) of the word “travel”.

When it comes to lexicology and lexicography, the authors focus on three types of study regarding language borrowings. Firstly, there is an essay on English borrowings in Croatian and Romanian Cuisine by Anica Perković and Georgeta Raţă, followed by Mircea-Ionuţ Petroman, Cornelia Petroman and Anica Perković’s English Borrowings in Croatian and Romanian Drink Names. Secondly, the focus of analysis narrows things down to the study of English borrowing into Romanian as follows: English Borrowings in the Romanian Agritourism (Internet Sites), written by Georgeta Raţă, Cornelia Petroman and Ioan Petroman; English Borrowings in the Romanian Cuisine by Scott Hollifield, Cornelia Petroman and Ioan Petroman; English Borrowings in the Romanian of Drinks by Georgeta Raţă, Scott Hollifield and Ioan Petroman; followed by Georgeta Raţă and Ioan Petroman’s two essays on English Borrowings in the Romanian of Tourism (Travel Agencies) and (Sites of Travel Agencies); and last, Anica Perković and Georgeta Raţă’s The Language of Adventure Tourism: A Contrastive Approach or Alina-Andreea Dragoescu and Petru-Eugen Mergheş’s The Language of Sports and Adventure Tourism: An Etymological Approach. Lastly, the study of language borrowings focuses on foreign insertions into the English language with two essays on: French Borrowings in the English Gastronomy (Alina-Andreea Dragoescu) and Russian Borrowings in the English Cuisine (Georgeta Raţă and Anica Perković).


130

Next, the field of semantics is represented by papers in which the focus is on synonymy, as in the case of Travel (Georgeta Raţă, Scott Hollifield, Ioan Petroman and Cornelia Petroman), followed by a focus on semantic fields, with Cornelia Petroman, Ioan Petroman and Snejžana Tolić two papers on Coffee and Café. The last focus in this category is on semantic change with the help of Dana Percec and Luiza Caraivan’s Cultural Tourism: The Case of the Banat Region, where the potential of cultural tourism is discussed, reaching the conclusion that its versatile nature contributes substantially to the reconvention of the status, value and impact of a region (in this case the Banat region).

Enough attention is given to pragmatics issues in papers on: Food-Related Metaphors in Culinary Tourism Advertising (Nadežda Silaški and Tatjana Ɖurović), Cocktails as Metaphors: An Inquiry into Drink Names (Alina-Andreea Dragoescu) and Alternative Use of Commands in Tourist Industry Advertising (Tatjana Ɖurović and N the manifold utility of metaphors in culinary advertising, drink names and industry advertising in order to encode messages to prospective tourists.

Finally, the domain of etymology is covered by two essays that prove it is a valuable tool in understanding terminology. Thus, Scott Hollifield, Ioan Petroman and Cornelia Petroman have written Hotel Terminology: An Etymological Approach and Anica Perković, Ioan Petroman and Cornelia Petroman ‘Restaurant’: An Etymological Approach, for a closer analysis of hotel/restaurant-related words that suggest intriguing developments in both form and meaning.

In conclusion, the vast variety of aspects discussed in this collection of essays on The English of Tourism determine the book’s appeal to academic teaching staff, researchers and students in the field of tourism and of its main fields (hospitality and food-service), as well as in the field of English for Specific Purposes (ESP).

Source Raţă, Georgeta, Petroman, Ioan and Petroman Cornelia (eds).

2012. The English of Tourism. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.


131

TREASURES OF THE BANAT REGION BY VIOLETA TRIPA, ARISTIDA GOLOGAN – A TEXTBOOK

Eliana Popeţi

PhD student University of the West Timişoara

Many a time we hear in the media that everything related to folklore is

presented metaphorically through terms like: ‘thesaurus’, ‘treasure’, ‘pearls’, ‘gems’, etc. The book entitled Treasures of the Banat by Violeta Tripa and Aristida Gologan, printed at Europstampa in 2010, explains from the very beginning that the Banat can be associated with a space where hunters of such traditional ‘treasures’ will not be disappointed.

With a content rich in specialized information, the authors have created an ethnography textbook, where they present all the features of the Banat traditional costume, starting with a short history of the region. Structurally, the book is traditional, it brings clear and objective information, not being meant exclusively for the specialized public.

The Banat ethnographic baroque, presenting the component items of the traditional costume and the Banat folklore ornamental elements, is described in the introductory study entitled Folk art of Romanians in the Banat. An admiring attitude towards the Banat ethnographic specificity is predominant in this part of the book. This form of author exaltation is extremely discreet textually through the presence of the Banat regional terms. Nevertheless, the phrase remains objective, the two authors carefully controlling this aspect: ‘The waist long shirt is called ‘spăcel’ or ‘ciupag’ in the Banat. In the Făget area villages, Bocşa, Cărbunari, Valea Bistrei, etc. people also wore, besides the short shirt, the shirt with the hem sewn on the ‘ciupag’ or the long shirt, described in documents dating back to the 18th century as reaching the ankles’ (p.14). In some cases, the regional terms substitute an explanation or an addition: ‘The colourful wool yarns in the warp make up vertical red and green stripes on the edges, while the middle is dark blue (‘vânăt’) or red, according to the age of the wearer’ (p.16). This quotation demonstrates the meticulosity with which the two researchers treat regional features of the Banat. More precisely, the description of the ethnographic ‘treasures’, is the best moment to inform the readers about some terms of the Banat sub dialect.


132

At the end of the first part, the authors remind the readers what the most important part of any study about the Banat region is. The conclusions contain a short summary of what is called ‘multi- and interculturalism’ of the Banat, the distinctive aspect of this region compared to other Romanian regions: ‘We can conclude that the ornamental thesaurus inherited through tradition has been permanently enriched with influences from the south-eastern European space following the cohabitation with the Serbians, as well as with other influences from the central and western European space due to the cohabitation with the German, Hungarian and Slovak populations whose interest for solar and floral representations is easily identifiable’ (p.27).

The analytical presentation of the collection explains in a didactic manner the images that illustrate the ‘treasures’ promised in the title. In the short description of the items we can notice the authors taking distance from their affiliation to the Banat area, and the ecstasy seen in the first part dissolves and leaves room for a neutral view: ‘The small rhombuses repeat horizontally, creating the bond between the big ones. At the edges of this ornamental register there are two registers of tiny white seams which repeat towards the extremities of the hems with a blue triangle here and there’ (p.30).

The items are classified according to sex, marital status, age, while the fabrics, seams, embroideries and commodities are dealt with in a different part of the book. The authors present the readers with an entire photo album besides the description of the collection items. The game between the image and the text fulfils the didactic function necessary to explain the specialized notions. At the same time, through the ‘unmistakable identity of the Banat costume’, as the authors call it, a chromatic richness of photos showing the collection items is created. In a subchapter entitled ‘Festive clothing ensembles’, the women dressed up for the ‘hora’ (Romanian traditional dance) or the Banat family have the effect of including the reader (metaphorically speaking) in the image, so that bringing him/her closer to the collection should not be doubted.

The book ends with a Collection of photographic documents where the visual material is enriched through a set of images that do not limit to a simple aesthetic function, but create the bridge between the book and the places the two authors gathered the photos from. The appreciations can extend due to the visual aid in the book and the influence that photography has on the preservation of memory and interest showed by researchers in this field.

The ‘Banat treasures’ are thus, something else than the ‘treasures’ and ‘pearls’ that the media shows us and we hope that in the future Violeta Tripa’s collection be richer and the ‘folklore didactics’ represent at least one curiosity for the readers.

quaestus grozdanka bogdanovic · quaestus multidisciplinary research journal 1 quaestus grozdanka...

Documents