qs struggling readers

118 2003 International Reading Association (pp. 118128)

KATHY GANSKE JOANNE K . MONROE

DOROTHY S. STRICKLAND

Questions teachers ask about strugglingreaders and writers

In this informal U.S. study, 191 practicing

teachers completed a survey requiring

them to list their three most pressing

questions about working with struggling

readers and writers.

Over the past several years there has been asurge of interest in understanding how bestto prepare students for the higher than everliteracy demands of the technological society inwhich we live. Compounding the challenge is thereality that todays classrooms are filled with stu-dents with increasingly diverse needs, stemmingfrom differences in their home languages, learningabilities, and literacy experiences. Interest in theproblem has led to several important reportsPreventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children(Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998), Teaching Childrento Read (National Reading Panel, 2000), andReading for Understanding (RAND Reading StudyGroup, 2002)and to a growing number of publi-cations aimed at providing teachers with the neces-sary knowledge to address the needs of diverselearners.

As educators in the United States, we workregularly with primary through upper grade teach-ers from urban, suburban, and small-town commu-nities. Both neophytes and veteran teachers oftenvoice concerns about the growing numbers ofEnglish-language learners (ELLs) in their classesand the students who just dont seem to get it:Those who cant read grade-level texts; have diffi-culty writing a composition, paragraph, or even asentence; and are reluctant to engage in the learn-

ing process. In order to validate informally what weobserve through day-to-day encounters with teach-ers and their concerns and to ascertain common ar-eas of concern, we distributed the survey shown inFigure 1 to the 211 individuals with whom weworked during a one-month period. Other than thedirections included on the questionnaire, no guide-lines were given.

Identifying the challengesBecause our interest lay in the concerns of prac-

ticing teachers, questionnaires completed by ad-ministrators, teaching assistants, and preserviceteachers were eliminated from the final analysis,which included 191 surveys. Respondents werefrom New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania,Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and WestVirginia. Although their teaching assignments var-ied from kindergarten through middle school, near-ly all taught in the range of first through sixth grade.Their level of experience varied from first-yearteachers (induction-year teachers), to those in theirsecond and third years of service (developing teach-ers), to those who have been practicing in the fieldfor four or more years (seasoned professionals).

The 420 questions generated by the teacherswere analyzed and categorized according to re-sponse type by one of the authors and by two re-search assistants pursuing doctorates in literacyeducation. After an initial discussion of procedures,the three began the process of classifying the re-sponses. To ensure consistency in approach, theyfirst reviewed and deliberated the category type offive responses. Then each individual independentlyexamined the responses of 20 teachers and gener-

Common concerns: Questions teachers ask about struggling readers and writers 119

ated categories. At a second meeting these deci-sions were compared in order to identify areas ofcommon concern and to establish interrater relia-bility. Nine categories emerged through thisprocess (see Figure 2).

Once the categories were defined, the remain-ing responses were classified by one of the researchassistants and reviewed by the participating author.Refinement of the categories, as well as placementof any questionable responses, was determinedthrough group discussion. Responses that reflect-ed issues outside the established categories wereclassed as Other. All responses were coded bynumber of survey and of question (1, 2, or 3) andcharted under their appropriate category. Separatecharts were used for the three experience levels sothat patterns of concern could be detected.Examination of the data revealed that teachersacross the grades and from the various states sharedsimilar worries, worries that tended to cross levelsof experience: induction-year teachers, developingteachers, and seasoned professionals.

A pivotal issue for induction-year teachers (n =5) was how to work with different levels and abili-ties of students. All but one of these teachers iden-

tified variability as a primary concern; the excep-tion, who listed no concerns, made note of beingtoo new to the profession to have really faced anyproblems yet.

Experienced teachers were also concernedabout variability and expressed apprehension overstudents linguistic differences and their radicallydifferent literacy abilities, problems that for somewere intensified by large classes. Despite theseconcerns, the critical issue for developing teachers(n = 17) and seasoned professionals (n = 169) washow to support struggling readers and writers andto what degree. Their questions focused over-whelmingly on their need to learn instructionalstrategies and skills to improve students literacy.

Although the induction-year teachers did notcite time, management, or organization as press-ing issues, many of the developing teachers andseasoned professionals did. Nearly one fourth ofeach of these groups (23.5% and 24.3%, respec-tively) raised questions about such matters as howto arrange for small-group instruction, how to de-termine the amount of time to work with strugglingreaders and writers, and how to provide written

FIGURE 1Survey

Grade level_______________

Number of years teaching____________

State in which you teach__________________

How would you characterize your district? Check one.

Urban______ Suburban________ Small town (40,000 or under)________

Name the three most pressing problems you face in addressing the needs of struggling readers and writers in your classroom.

1.

2.

3.

The Reading Teacher Vol. 57, No. 2 October 2003120

feedback to individual students without being con-sumed by an overload of papers.

The problem of motivating struggling readersand writers was a prevalent concern among the re-spondents. The teachers sought ways to inspirethose whose experiences had caused them to turnoff and tune out, or those who had not yet been ex-cited by learning.

Responding to the challengesIn the remainder of this article we address some

of the teachers questions about struggling readersand writers for each of the nine categories of con-cern. The questions presented voice the kinds ofchallenges noted by most of the teachers. The sug-gestions we offer for addressing those challenges aresummarized in Figure 2. Because some categories

FIGURE 2Common concerns and recommended strategies

Category of concern Percentage of questions Strategies

Skills and strategies 31.8 Safe writing environment, demonstration andguided practice, read-alouds, and think-alouds

Student variability 19.2 Capitalizing on students interests and back-ground knowledge; using small-group instruc-tion and the language experience approach;fostering a risk-taking environment, peer sup-port, and communication with other teachers

Time, organization, 11.9 Small-group instruction (guided reading), mean-and management ingful center and independent work activities,

established routines, staggered due dates forwriting, and varied feedback opportunities

Motivation 10.4 Instructional-level texts, opportunities for stu-dents to choose and talk about books, time forreading and writing, authentic writing purposes,and word processing

Family involvement 7.9 Taking a proactive stance; putting technology towork; utilizing government and association com-munications, community members, family mes-sage journals, and reading backpacks

Testing and assessment 6.2 Doing instructional and grade-level teaching, fa-miliarizing students with question formats, andusing rubrics and portfolios for student self-monitoring

Background knowledge 4.5 Professional development, focused on cross-grade-level articulation, and timely and appro-priate intervention

Classroom environment 2.6 Differentiating and scaffolding instruction andencouraging active learning through appropri-ate text and tasks

Materials 2.3 Building collections of materials that vary ingenre, topic, and level; considering student pref-erences; and making book accessibility a school-wide priority

Other 3.2


represent stronger areas of concern than do othersfor the teachers, and because some recommenda-tions require more elaborate explanations than oth-ers, the discussions that follow vary in length.

1. Variability in students literacy levelsand linguistic abilities

How do you bring children who are two gradelevels below into an area of reading in which theyare interested (age appropriate)? Although stu-dents who struggle with literacy need time to readrelatively easy texts so they can experience success,they can benefit from opportunities to read text thatis more difficult. Interest and background knowl-edge are two factors that enable students to read be-yond what is considered their normal reading level(Sweet, 1997). Interest fosters persistence and a de-sire to understand, while topic knowledge supportschildrens word identification and comprehensionby enabling them to draw on what they know.Teacher knowledge is critical to the students suc-cess: Teachers must know their students interestsand know (or know how to find) books on thosetopics. Librarians and book reviews in journals likeBook Links or The Horn Book Magazine provideresources for identifying appropriate and engagingbooks for the classroom library, and interest inven-tories provide a quick and easy way to discover stu-dents areas of expertise and curiosity.

Instructional formats like literature circles canalso aid students comprehension. When the textsused build on students interests and knowledge,the combination of knowing a lot about the topicand being able to discuss the text with strongerreaders makes it possible for those who struggle tohandle material that would otherwise be too diffi-cult. Because books that hook and hold readerstend to be nonfiction titles, students need to betaught how to navigate the special features associ-ated with informational text (matching captions toillustrations and interpreting graphs and charts, forexample). Teacher modeling through think-aloudsand graphic organizers can prepare students tomaximize their learning.

The language experience approach (LEA) isyet another way to provide struggling readers withage-appropriate reading material. Although oftenassociated with readers in the primary grades, thistechnique can benefit many older novice readers

English-language learners and special-needsstudentsparticularly those who are deaf, hearingimpaired, or learning disabled (Padak & Rasinski,1996). Because LEA relies on childrens own lan-guage and experiences, word identification isfacilitated and reading motivation is encouraged.Students dictate a common experience to theteacher, who writes it down, changing languageonly when necessary for clarity; this shared pieceof writing then becomes the childrens readingmaterial.

How do I best address the needs of bilingualstudents who struggle with reading and writingbut know enough English to test out of the ESL[English as a second language] program? If thestudents can read and write in their own language,the situation will likely be less difficult becausethe literacy understandings they have acquired intheir first language can help them achieve literacyin their second language (Graves, 1994; Snow etal., 1998). To ease students transition to the regularclassroom, teachers should form a strong bridge ofcommunication with the second-language teacherwhile they share responsibility for the studentslearning. The ESL teacher can also serve as a help-ful resource and provide background informationabout the childrens cultures that may assist withliteracy teaching and learning.

Insufficient background knowledge about U.S.customs, slang and idioms, and history may inter-fere with bilingual students reading. These studentsneed books that interest them at a variety of read-ing levels, time for reading, and opportunities to uselanguage. Stories that reflect their culture and ex-perience are likely to be appealing and will enablethe students to use what they know to support theircomprehension. (Such texts have the added benefitof broadening other class members knowledge ofthe ELL students culture.) Contemporary realisticfiction with its modern-day settings is another goodchoice as is predictable text, which can ease theword reading burden through its repetition andrhyme. Shared reading experiences and small-groupinstruction, like that described later, also benefitEnglish-language learners. The small-group setting,coupled with the fact that the group consists of stu-dents with similar reading abilities, is likely to em-bolden ELL students to participate in discussions,

thereby encouraging language development thatwill bolster their growth as readers and writers.

Small-group or individual minilessons duringwriting workshop enable teachers to directly ad-dress the needs of ELL students who struggle withthe conventions of English in their writing. Peerhelp with revising and editing can also be benefi-cial. In either case, concerns about correctnessshould not supercede the childs need to commu-nicate: Writing needs to be taught as a process,with the emphasis on idea generation and draftingbefore revision and editing. Encouraging English-language learners to write from what they know,for real purposes, and from interest is an importantpart of this process.

In order for ELL students to feel free to takerisks with language in reading and writing, it is es-sential for teachers to establish learning environ-ments that include not only high expectations andchallenging material but also smiles and humor tolighten the intensity of the learning experience.This Ha-ha factor is critical for language growth(Cary, 2000, p. 58). It encourages students to uselanguage without fear of making mistakes and mo-tivates them to learn from teacher modeling tocommunicate more effectively.

2. Time, organization, and classroommanagement

Students learn much more during small-groupinstruction. What is the best way to give stu-dents small-group instruction on a regular ba-sis with a class of 22 students? Small-groupinstruction is a critical literacy component forstruggling learners. Some small groups comprisestudents with similar reading abilities, and textsand instruction are matched to the readers so thatthe level of challenge is sufficient but not over-whelming. The small-group format enables teach-ers to more easily maintain the focus and attentionof children who may otherwise be disengaged, andit makes it easier for them to monitor the studentsreading behaviors and adjust their instruction ac-cordingly. Ability to carefully observe reading be-haviors is particularly important because thegrouping for small-group instruction is dynamic.Teachers evaluate students regularly and regroupthem as their progress changes.

How teachers implement small-group instruc-tion varies: Grade level, amount of time availabledaily for the language arts, and the types of groupsbeing formed are influences that must be consid-ered. For guided reading (Fountas & Pinnell, 1996),teachers typically form four to five groups, eachcomprising four to six children with similar read-ing abilities. In the intermediate as well as primarygrades, groups are likely to meet three to five timesa week, often on alternate days. Sessions usuallylast 20 to 30 minutes. Other types of small groups,such as those convened for writing or for wordstudy, may meet less often and vary more in size.

When using small-group instruction, teachersmust ensure that the instructional time will be pro-ductive for everyone. They should plan meaning-ful tasks for the rest of the class and make it apriority to teach students the routines and expecta-tions for completing tasks at centers and for inde-pendent work. Professional resources (e.g.,Morrow, 2002; Wong & Wong, 1998) and class-room observations of effective management prac-tices help teachers learn to plan and organize forthis type of instruction.

How do I handle the paper load if I really wantto give students individual feedback? Manyteachers ask students to use logs or dialogue jour-nals to respond to their reading during independ-ent work time. If students, particularly those in theintermediate grades, know that the teacher valuestheir observations and reflections, the responses,including those of struggling readers and writers,may be a page or more in length. On the one hand,all this writing is a welcome outcome; however,on the other, the idea of providing feedback to aclass of 25 or more students can be daunting. Manyteachers handle the problem by staggering duedates: They collect five or so journals a day andprovide each child with careful feedback once aweek. This system allows teachers to devote timeand serious attention to the students writing in arelatively relaxed and enjoyable manner. If papersfrom multiple classes are involved, as in depart-mentalized or middle school settings, biweeklyfeedback may be more realistic.

In writing workshop, teachers frequently easethe problem of paper overload by providing ongo-ing verbal feedback. They circulate among studentsand hold brief individual conferences. Many also


teach students to hold peer conferences so that theyare not perceived as the only class expert. Thelatter approach prevents the kind of back-up andaccompanying off-task behaviors that can stallwriters and frustrate teachers as students wait theirturns. Furthermore, it frees teachers to help thosemost in need, enables students to learn from oneanother, and tends to lead to final drafts of superi-or quality that require less going over.

Allowing students to work outside the oftenused five-day format for writing (Mondayprewrite, Tuesdaydraft, Wednesdayrevise,Thursdayedit, Fridaypublish or do final copy)can also reduce paper overload. Not all writingpieces need to be published, and some do requireextended time for development. Although keepingevery student on the same page will likely resultin shorter pieces to critique, it also means that allproducts will be due the same day. A flexible ap-proach that considers students interests and needscan result in a win-win situation: stronger writingby students and easier management for teachers.

Finally, many teachers find it easier to evalu-ate writing when they use a rubric or checklist de-signed (often with student input) and distributed inadvance of an assignment. Various qualities ortraits may be addressed, including development,organization, voice and tone, word choice, fluen-cy, and conventions (Spandel, 2001). Some teach-ers choose to evaluate all of the traits each time,while others opt to emphasize different traits in dif-ferent papers.

3. Strategies and skills

Many students have difficulty planning andmonitoring their writing. How do you know howmuch support to give students when writing?When students routinely have difficulty planning orwriting without assistance, one of the first ques-tions teachers should ask is Have I established asafe writing environment? This is a critical formof support for all writers but is particularly so forthose who struggle with writing. To write freely,students must know that the ideas and experiencesthey offer will be valued and accepted.

If the writing environment encourages risk tak-ing and students still have difficulty getting theirwriting started or keeping it going, another ques-tion should be asked: Have I taught them planning

and monitoring strategies? Struggling writers mayneed to have strategies demonstrated and redemon-strated in different contexts, and they certainlyneed opportunities to practice their use with teacherguidance. However, sometimes teachers inadver-tently provide support that fosters dependencerather than independence. After modeling, we havefound that the best way to help students begin writ-ing is to step aside and simply ask them to Dowhat I did. If, despite their best efforts, studentsare still unable to continue, teachers should inter-vene. Another small-group or whole-class miniles-son may be needed to reinforce the idea or strategy.Graves (e.g., 1989), Fletcher (e.g., Fletcher &Portalupi, 1998), and others have described varioustypes of demonstrations that teachers across thegrades can use to help students develop as writers.

What are some good strategies to develop pre-readers comprehension skills? The text in theguided [reading] books is so simple that it issometimes difficult to draw substantial infor-mation from it. Because most novice readers, re-gardless of their age, are capable of understandingand appreciating texts that are far more demand-ing than the ones they can already read, successfulteachers capitalize on read-aloud experiences as ameans for teaching comprehension. They encour-age childrens active participation during the read-ing through open-ended questions and discussion(Beck & McKeown, 2001).

It is especially critical to help older studentswho are just acquiring literacy to develop compre-hension abilities beyond the texts they can read. Bydoing so, we encourage them to maintain an interestin reading and prepare them to understand the morechallenging texts they will read as their wordknowledge improves. These students need explicitdemonstrations of what good readers do while theyread; such demonstrations can be effected with ex-citing picture books or other interesting texts(Keene & Zimmermann, 1997). Struggling readersmust come to know that their job is not just to an-swer questions but also to ask them. This may ne-cessitate pointing out that skilled readers questionas they read as a way to monitor their understandingand that, far from revealing ignorance, raising ques-tions aids comprehension. By thinking aloud duringa read-aloud, teachers can demonstrate the kind ofself-questioning, reacting, and visualizing in which


they engage (e.g., Im wondering why the boykeeps asking this question; or Im a little con-fused by that idea, so Ill read it over again; orIm picturing the dark clouds moving quickly inthe sky). Over time, and as they share in the read-aloud, struggling readers will come to understandthe types of thinking and strategies that enable pro-ficient readers to construct and maintain meaning.

4. Motivation

How do I motivate a student who doesnt value improving his or her performance in mylanguage arts class? Students who have repeat-edly experienced difficulty with reading or writingmay become apathetic, anxious, or even negativewhen faced with these tasks. Value for improve-ment will only come with some degree of success.Efforts to motivate disengaged learners should startwith consideration of the class environment and theextent to which it encourages success and engage-ment. For instance, can the students read the textsprovided? Typically, at least 90% accuracy in wordrecognition is expected. This degree of accuracy al-lows students to focus their attention on compre-hending rather than on deciphering the text. Inaddition, do students have ownership of learningactivities? Being able to talk about books andchoose their own reading material are factors stu-dents find motivating (Oldfather, 1995).

Real discussions (as opposed to the traditionalteacher-ask, student-respond format) can stimulatestudents interest and involvement and enhancetheir understanding, and choice can increase thelikelihood that they will read. Because many of thebooks students opt to read have been either readaloud or recommended by someone else (Palmer,Codling, & Gambrell, 1994), it is important thatteachers (a) promote students reading interestthrough regularly scheduled read-alouds and booktalks that tap into their interests and (b) ensure easyaccess to school and classroom libraries and timefor browsing, reading, and talking about books.

Many of the considerations for motivatingreaders apply to motivating writers. Again, choiceis important, as is peer interaction (Oldfather,1995). Students need occasions to write about whatthey know and on topics of interest. Because theyare apt to be motivated when the purpose is au-thentic, they also need to engage in writing that is

not merely for the teacher. For example, studentsmight explain how to care for a pet, voice concernover a playground issue, exchange letters or e-mailmessages with a pen pal, write to favorite authors,or seek information from experts or agencies. Theycan share their writings through Authors Chair,poetry cafs, authors teas, buddy partnerships withother classes, and class magazines or newspapers.

How do we encourage kids to go beyond thecomfort zone to write even more than they havein the past? There are several issues to consider.Ensuring ample time for writing is critical. This en-ables students to warm up to the pieces they areworking on and allows them time to develop themfurther. Struggling writers, whether younger or old-er, often play it safe because of their own, or some-one elses, expectations. Making correctness a highpriority is a sure way to limit risk taking, becausethe mechanics of writing, particularly spelling, aredifficult for these students. This difficulty forcesthem to switch back and forth between the high-level skill of generating and planning ideas and thelow-level skill of spelling individual words, and itcan lead to constrained writing, a sense of failure,or avoidance of writing altogether (Berninger,Mizokawa, & Bragg, 1991). Demonstrations ofhow to approximate the spelling of unfamiliarwords and developmentally appropriate word-study instruction (Ganske, 2000) can help studentsimprove this aspect of their writing over time. Inthe interim, peer editors, spell checkers, bookmarkswith high-frequency words, and reasonable expec-tations can enable struggling writers to focus onideas. Computers, too, may play a valuable role:They make it easier for students to revise and editand motivate them to write.

5. Family involvement

How do I reeducate parents regarding literacyexpectations in the classroom when they havesuch hectic lives and often cant meet with me?Written information is often not helpful when theparents are less experienced in literacy. Some arenot readers or writers themselves. Parents andteachers working together toward common goals isan important trait of schools that effectively addressthe needs of children of poverty (Taylor, Pressley, &Pearson, 2000) and an end well worth pursuing,


though not easily accomplished. Parents may be un-willing to meet with teachers because they feel in-timidated or fear a negative report about their child.Some teachers successfully circumvent these prob-lems by being proactive. They make a practice ofcalling parents early in the school year to put themat ease. They introduce themselves, say somethingpositive about the parents child, and indicate thatthey are looking forward to working with them.Proactive teachers also make sure that informationthey send home is written in clear and simple lan-guage that parents with limited literacy can under-stand. Some involve their students in the writing ofnewsletters. This yields several benefits: simple lan-guage and reading motivation for parents and au-thentic writing purposes and writing motivation forstudents. Literacy workshops at the beginning orend of the school day are another means to informparents. Paperback books or school supplies may beused as incentives for attendance.

Technology can also be of help in communi-cating with parents. If parents have video players athome, teachers can make videotaped explanationsof what it is they want them to understand abouttheir childrens literacy learning. The tapes couldfeature snippets of classroom activities and mightalso include demonstrations of how parents canhelp their children with activities, like shared read-ing, word study, or writing. Local businesses or theparent and teacher organization may be willing todonate videotapes for this purpose. A few tapesused in rotation should serve the needs of an entireclass. School administrators may have additionalsuggestions and will know if parent permission isneeded for the taping. Pamphlets, communiqus,and forums sponsored by the International ReadingAssociation and the U.S. Department of Educationare further resources for useful ideas on increasingfamily literacy.

How do you gain parental supportfor home-work, practice, et ceterawhen the parentsspeak little or no English? In many schools withhigh populations of non-English speakers, districtpersonnel have identified community memberswho are fluent in the students home languages andin English. These individuals are often willing totranslate written explanations about how parentscan best help their children. Some of these peoplemight also be willing to provide oral explanations

to accompany the videotaped demonstrations al-ready described. Furthermore, the U.S. Departmentof Education (2002) has reissued a 12-bookletHelping Your Child series for parents and care-givers. Several of the books are available in Englishand Spanish.

Most parents want to be involved in theirchilds learning but may not feel comfortable doingso, especially if they speak little or no English.Family message journals (Wollman-Bonilla, 2000)are used to involve parents or other caregivers dai-ly in their childs learning and to provide authenticwriting and reading experiences for young writers.Each day children write a message in their journalabout something they learned or did in school orabout an upcoming event, and a family memberwrites back. When English is limited, the ex-changes may be done in the childs first language.Reading backpacks (Cooter et al., 1999) alsoprompt parents to be involved and are particularlyvaluable in situations where families have limitedaccess to books. At least weekly, children takehome a backpack of trade books in English andSpanish on varying topics and reading levels; easyactivities for their parents to do with them are alsoincluded.

6. Testing and assessment

How do I teach to their needs when I must pre-pare them for on-level testing? We must teachstruggling readers at their instructional level to en-courage success and motivation. However, to helpthese students learn how best to cope with the de-manding texts they will face in testing situations wecan provide additional supported opportunities forthem to read at their grade level. We also need to fa-miliarize students with the various question formatsused in their tests and understand that this does notmean spending considerable amounts of instruction-al time teaching to the test (International ReadingAssociation, 1999). Instead, test preparation shouldbe integrated with students everyday learning. Forinstance, if they must answer open-ended questions,they should be taught to use the scoring rubric sothey can learn to self-assess and revise their answers;practice may be tied to topics they are studying.Teachers who plan a variety of instructional activi-ties in varying formats address both appropriate in-struction and sensible test preparation.


How can I fairly assess their growth withoutdiscouraging them and yet not be too subjectiveabout their ability? Rubrics that include specif-ic descriptors of the learning to be assessed enableus to show students their strengths, needs, andgrowth over time in fair and objective ways. Ifclearly described and distributed at the onset of anassignment, they also help students to know fromthe start what is important. We can encourage stu-dents to make improvements identified by therubric by indicating our confidence that they willcontinue to progress through persistent effort.Examinations of early and later work samples fromportfolios help students to see firsthand the benefitsof their efforts and where to set new goals (e.g.,Tierney, Carter, & Desai, 1991).

7. Background knowledge

Why dont students come to each grade levelmore prepared? In our district there is a lackof coordination and continuity of instruction.Individual districts and states set language arts andliteracy expectations through curricula and stan-dards. Teachers should become familiar with theseto be certain their instruction is meeting therequirements. Even with articulated district andstate expected outcomes or benchmarks for eachgrade level, cross-grade-level dialogues (as well asdialogues between classroom teachers and special-ized teachers) are valuable for ensuring continuityof teaching and learning. Without this flow, chil-dren with reading difficulties achieve little progress(McGill-Franzen & Allington, 1991). Seasonedprofessionals may know what is expected of chil-dren at the preceding or succeeding grade level be-cause they have taught other levels. The same is nottrue for more novice teachers and for those whohave not changed grades. Teachers concernedabout continuity might suggest to their administra-tors that an inservice day (or a portion of it) be de-voted to cross-grade meetings to enable teachersto discuss literacy expectations and instruction.However, even when there is coordination and con-tinuity of instruction, teachers should expect vari-ability among students. Students bring uniquebackground experiences to the learning situationthat create differences.

Shouldnt there be criteria set by the state edu-cation department or school districts so that chil-dren who need early intervention receive it?Some states and many school districts have ad-dressed this problem or are doing so. Clearly, re-search points to the need for a preventive stance.Although estimates of the number of school chil-dren thought to have difficulty learning to read vary,results from the National Assessment ofEducational Progress (NAEP) are often cited. The2000 results (National Center for EducationStatistics, 2001) revealed that 37% of the nearly8,000 fourth-grade students assessed achieved be-low the basic level, a figure that has remained rel-atively unchanged since 1992. Furthermore,longitudinal study data suggest that those who arepoor readers at the end of first grade are likely tostill be poor readers at the end of fourth grade (Juel,1988). However, more recent research suggests thatthe percentage of children could be greatly reducedwith appropriate and timely reading intervention(Torgesen, 2000; Vellutino, Scanlon, & Tanzman,1998). Intervention can take many forms (such asone-to-one or small-group tutoring, pull-out orpush-in, before school or after). It is essential thatthe instruction be child centered and delivered bythose with the necessary expertise. It should not bea replacement for effective classroom instruction.

8. Classroom environment

How do you keep struggling readers and writ-ers feeling part of the class? We can only helpthese students develop a real sense of belonging ifwe enable them to be active learners, and this meanswe must ensure that they are given materials andtasks with which they can be successful (Strickland,Ganske, & Monroe, 2002). Small-group instruc-tion and reading and writing workshops, where in-struction is individualized, allow children to work atappropriately challenging levels with teacher guid-ance. Because all children generally read the sametext in content area reading, some students may re-quire access to an audiotape, or if the reading levelof the text is not too difficult a chapter could be usedduring small-group instruction to accommodatespecial needs. Some children may require referencematerials that are easier to read when learning orwriting about a topic.


How do I keep my frustration level down, aswell as the students, when theyre just not get-ting it? When frustration sets in, teachers need toidentify what it is the students are getting and helpthem to settle into a bit of successful work, whiledetermining the best next step. Planning instruc-tion at students zone of proximal development(Vygotsky, 1978) so that what they are expected todo is just beyond what they can do independentlyhelps to reduce the chance of frustration. Studentsneed explicit instruction that includes demonstra-tions of what they are to do; when they grasp this,they are ready for guided practice. Instruction that isscaffolded in this way enables students to be activelearners and to gain independence with activitiesand strategies. Realizing that struggling readers andwriters may require multiple demonstrations andmultiple opportunities for guided practice beforethey can apply a strategy or skill by themselves canreduce frustration on both sides.

9. Materials

With limited resources, how do we meet theneeds of each child? Where do all the bookscome from? School districts sometimes designatea portion of textbook money for the purchase ofleveled readers for guided reading instruction orbudget money for books in grants that they maywrite. In some schools teachers donate multiplecopies of books from their personal collections toa central storage location for sharing; they continueadding to the collection through book club ordersand school book fairs. Only four to six childrentypically make up a guided reading group, sointerlibrary loan is yet another possibility.

Because access to books is a key factor in mo-tivation, it is also important for teachers to devel-op their classroom libraries and to take intoconsideration student preferences in reading mate-rial, especially because these tend to be under-represented in school collections (Worthy,Moorman, & Turner, 1999). Although many teach-ers spend their own money to enhance their class-room collections, there are other avenues.Collections can be shared among classes and booksrotated. Books can be solicited from parents orcommunity organizations and businesses. Somepublic libraries have generous loan allowances forteachers. Rather than taking a hit-or-miss approach,

we suggest book accessibility be made a school-wide issue with faculty, administrators, and parentsworking together to find solutions that will benefitall children.

Concluding thoughtsThe issues and questions raised in this article

are important concerns in todays schools andclassrooms, though doubtless there are many oth-ers, for each situation presents its unique problems.The suggestions we offer for addressing the con-cerns of teachers are by no means exhaustive.Rather, they represent key instructional strategiesand practices that are known to make a positive dif-ference in helping students over the kinds of hur-dles that worried the teachers we surveyed.Although the challenges we explored were facedby teachers from different locations, grade levels,and levels of experience, the ease or difficulty ofimplementing recommendations such as those dis-cussed here will likely depend on teachers per-ceived need for change and on the level of supportprovided to make that change.

Whether easy or difficult, change must startsomewhere, and a single step has the potential tostart a chain of activity that ultimately resolves theoriginal concern. Our suggestions for practical ap-proaches to common problems are made to startsuch a chain: to encourage teachers everywhere toquestion and ponder, to get to know their studentsand recognize the salient issues, and to seek and tryout new ideas to make a difference in their stu-dents literacy lives.

Ganske teaches in the Department of Readingat Rowan University in Glassboro, New Jersey(201 Mullica Hill Road, Glassboro, NJ 08028,USA). E-mail [email protected]. Monroe isdirector of curriculum and instruction forClinton Township School District in Annandale,New Jersey. Strickland teaches in the GraduateSchool of Education at Rutgers, The StateUniversity of New Jersey, in New Brunswick.

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