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Copyright © 1995–2008 by Pearson Education, publishing as Longman PublishersFowler/Aaron, The Little, Brown Handbook, Tenth Edition, and Aaron, LB Brief, Third Edition

PUNCTUATION


PRINCIPAL USES OF THECOMMA

Separate main clauses linked by acoordinating conjunction

● Set off most introductory elements

● Set off nonessential elements

● Separate items in a series

● Separate coordinate adjectives

Other usesTo set off absolute phrasesTo set off phrases expressing contrastTo separate parts of dates, addresses, long

numbersTo separate quotations and signal phrasesTo prevent misreading

39.1


A TEST FOR ESSENTIAL ANDNONESSENTIAL ELEMENTS

Identify the element.➤ Hal Nguyen who emigrated from Vietnam

lives in Denver.

➤ Those who emigrated with him live elsewhere.

Remove the element. Does thefundamental meaning of the sentencechange?➤ Hal Nguyen lives in Denver. No

➤ Those live elsewhere. Yes (Who are Those?)

If no, the element is nonessential andshould be set off with punctuation.➤ Hal Nguyen, who emigrated from Vietnam,

lives in Denver.

If yes, the element is essential and shouldnot be set off with punctuation.➤ Those who emigrated with him live elsewhere.

39.2


PUNCTUATING TWO OR MORE ADJECTIVES

Identify the adjectives.She was a faithful sincere friend.

They are dedicated medical students.

Can the adjectives be reversed withoutchanging meaning?She was a sincere faithful friend. Yes

They are medical dedicated students. No

Can the word and be inserted between theadjectives without changing meaning?She was a faithful and sincere friend. Yes

They are dedicated and medical students. No

If yes to both questions, the adjectives arecoordinate and should be separated by acomma.She was a faithful, sincere friend.

If no, the adjectives are not coordinate andshould not be separated by a comma.They are dedicated medical students.

39.3


PRINCIPAL MISUSES OF THECOMMA

Don’t use a comma after a subject or verb.

Don’t separate a pair of words, phrases, orsubordinate clauses joined by and, or, ornor.

Don’t use a comma after and, but,although, because, or another conjunction.

Don’t set off essential elements.

Don’t set off a series.

Don’t set off an indirect quotation.

39.4


EXERCISERevising: Needless or

misused commas

Revise the following sentences to eliminate needless or misused commas.

39.5a

1. Nearly 32 million US residents, speak a firstlanguage other than English.

2. After English the languages most commonlyspoken in the United States are, Spanish, French,and German.

3. Almost 75 percent of the people, who speak foreignlanguages, used the words, “good” or “very good,”when judging their proficiency in English.

4. Recent immigrants, especially those speakingSpanish, Chinese, and Korean, tended to judge theirEnglish more harshly.

5. The states with the highest proportion of foreignlanguage speakers, are New Mexico, andCalifornia.


ANSWERS TO EXERCISE

39.5b

1. Nearly 32 million US residents speak afirst language other than English.

2. After English the languages mostcommonly spoken in the United States areSpanish, French, and German.

3. Almost 75 percent of the people who speakforeign languages used the words “good”or “very good” when judging theirproficiency in English.

4. Sentence correct.5. The states with the highest proportion of

foreign-language speakers are NewMexico and California.


DISTINGUISHING THE COMMA,THE SEMICOLON,AND THE COLON.

The comma chiefly separates both equaland unequal sentence elements.

The semicolon chiefly separates equal andbalanced sentence elements. Often the firstclause creates an expectation, and thesecond clause fulfills the expectation.

The colon chiefly separates unequalsentence elements.

40.1


USES AND MISUSES OF THEAPOSTROPHE

Use an apostrophe to form the possessives ofnouns and indefinite pronouns.

Use an apostrophe to form contractions. The apostrophe is optional for plurals of

abbreviations, dates, and words or charactersnamed as words.

Do not use an apostrophe plus -s to form thepossessives of plural nouns ending in -s.

Do not use an apostrophe to form plurals ofnouns.

Do not use an apostrophe with verbs ending in-s.

Do not use an apostrophe to form thepossessives of personal pronouns.

42.1


EXERCISEDistinguishing betweenplurals and possessives

1. Demeter may be the oldest of the Greek[god], older than Zeus.

2. Many prehistoric [culture] had earth[goddess] like Demeter.

3. In myth she is the earth mother, whichmeans that the responsibility for thefertility of both [animal] and [plant] is[she].

4. The [goddess] festival came at harvesttime, with [it] celebration of bounty.

5. The [people] [prayer] to Demeterthanked her for grain and other [gift].

Supply the appropriate form—possessive or plural —of eachword given in brackets.

42.2a


ANSWERS TO EXERCISE

1. Demeter may be the oldest of the Greekgods, older than Zeus.

2. Many prehistoric cultures had earthgoddesses like Demeter.

3. In myth she is the earth mother, whichmeans that the responsibility for thefertility of both animals and plants is hers.

4. The goddess’s festival came at harvesttime, with its celebration of bounty.

5. The people’s prayers to Demeter thankedher for grain and other gifts.

42.2b


HANDLING QUOTATIONS FROMSPEECH OR WRITING

Direct and indirect quotationDirect quotationAccording to Lewis Thomas, “We are, perhaps uniquelyamong the earth’s creatures, the worrying animal. Weworry away our lives.”

Quotation within quotationQuoting a phrase by Lewis Thomas, the author adds,“We are ‘the worrying animal.’”

Indirect quotationLewis Thomas says that human beings are uniqueamong animals in their worrying.

Quotation marks with other punctuationmarksCommas and periodsHuman beings are the “worrying animal,” says Thomas.

Semicolons and colonsMachiavelli says that “the majority of men livecontent”; in contrast, Thomas calls us “the worryinganimal.”

43.1a


HANDLING QUOTATIONS FROMSPEECH OR WRITING (continued)

Question marks, exclamation points, dashesWhen part of own sentenceWho said that human beings are “the worrying animal”?

When part of the original quotation“Will you discuss this with me?” she asked.

Altering quotationsBrackets for additions“We [human beings] worry away our lives,” saysThomas.

Brackets for altered capitalization“[T]he worrying animal” is what Thomas calls us. Hesays that “[w]e worry away our lives.”

Ellipsis marks for omissions“We are . . . the worrying animal.” says Thomas.

43.1b


HANDLING QUOTATIONS FROMSPEECH OR WRITING (continued)

Punctuating signal phrases with quotationsIntroductory signal phraseThomas says that “ the worrying animal” is afraid andrestless.

Concluding signal phraseWe are “the worrying animal,” says Thomas.

Interrupting signal phrase“I do not like the idea,” she said; “however, I agree withit.”

43.1c


TITLES TO BE ENCLOSED INQUOTATION MARKS

Songs➤ “Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds”

Short poems➤ “Sunday Morning”

Articles in periodicals➤ “Comedy and Tragedy Transposed”

Essays➤ “Politics and the English Language”

Short stories➤ “The Battler”

Page or document on a Web site➤ “Readers’ Page” (on site Friends of Prufrock)

Episodes of television and radio programs➤ “The Mexican Connection” (on 60 Minutes)

Subdivisions of books➤ “The Mast Head” (Chapter 35 of Moby-Dick)

43.2


EXERCISERevising: quotation marks

1. In the title essay of her book The Death of theMoth and Other Essays, Virginia Woolfdescribes the last moments of a frail anddiminutive body.

2. An insect’s death may seem insignificant, butthe moth is, in Woolf’s words, life, a pure bead.

3. The moth’s struggle against death, indifferent,impersonal, is heroic.

4. Where else but in such a bit of life could onesee a protest so superb?

5. At the end Woolf sees the moth lying mostdecently and uncomplainingly composed; indeath it finds dignity.

Remove incorrect underlining, and insert quotation marks.

43.3a


ANSWERS TO EXERCISE

1. In the title essay of her book “The Death of theMoth” and Other Essays, Virginia Woolf describesthe last moments of a “frail and diminutive body.”[Underlining correct for book title, but essay titlewithin it is quoted.]

2. An insect’s death may seem insignificant, but themoth is, in Woolf’s words, “life, a pure bead.”

3. The moth’s struggle against death, “indifferent,impersonal,” is heroic.

4. Where else but in such a bit of life could one see aprotest so “superb”?

5. At the end Woolf sees the moth lying “mostdecently and uncomplainingly composed”; in deathit finds dignity.

43.3b


DISTINGUISHING THE COLONAND THE SEMICOLON

The colon is a mark of introduction thatseparates elements of unequal importance,such as statements and explanations orintroductions and quotations.

➤ The business school caters to working students:it offers special evening courses in businesswriting, finance, and management.

The semicolon separates elements of equalimportance, almost always complete mainclauses.

➤ Few enrolling students know exactly what theywant from the school; most hope generally for amanagerial career.

41.1


DISTINGUISHING DASHES,COMMAS, AND PARENTHESES

Dashes give the information the greatestemphasis:

➤ Many students—including some employed bythe college —disapprove of the new work rules.

Commas are less emphatic:

➤ Many students, including some employed by thecollege, disapprove of the new work rules.

Parentheses are the least emphatic,signaling that the information is just wortha mention:

➤ Many students (including some employed bythe college) disapprove of the new work rules.

44.1

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