Journal of Criminal Law and CriminologyVolume 31Issue 3 September-October Article 12

Fall 1940

Purkinje's Observations (1823) on Finger Printsand Other Skin FeaturesHarold Cummins

Rebecca Wright Kennedy

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Recommended CitationHarold Cummins, Rebecca Wright Kennedy, Purkinje's Observations (1823) on Finger Prints and Other Skin Features, 31 Am. Inst.Crim. L. & Criminology 343 (1940-1941)

PURKINJE'S OBSERVATIONS (1823) ON FINGER PRINTSAND OTHER SKIN FEATURES

Harold Cumins* and Rebecca Wright Kennedyt

ForewordIn 1823 there was published by the

distinguished Czech physiologist andhistologist, Johannes Evangelista Pur-kinje (1787-1869), a thesis entitledCommentatio de examine physiologicoorgani visus et syjstematis cutanei. Amodest octavo pamphlet of fifty-eightpages and one plate, printed by theUniversity Press at Breslau, it is oneof the classics of scientific literature,embodying the results of important

pioneering studies on the eye and onskin. The document is of no little his-torical interest to students of personalidentification. Galton' remarks thatthe portion concerning finger prints has"been referred to by nearly all subse-

quent writers, some of whom thereis reason to suspect never saw it, but

* Professor and Head of the Division of Micro-scopic Anatomy in the School of Medicine,Tulane University.

t Doctor Kennedy took the principal part inthe translation of Purkinje's treatise, work forwhich she was eminently fitted by the combina-tion of medical training and earlier graduatestudy in Latin-[Cummins].

I Galton, F., Finger Prints (London, 1892).2 Galton, Op. cit. supra. The present trans-

lators find it so, as does Miss Anna ThompsonWinecoff, whose unpublished Master's thesis onthe Commentaoio (Department of Latin, Uni-versity of Wyoming) has been made availableto us through the courtesy of Dr. Richard S.Uhrbrock. Miss Winecoff writes: 'Se statedfacts in the best way he knew in a languagewhich did not lend itself to his subject....Purkinje's sentences are long and involved, andappear complicated with far more words thannecessary to express his thoughts. . . . Hislanguage contains many words which are ob-viously invented or compounded to meet asituation for which no Latin equivalent could befound. There are few paragraphs in which one

contented themselves with quoting a

very small portion at second-hand."

Galton's criticism is well pointed, but

the defections of authors may be ex-

cusable, not only because the thesis is

written in Latin, and in a form "that

is difficult to translate accurately into

free English,"2 but on account of its

rarity, only three original copies' hav-

ing been located after rigorous search

extending through several decades 4

The present translation makes avail-

able the entire section of Purkinje'swork which deals with skin, placing

his observations on finger prints in

their proper setting and extending "that

very small portion" represented by thesame frequently quoted passages liftedfrom their context.5

does not find words taken directly from theGreek or words with Greek roots and Latinsuffixes, or words with Latin roots and Greeksuries.. .. One refreshing commentary isthat he was never completely at loss apparently,for he simply concocted the words he neededfrom any language which was nearest the ideahe wanted."

3One copy is in the Army Medical Library,Washington, D. C. Another is in the library ofthe Royal College of Surgeons, London. Ac-cording to Faulds (Guide to Finger-print Iden-tification (Hanley, 1905)) there is a third copyknown, but its location is not indicated. Weare indebted to Dr. Richard S. Uhrbrock forthe gift of a photostat of the Washington copy.4 Included among the interested searchers are

Faulds (Op. cit. supra), Galton (Op. cit. supra)and Wilder (Wentworth, B., and H. L Wilder,Personal Identillcation (2d ed., Chicago, 1932)).

5The extracts, as is the case with Galton (Op.cit. supra), are only descriptions of the ninefinger-print pattern types distinguished byPurkinje (Commentatio, pp. 43-45).

[ 343 ]

HAROLD CUMMINS AND REBECCA WRIGHT KENNEDY

This is not the place for considerationof all the early contributions to knowl-edge of finger prints,' nor is it fittinghere to discuss "Purkinje's investiga-tions in fields other than those whichhave more or less direct bearing on thefield of identification.7 We shall thenconfine ourselves to the translation andto commentaries directly related to thetext (enclosed in square brackets whennot placed in footnotes).

The body of the treatise is composedof five sections: I-Physiological prac-tice; II-The individual as a memberof a species; HI-Physiological exam-ination; IV-External physiological ex-amination of the organ of vision; V-External physiological examination ofthe integumentary system." These sub-ject headings reflect the general ap-proach which prevails throughout thework. Distinctly physiological in out-look, it shows consistently an apprecia-

6 A digest of this early history, with an evalu-ation of Purkinje's share in it, is available in:Heindl, R., System und Praxis der Daktylo-skopie (Berlin and Leipzig, 1927). A specialdiscussion of Purkinje's fingerprint observationsis presented by G. Roscher, Der Altmeister derDaktyloskopie. Ein Gedenkblatt f. .". E. Pur-kin e," Arch. f. Kriminalanthropologie 22:326-335(1906).

7 Numerous biographical and bibliographicalnotices give this information, among them thefollowing. Victor Robinson presents an excel-lent biographical sketch, carrying three por-traits of Purkinje, in the Scientific Monthly.September, 1929. F. K. Studnicka gives a moretechnical account of his work, in Anat. Anz.82:41-66 (1936).

s In the original there is a typographical errorin the number heading this section, which isset IV instead of V.

9 Because he recognized this need and at-tempted to meet it, Purkinje may be rankedamong the pioneers in a special field of medicalinquiry, constitution. It should be noted thatamong the six "propositions to be defended" insupport of his thesis there is this: "The notionof the organic constitution has not hithertobeen exactly defined."

1oThere has been considerable misunder-standing concerning the status of Purkinje'scontribution to dactyloscopy. Actually, it con-

tion that intimate knowledge of indi-vidual peculiarities is requisite to anunderstanding of the bodily processes in

normal and diseased states.' This em-

phasis upon individual differences, di-rected to other purposes as it is, is onlyby implication transferable to the prin-ciple of personal identification. At no

point does Purkinje even hint that suchdifferences (in finger prints, the palm,hair and the like) might be useful inthe recognition of individuals.10 Fol-lowing is the translation, with footnoteannotations by the translators.

External Physiological Examination ofthe Integumentary System

In the following pages, I shall con-sider the important features which de-mand attention in observing the cutan-eous system [integumentary system,i.e., the. skin and its appendages-hairs,nails and glands] of an individual.

sists simply in the description of nine finger-print types. Contrary to the claim of Galton(Op. cit. supra), he was not even the first to becredited with "having first drawn attention tothe patterns," for anatomists long antedatinghim (e.g., Malpighi, De externo tactus organo(1686) had done so). Purkinje himself writes:"In general, indeed, some mention of themoccurs in every physiological or anatomicalepitome." Purkinje does not touch upon theimportant issues of absolute individuality ofeach configuration and its permanence. VictorRobinson (Op. cit. supra) erroneously statesthat Purkinje described the "unchanging char-acter of fingerprints," and he quotes MajorArthur Griffiths to the same effect: "The per-manent character of the finger-print was firstput forward scientifically in 1823 by J. E.Purkinje...."

Faulds (Op. cit. supra) writes: "at that time(1880], I think, no one in Europe or Americaknew even of the existence of Purkenje's (sic!)Latin pamphlet" Purkinje's consideration offinger prints was not entirely overlooked towardthe middle of the nineteenth century, however,since E. Huschke quotes his listing of ninepattern types, commenting further that thedescriptions are quite exact. (Lehre von denEingeweiden und Sinnesorganen des mensch-lichen Karpers, Leipzig, 1844; this work wastranslated into French, appearing as volume 5of the Encyclopidie Anatomique, Paris, 1845.)

PURKINJE'S OBSERVATIONS ON FINGER PRINTS

The principal objects of interest inthis treatise are epidermis, hair, nails,and mucous membranes which com-municate with the external surfacethrough various apertures.

1. Upon tactual examination, theskin is hard or soft, moist, oily, clammy,or dry, warm or cold, elastic, rigid orspongy, smooth or rough, ldose or taut,pliant or non-pliant. These propertiesare found combined in different waysand degrees, or variously modified indifferent states of vital activity. It isto these properties that attention mustbe directed for the revealing of dif-ferences, however slight, in tempera-ment, constitution, age, sex, or evenfamily and nationality.", In a studyof this sort, the organ of touch itself,the hand, should be considered first.For when it is calloused, or when con-tact is made unrestrainedly and withviolence, or when the attention hasnot been trained to perceive very deli-cate degrees of resistance, then thereis not obtained a clear sensation ofsoftness or hardness, elasticity or ri-gidity, and other characteristics of mat-ter.

Since the effect of heat and cold isentirely relative, (as, for instance, thedegree of difference between bodytemperature and the temperature ofan external object) the temperature ofthe hand in this study must be approxi-mately normal, or the ability to judgecorrectly the temperature of an objectmust be gained by practice. And things

11 See note 9.12 Albinism is abnormal reduction in amount

of pigment. In its extreme degree, total albin-ism, melanin pigment is lacking.

13 Melanopathy signifies a pathological in-crease of pigment, and it does not embrace "thepresence of pigment" found normally in the

which seem different, but are not,should be weighed judicially. For ac-curate perception of dryness or damp-ness, oiliness or viscosity, and mostqualities of that sort, the hand mustbe free from the same qualities. If itwere not, its own properties might beconfused with those of the objects thatare touched. For when the hand ismoist with sweat, or is clammy, or ishard and dry, an erroneous interpreta-tion of the characteristics of an objectis not surprising. In case of doubt, itis of assistance to note the palm anddorsum of the hand and even* the ap-pearance of the nails.

2. Among other characters whichthe skin presents, the color is especi-ally conspicuous. Let us now direct ourattention to it. We shall discuss it firstwith respect to the differences of colorwhich the human races present; thenwith respect to mixtures of these colors,hybrid races, as it were. There areinnumerable and subtly modifiedshades, which would be difficult toname, and could be reproduced onlyby the hand of a master painter.

"Leukopathy," albinism,12 which oc-

curs with-various modifications throughall races of man, demands the attentionof the physiologist. We must observenot only its more prominent character-istics, but also its lesser deviations.

Opposed to the above in name andcharacter is "melanopathy," presence ofpigment,"3 the medium degrees of

skin, hair and eyes of white peoples as well asthe more heavily pigmented races. The factthat Purkinje refers to its "medium degrees"as blonde and brunette signifies that he is con-trasting the tendency to pigmentation (er-roneously termed melanopathy) against thelack of pigmentation (albinism).

HAROLD CUMMINS AND REBECCA WRIGHT KENNEDY

which, at least in the Caucasian race,are termed blonde and brunette.

That character of the skin apparentto the eyes alone is not free from color.There occur in the skin both smoothplaces and places marked by ridges,

pores, and prominences, where changesof light and shade exist. Besides, weshall not overlook the transparency andinternal refraction of light which givelocal color and which differ with vary-ing skin texture and vital state. Then,too, color varies with sex, age, consti-tution and temperament, a statement towhich artists at least will gladly attest,since they have expended a great dealof effort along this line. Again, dif-ferent areas of the skin are found topossess their own peculiar colors. Thoseregions exposed to wind and light havea deeper color than areas which areconstantly protected by clothing. Cer-tain more transparent parts, the tem-ples, around the eyes, the neck, arms,and mammae, are marked by thecourses of veins, while cheeks andpalms and soles of the feet seem to becolored with arterial blood. The areo-lae of the mammae, the regions of theanus and of the external genitalia,which resemble mucous membrane,have a darker color. Finally, varyingstates of the body fluids, which affectthe skin in the case of bile, phlegm,blood, or a certain melanosis, are shownby different colors.

3. In a physiological study we mustnot overlook the odor of the skin. Justas no other sense so abounds in thevariety of specific sensations as doesthe olfactory sense, so we may con-

24 How does this serve as proof?

cude with reasonable certainty that

there are many modifications of odors

among different nations. The keen ol-

factory sense of the dog gives us proof

of this.4

But it is remarkable that no other

sense is so neglected as the olfactorysense, which in every-day life is cov-

ered, as it were, with a cloak or shame.Since this scorn is undeserved, it isstriving now to gain admittance at the

locked doors of the sciences.4. No less worthy of examination

are the peculiar skin sensations, dis-closed only by subjective examination.Here are the sensations of warmth orheat, chilliness or cold, bristling ofhairs, crawling sensations, pressure,dullness, itching, increased or decreasedsensitivity, various kinds of pain -pricking, constricting, tearing, etc.-which affect the skin as a whole orparts of it. All these sensations maybe described by suitable comparisonsand aptly chosen terms.

5. Now I shall pass from the prop-erties of sensibility of the skin to itsanatomical configuration. First let usconsider the epidermis. Here are notedpores and tuberosities; small, irregu-larly tortuous depressions; rugae and

sulci.It has been a matter of dispute among

authorities as to whether pores actuallyare present in the epidermis. It is myown opinion that the epidermis is per-forated by pores, that these pores areso occluded by the elasticity of the skinthat they open only to emit sweat, eventhen not being visible with either thenaked eye or with the aid of any ap-paratus. A similar phenomenon is thepuncturing of a small elastic gum mem-

PURKINJE'S OBSERVATIONS ON FINGER PRINTS

brane with a sharp needle. On eachsurface a slight furrow is seen; but thecanal, even if the material be cut intothe most minute layers, is not apparent.So also in the skin nothing is seenexcept the little furrows on the externalsurface; yet sweat and suction ofblood, even its spontaneous emanation,show that these furrows are connectedwith small canals through which fluidsmay pass. These little depressions are'most distinctly seen in the furrows andcourses of the small hollows with whichthe soles and the hands are filled,where it is easy to express drops ofsweat that can be seen with the nakedeye. It must be noted that many ofthese are occluded in advanced age,which explains the greater torpor of thecutaneous function with advancingyears. The size of the sudoriferouspassages is different in different partsof the body. For in the cheeks andforehead they are almost large enoughto reach the mucous and sebaceousglands[?]; they almost form papillaearound the eye [?]; they are mostnumerous at the roots of the hairs, inthe thick folds whence they emerge.Their direction is mostly perpendicu-lar except at the roots of the nails,where they seem to extend obliquelytoward the apices. Nowhere does theinternal structure of the epidermisshow itself more conspicuously than inwarts, which are like a heap of con-crete tubes for carrying water orblood.1

5

The texture of the epidermis seems

18 Reference here to a figure is deleted. Theoriginal illustration, Figure 21, shows "Thestructure of a wart upon horizontal section,magnified." At this point it may be explained

to me to be like the hydrophane orpyrophane of the mineralogists, in thatit is continually bathed with atmos-pheric vapor, or by emanations ofblood, by which cutaneous transpira-tion and resorption from the exteriorare accomplished. And in truth therewill soon scarcely be anyone who willnot be convinced of this innate qualityof the epidermis, since we find it in ourown bodies now swollen with liquid,now dry and wasted. The creases aredifferent in different parts of the skin.Their sizes and directions are vastlydifferent. Some correspond to the flex-ion of the joints. Others are related tothe roots of the hairs, and, as it were,converge on them, facilitating theirmovements while they are elevated inbristling. It is the province of anatomyto undertake to describe the forms andmodifications of this kind of foldthoughout the entire surface of theskin.

In the regions between the folds,very minute tubercles are seen, whichare nothing but circumvallations orcraters of the pores. Mention should bemade, too, of the greater furrows whichare found in the inner portions of thepalms. They are especially noteworthybecause they formerly gave origin tothe groundless teachings'of the palm-ists. No one will doubt that they aredetermined by the different movementsof hands and fingers. There arose, too,applicable names for these furrows. Idistinguish the lines of opposition, ab-duction, adduction, extension, and flex-

that of the sixteen figures illustrating skinstructures, only the nine (Figures 7-15) relatingto finger-print types are reproduced here. Eachof the others is characterized in a footnote.

HAROLD CUMMINS AND REBECCA WRIGHT KENNEDY

ion. The following should be enumer-ated: 16

1) The line of opposition of thethumb, called by palmists the life line,which outlines the thenar eminence.

2) The line of adduction of thethumb, the line of Mars, follows this inan almost parallel direction.

3) The line of abduction of the littlefinger is situated at its base on the ul-nar margin of the hand; it is called bypalmists the line of matrimony.

4) The line of closing of the threeulnar fingers, the line of the table,which, when we point out anythingwith the forefinger, is made into a foldby the flexion of the rest of the fingers;I have therefore called it the pointingline.

5) The line of the closed hand, thenature line, which runs through themiddle of the hand almost parallel tothe pointing line.

6) The line of flexion of the ringand middle fingers, the line of Venus,which in some individuals encircles thebases of these fingers.

7) The line of flexion at the wrist,the line of Rascetta.

8) The lines of opposition of the ul-nar three fingers, less conspicuous thanthe others and running from the wristtoward the roots of the index and mid-dle fingers in a direction almost parallelto the line of opposition of the thumb,called by palmists the lines of honorand fortune.

9) Finally, the lines of extensionwhich are often seen running longitu-

16 References to Figure 6 are deleted in thefollowing descriptions of flexion furrows. Theillustration shows "The furrows in the palm ofthe hand which are related to its joints andflexions."

dinally in the joints of the extended

fingers.Certain analogies will be found in

the sole of the foot, although its mo-bility is more limited in proportion toits uses. Even though I admit thatthere is some physiological significancein these lines, since the hand is thespecial instrument of human labor, andthough the different types of movementfor which it has been designed showhow conjecture can be made as to thecharacter of the individual and then asto the events of life that are to come,yet I am convinced that there is scarce-ly any truth in palmistry. In my opin-ion the work of palmists ought to beconsidered equal to the prophecies ofsoothsayers and augurs who prophesyfrom the flights of birds and the mo-tions of the intestines.

Our attention is now attracted by theremarkable disposition and flexures ofthe contiguous rugae and sulci in theinner part of the hand and foot, espe-cially in the terminal phalanges of thefingers. In general, indeed, some men-tion of them occurs in every physio-logical or anatomical epitome. But inan organ of such great importance asthe human hand, which serves notonly for movements of many differenttypes but also for the sense of touch,every inqury, however minute, bringsto light some worthwhile information.After innumerable observations, I havefound nine important varieties of pat-terns of rugae and sulci serving fortouch"7 on the palmar surface of the

17 It is thus suggested that Purkinje regardsthe pattern formations as agents of enhancedtactile sensibility, a position held by some laterworkers (in contrast to the opposing but notirreconcilable view that they serve primarilyfor frictional augmentation),

PUEXINJE'S OBSERVATIONS ON FINGER PRINTS

terminal phalanges of the fingers. Ipresent these nine, though the lines ofdemarcation between types are oftenobscure;1 8 the figures will explain them.

1) The transverse curves, fig. 7[simple arch]. From the articular fold,rugae and sulci first course in almoststraight lines transversely from one

versely coursing ridges are wrappedover a little perpendicular stria, as ifit were a nucleus.

3) The oblique stripe, fig. 9 [loop,ulnar or radial]. Between the trans-

verse curves [of a figure such as type1, above] a single oblique line is in-terpolated from one side or the other;

I? 13 14 15Figs. 7-15. "Nine principal configurations of the rugae and sulci serving the sense

of touch on the terminal phalanges of the human hand." [Copied from photostat-]

side of the phalanx to the other; thenlittle by little they become more curvedin the middle, until they are bent in

arches which are nearly parallel withthe periphery of the phalanx.

2) The central longitudinal stria,

fig. 8 [tented arch]. This is of almostthe same conformation as the above,the only difference being that the trans-

18This recognition of the intergradations oftypes is noteworthy.

it runs forward [distally] and ends al-most at the center.

4) The oblique loop, fig. 10 [loop,ulnar or radial]. Now if this obliquestripe by a simple curve returns to theside from which it came, and followsmany others in a similar curve, an ob-lique loop is formed, which may bemore or less erect or may bend for-ward. Near its base, on one side or theother, a triangle is formed from the dif-

HAROLD CUMINS AND REBECCA WRIGHT KENNEDY

ferent directions of the rugae and sulci.

Their configuration in the form of the

oblique loop is the commonest, and, I

may almost say, typical of man, while

groups of longitudinal rugae and sulci

are typical of apes. Usually the vertex

of the loop is inclined obliquely towardthe radial margin; yet the contrary isoften noted on the index finger, thevertex being directed toward the ulnar

side. On the toes almost no other formexcept this occurs. Frequently, also,when oblique or other simple forms arepresent in the other fingers, the ringfinger presents a more complicated ar-rangement.

5) The almond, fig. 11 [whorl]. Inthis form, the previously described loop,running back on itself, incloses an al-mond-shaped gyrus, blunt at the ver-tex, pointed at the root, and composedof concentric ridges.

6) The spiral, fig. 12 [whorl].Transverse curves described under[type 1] are to be imagined as chang-ing from straight lines to loops, notgradually, but suddenly and markedly;thus a semicircular space must beformed which rests on the straighttransverse lines as if on soil. This spaceis filled with a spiral line, either simpleor compound, twisted on itself. Thespiral is simple in the geometric senseof the word; I call it compound, be-cause from the center many ramifica-

•tions go out from the same point or in-tervals, and are twisted on themselves.From either side, where the spiral iscontiguous to the departure of thestraight lines or curves encircling it,two triangles arise. Such an obliqueloop bears much to one side.

7) The ellipse - elliptical whorl,fig. 13 [whorl]. As previously de-

scribed, a semicircular space is filled

with concentric ellipses, which sur-round a simple short line placed in thecenter.

8) The circle-circular whorl, fig.14 [whorl]. Where in the ellipse a sim-ple line occupies the center, here asmall tubercle [island] does so; it issurrounded with concentric circleswhich reach the rugae of the semicir-cular space.

9) The double whorl, fig. 15 [twinloop]. If a part of the transverse linesruns forward and is bent back uponitself half again as much, and anotherline embraces it similarly on the otherside, thence two whorls are formedentwined on themselves. This figureis present for the most part only on the

thumb, index, and ring fingers. Thevertices of the incurving loops, arebent in different directions, extendingeither longitudinally, obliquely, ortransversely.

In all the descriptions under num-bers 6, 7, 8 and 9, a. triangle [delta]appears on each side, where the trans-verse lines leave the incurving ones.In the rest of the phalanges of the fin-gers, transverse lines from one cornerto the other are disposed in a straight

or slightly curved direction.Concerning the paths and curves of

the rugae and sulci in the hollow ofthe hand, there occur variations which

must be noted. In the region of thewrist joint a trivium (point where threelines meet) is seen which is terminatedat a base in the transverse lines in thewrist, and rugae and sulci are contin-

PURKINJE'S OBSERVATIONS ON FINGER PRINTS

ued toward each side in great numbers,onto the ball of- the thumb and littlefinger.

From the interval of the index fingerand the thumb run great numbers ofparallel lines, which pass in divergingdirections across the palm, next to thelinea palmiformis, into the margins ofthe metacarpals of the thumb and littlefinger. Thus triangles are formedwhose vertices are at the wrist. This

is their most common conformation.Other parallel lines from the roots ofthe fingers meet and accompany thelines running across from the intervalof the thumb and the index finger to-

ward the external margin of the fifthmetacarpal. Running out from theseintervals, loops and whorls are inter-posed; but it would take too long to

explain in this paper the many varietiesof these.19 On the thenar eminence atrapezoidal region occurs where therugae and sulci are set transversely tothe circles. On the hypothenar emi-nence, toward the radial margin of the.metacarpal, often a larger loop is ob-served where the rugae and sulci goingout from the margin are again reflectedonto it. Sometimes .even an ellipticalwhorl is seen on this eminence.

Also in the hands of apes,2 0 even in

their prehensile tails,21 similar lines oc-cur, the distinction of which adds to the

O The subordination of the palmar features isa curious parallel to the treatment accordedthem by many later writers, as if the fingerprints were regarded as having larger impor-tance (which of course they do in identifica-tion).

20Figure 19 illustrates "The distribution ofthe rugae and sulci such as is found in the handof the tail-less Inuus."

21 Figure 20 shows the ridge arrangement in"The hollows in the lower surface of the tailof an Ateles coaita (spider monkey)."

22 A number of workers. since have engaged

knowledge concerning the characteris-tics of the species. Zoologists, unlessthey consider them unimportant, willmake them known further. -22

The physiological significance of these

rugae and sulci I have left to discussin a somewhat more convenient timeand place.

2'

6. The hairs and the nails mostclosely resemble the epidermis in ori-gin. The amount of hair; the length,thinness, curl and direction of growthfrom the skin; the shape, structure,color, transparency, hardness or soft-ness; the firmness with which it resiststension, or the ease with which ityields; the electricity, hygroscopicquality, chemical reactions-all these

properties must be examined in dif-ferent individuals. Besides these phys-ical properties, its organic vegetativeproperties must be observed. Theseare, for instance, the swiftness or slow-

ness of growth, distribution over thedifferent parts of the body, times andways of growing and falling out, white-ness and other discolorations.

We set down in this place certainobservations2" which we have made onthe different directions of lanugo25

through lines of separation, whorls,

and quadrivia variously distributedover the average male fetus of aboutsix months.26

-in comparative studies, and research in thisfield continues.

23He gives but a hint of his view; see note 17.24 These observations on hair direction ap-

pear to have been completely ignored by laterworkers in the field, doubtless because of theobscurity of Purkinje's publication.

25 The delicate hairs characteristic of the fetus.26Three figures illustrate regional charac-

teristics of hair direction: Figure 16--"'The lineof separation of lanugo in the fetus, in the formof a quadrivium in the midline"; Figure 17-"The separation of hairs on the top of the head";

HAROLD CUMMINS AND REBECCA WRIGHT KENNEDY

Lines of separation (natural parts)

are best distinguished in the median

line of the body, anterior and poste-

rior; then there are two lateral ones;

finally there occur palmate lines where

the line of the hairs curves; loops; and

the quadrivia where in four places thehairs part by diverging and convergingin crossed directions.

First, the anterior median part must

be noted. On the manubrium of the

sternum this line of separation contains

a quadrivium. In this quadrivium the

hairs coming from the neck and from

the umbilical region in the median line

diverge and run in a transverse direc-

tion, laterally. Descending to the um-

bilicus and converging, they proceed

on its circumference and continue in a

line which is occasionally broken by

the opposite direction of single hairs.

In the hypogastric region this line again

deviates into a quadrivium, in the supe-rior angle of which the hairs again point

upwards, as in the quadrivium of the

sternum. In the inferior angle they

point downwards, and they almost dis-

appear near the mons veneris. Anotherquadrivium is observed in the neck

between the hyoid bone and the larynx.Its inferior angle is formed by hairs

extending upward from the quadri-

vium of the sternum in the median line

and running out to the sides of the

neck; in a similar manner in the supe-

rior angle the hairs going out from the

beard run towards the sides. On the

nose, for the most part free from hairs,

an irregular central place, as it were,

of a quadrivium is located. Its supe-

rior angle is made to extend forward

Figure IS-"The line of separation of lanugowhich spreads out to the quadrivium of the

by hairs ascending from the root of the

nose to the forehead; its inferior angleis continued downward by hairs de-

scending from the septum of the nosethrough the upper and lower lips andbeard toward the quadrivium of theneck. Finally, there is a quadriviumon the forehead. Its inferior angle isformed by hairs ascending from theroot of the nose and diverging towardthe eyebrows. The superior -angle isformed by hairs descending. f om thehead. Then there is the vertex, wherethe hairs depart from the center ante-riorly and posteriorly, and toward thesides in the shape of a bow. On the leftside--or rather, on different sides indifferent individuals-they are sepa-rated in a palmate arrangement, andon the back of the head, near the regionof the first vertebra, they converge intoa little fringe; thence they run downthe back in a broad and alrfiost doubleline of parallel hairs, and are continuedto the coccyx, where again they con-verge rather prominently into a littletail. In this feature there is a greatlikeness to the young of animals.Around the anus, the direction of thehairs is partly toward the margin ofthe coccyx, partly toward the genitalia;whence, with outspreading hairs fromthe mons veneris, a double quadriviumis seen to be formed in relation to theanus and the genitalia.

And so there are many quadrivia tobe distinguished, in which hairs eitherrelatively converge or diverge at themedian line. Gonvergences are foundin the neck, in the umbilical region, onthe genitalia and coccyx. Divergences

sternum, the lateral quadrivium of the breastand the quadrivium of the arm."

PURKINJE'S OBSERVATIONS ON FINGER PRINTS

occur on the nose, vertex, sternum, inthe hypogastric region, and about theanus. Each kind of quadrivium appearsfive times.

Besides these, two lateral lines ofseparation are noted, which begin atthe fifth rib, approximately where itis joined to its cartilage, and are lim-ited below by the anterior part of thecrest of the ilium.

In the region of the fifth rib wherethey take origin, a converging quad-rivium is present. Its superior anglepasses into a palmate line which, pro-ceeding through the anterior fold of theaxilla, is terminated in a quadriviumin the region of the insertion of thedeltoid into the humerus. The otherend of this lateral line of separationis found over the anterior angle of thecrest of the ilium. Here, too, is a di-verging quadrivium, its inferior anglebeing continuous with a palmate lineover the femur. And so the lateral linesof separation, the upper ends passinginto converging quadrivia, the lowerinto diverging quadrivia, are contin-uous with the palmate lines of separa-tion of hairs on the arm and thigh.

The quadrivium of the arm divergessuperiorly and inferiorly. The lateralangles are formed by concurring palm-ate lines from each side, which startat the axilla. And so the axilla, al-though it possesses the fewest hairs(the opposite being true in adults),may be considered the center of thetwo palmate lines. The more anteriorof these lines is continued in threedirections to the lateral quadrivium,and to the sternal and brachial quad-rivia; the more posterior is deflected

to the arm and there it determines theposterior lateral angle of a quadrivium.The other directions of the hairs aretoward the medial side of the arm, theside of the trunk, the back, and thebreast.

On the lateral side of the arm, thehairs run down toward the olecranonprocess of the elbow; in like mannerthose on the medial surface run towardthe elbow. On the anterior surface ofthe forearm the hairs diverge towardeither side as far down as the palm, sothat they extend in almost transversearches, whose convexity on the radialmargin looks toward the hand; on theulnar side, in the opposite direction.Hairs run also from the back of thehand toward the olecranon process,where they meet the hairs of the brach-ium and converge into a bundle. Onthe ulnar margin of the forearm, thehairs combining suddenly and takingdifferent directions, a line is formedwhich terminates in the bundle of theolecranon. On the dorsum of the handhairs run anteriorly and obliquely fromthe radial margin to the ulnar margin.

Where the lateral lines of separationof the hairs are terminated at the crestof the ilium, the quadrivium, at itsinferior angle, becomes continuous witha palmate line. This line curves ob-liquely forward about two-thirds of theway down the inner margin of thethigh, where it splits, and the hairsrun in opposite directions. Part ofthem run through the calf of the leg;partly they are directed backward onthe posterior surface of the thightoward the buttocks. For the rest, thehairs on the anterior surface of the

HAROLD CUMMINS AND REBECCA WRIGHT KENNEDY

thigh run downward; those on themedial and lateral surfaces wind trans-versely; but on the posterior surface,as already noted, they are directedupward from the popliteal space towardthe buttocks. In the lower leg all aredirected downward.

On the posterior margin of the helixof the external ear, hairs ascend fromthe lobe to the top, which is a littlepointed as in animals.. The arrange-ment is similar on the outer surface,so that coming together at a point thehairs form a small bunch. In the innerpart of the auricle which looks towardthe cranium, hairs run toward the peri-phery. In the lower transverse part ofthehelix, where the smallermusele of thehelix is seen, the hairs run toward theinterior of the concha. The internalappearance of the tragus, which inadults is filled with hair, is found tobe almost bare.

The disposition of the hairs on thetrunk between the lines of separationis easily understood if we follow, inimagination, their directions from thequadrivia and palmate lines. At thesides of the neck the disposition is themost ambiguous, yet I do not doubtthat there the line of separation ispresent, though inconspicuous.

From the above it is apparent thatmany characteristics are found in thefetus which demonstrate a certainanalogy to animals; here, in the point-edness of the hairs in the ears, and inthe bundle on the coccyx; there, onthe lateral surface of the arm and fore-arm, in the opposite directions of thehairs meeting on the olecranon process.This last characteristic has been attrib-

uted formerly to the Simian, Satyr, and

Troglodyte only.

Further, so great a likeness exists

between the directions of the hairs andthe forms of the rugae and sulci servingthe sense of touch-gyrate, palmate,angular, etc. -that it is plain thatnature, which everywhere is one andthe same, from the epidermal substancewhich serves to make hairs forms for herown uses these rugae and sulci, whichseem to have grown by a gatheringtogether of hairs and a storing andaccumulation of them under the skin.

It would not be aside from the sub-ject to begin experiments concerningthe growth of hairs and nails in dif-ferent individuals, since this matter canbe subjected to measurements ofalmost mathematical accuracy. Fur-ther, the different shapes of the nailsin individuals; their absolute dimen-sions, and those relative to the handand the rest of the body; their colorand discoloration; the size and shapeof the moons-these demand attentionno less than the rest of the subjectshitherto enumerated.

In general, the growth of the skinsystem is easily open to observation andexperimentation if, by cutting or press-ing or by the use of chemical sub-stances, we provoke it to react. Butdifferent diseases of the skin-eachexy,eruptions, and exanthemata, all ofwhich alter the physiological laws ofgrowth---cause innumerable modifica-

tions of form.

7. The Malpighian rete does notopen up so easily to external investiga-tion in vivo, unless you take it to bethe gelatinous substance which comes

PUIRKINJE'S OBSERVATIONS ON FINGER PRINTS

into sight when the epidermis has beendestroyed by burning or blistering.

I am not able at this time to discussthe elastic fibers. These fibers, of aboutthe same diameter as ordinary sheep'swool, are easily seen when the epider-meis is macerated, loosened, and slowlylifted and drawn back from the palmof the hand or the sole of the foot.When this is done, they appear in theangle formed by the corium and theinner surface of the epidermis, almostevenly spaced and yielding elasticallyto a continued stretch. Indeed, it is

my belief, although it is but humanto err in dealing with so small anobject, that these filaments, emergingfrom the middle of the contiguous pa-pillae, terminate in the pores whichoccupy the depressions of the epider-mis at evenly spaced intervals. Whetherthese are vessels or solid threads, orexcretory canals, is hard to demon-strate. By chance it fell to my happylot to demonstrate them in a driedstate. While investigating the analo-gous action of infusion of coffee andpyroligneous acid, I had left a humanthumb to dry, after first treating withan infusion. Where the epidermis wasdrawn back and stood away from thecorium because of its lessened con-tractibility, these fibers were visibleeither intact or split in the middle.

Likewise in warts, when their struc-ture is made more visible by macera-tion, it is distinctly seen that the fibersare continued from the outer surfaceof the corium. These fibers are seen onthe epidermis, as the wart is pulled

away, like the hairs of a little paintbrush, but the rest of the wart appearsto be bored with small holes. More

than once I have had the opportunityto observe, from an infected wart onmy own hand, that it was nothing buta clump of tubules. Upon perpendicu-lar section these are separated and

through their' transparent sides blood-stained fibers are seen running towardthe outer end. Upon horizontal exci-sion, they exude lymph or blood fromevenly spaced pores.

8. The rete of the capillaries, whichenvelops the entire surface under theepidermis, is also offered for externalinspection in a living subject. A lensis constructed having a focal distanceof almost half a thumb-length. This isadjusted to an apparatus such as buyersof linens use for counting the threadsin a certain space, where, in the focaldistance, a horizontal plate perforatedby a quadrangular opening is fixed forobserving the object. By this apparatusredness of the skin, produced by rub-bing or sucking, may be observed. Theepidermis is more transparent if rubbedwith oil and looked at in the sun. Then,especially in younger subjects, a reteof the most minute vessels will be ob-served, and also the roots verging up-ward in the epidermis and there endingin a red spot.

By this medium, over all the surface

of the skin the modifications in thedistribution of the vessels and theirbranches can be conveniently observed;and thus somehow a way will lie openby which it will be easier to observeand investigate externally the vascularsystem. Such a method is efficient forobserving certain skin affections, erup-tions, exanthemata, and various formsof inflammation and ulceration in a liv-ing body.

HAROLD CUMMINS AND REBECCA WRIGHT KENNEDY

9. The close union of the skin withthe fibrous and muscular system wemay conjecture from sulci and littledepressions which are seen in both fatand lean individuals, in the arms, andwhich are formed by fibrous unionbetween the skin and aponeuroses.

Indeed, this junction is plainest inthe sole of the foot, where the plantaraponeurosis is joined with the under-lying corium by fibrous sheets closelyinterwoven with fat. An equally closeunion is seen in the aponeurosis andfascia lata of the thigh, where singlelongitudinal sheets, penetrating the fatof the corium, are woven into it. Thisis especially conspicuous over theglutaeus maximus, whose separatefasciculi are interwoven with fibrousextensions from the skin; but particu-larly over the great trochanter, wherethe glutaei are inserted, this fibrousjunction with the skin is conspicuous,where even in the fat on the externalsurface a depression is seen. If youpinch up the skin here with your fin-gers, it is pulled back by the contrac-tion of the glutaei and the tensor fascialata. In the linea alba and in the ab-domen where the transverse tendinousinscriptions are attached to the recti,fibrous retinacula are also continuedinto the corium. In the palm of thehand the palmar aponeurosis and thetendons of the palmaris are closelybound to the skin over carpals andmetacarpals. Such a union is seen alsoover the olecranon and on the arm,during vigorous muscular exercise,when the skin is stretched and is seento adhere to the bones. By this unionbetween muscles and skin, rugae and

sulci are formed, which run almost atright angles to the course of the power-

ful muscular fibers under the skin.

Of great importance, in this matterof the relation of the skin to the fibrous

and muscular system, is a somewhatmore careful inquiry into the anatomyof sculptors and painters, where neitherempiric imitation of a nude body northe delineation of decorated arms com-

pletes the whole work; where one in-vestigates the most minute elevationsor depressions of an organic nature onthe surface of the body with steadfastand subtle attention.

10. Similarly, the panniculus adipo-sus which lies under the skin must notbe neglected in the investigation, sinceit most of all determines the externalsurface, and so the shape of the body.The distribution and the quantity offat can be not only observed, but alsopalpated. Certainly, in different indi-viduals there occur differences in con-sistency, color and amount of fat. Evenat a distance it may be noted that thebuttocks in man contain two moundsof somewhat hard fat interwoven inthe copious and firam tela subcutanea.This calls to mind an analogy to thethick-skinned buttocks of apes.

11. Finally, the mucous membranemust be observed in the orifices throughwhich it lies open to view from theoutside. Here must be considered thevarieties of soft palate and of tonsils,but mostly of the papillae of the tongue.For all this suitable material will con-tribute to the specialized knowledgeof man, which is of greatest importancein practice, and is of no less momentthan is general knowledge.