public reason liberalism

7/18/2019 Public Reason Liberalism

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Public Reason Liberalism

Gerald Gaus

1 PUBLIC REASON LIBERALISM: PAST , PRESENT , AND UTURE

T!e i"ea o# $ublic reason is almos% al&a's associa%e" ( some%imes e)clusi*el'

( &i%! +o!n Ra&ls $oli%ical liberalism- Man', no "oub%, belie*e %!a% i# %!ere is

suc! a crea%ure as .$ublic reason liberalism/ i% is a Ra&lsian crea%ion- T!is is an

error- T!e social con%rac% %!eories o# 0obbes, Loce, Rousseau an" 2an% all are

base" on con*ic%ion %!a% %!e main aim o# $oli%ical $!iloso$!' is %o i"en%i#' an

a3ree"4u$on $ublic 5u"3men% or $ublic reason %!a% allo&s us %o o*ercome %!e

"isuni%' an" con6ic% %!a% &oul" c!arac%eri7e a con"i%ion in &!ic! eac! #ollo&e"!er o&n $ri*a%e 5u"3men% or reasonin3 abou% morali%' an" 5us%ice- Ca$%i*a%e" b'

%!eir o&n concerns, !o&e*er, $oli%ical $!iloso$!ers !a*e, &i%! *er' #e& e)ce$4

%ions, rea" %!e #un"amen%al $lace o# $ublic reason ou% o# %!e con%rac% %ra"i%ion- 1

0obbes is %'$icall' *ie&e" sim$l' as a %!eoris% o# sel#4in%eres% an" a $ro%o43ame

%!eoris%, Loce as a na%ural ri3!%s $ro%o4liber%arian, Rousseau as essen%iall' a ra"4

ical "emocra%-8 In sec%ion 8 o# %!is essa', #ocusin3 on 0obbes an" Loce, I %ae

some mo"es% s%e$s %o re*erse %!is misrea"in3, $oin%in3 ou% !o& social con%rac%

%!eor' &as #un"amen%all' an" e)$lici%l' concerne" &i%! i"en%i#'in3 a source o#

$ublic reason-9 Liberalism an" $ublic reason, I ar3ue, arose %o3e%!er, as in%erre4

la%e" res$onses %o %!e mo"ern $roblem o# crea%in3 a s%able social or"er in socie%4

ies "ee$l' "i*i"e" b' reli3ious an" moral "isa3reemen%s- T!e $roblem &i%!

&!ic! social con%rac% %!eoris%s suc! as 0obbes an" Loce &ere 3ra$$lin3 is "is4

%inc%i*el' mo"ern: in ma%%ers o# reli3ion an" con*ic%ions abou% %!e ul%ima%e *alue

o# li#e, morali%' an" 5us%ice, %!e #ree e)ercise o# !uman reason lea"s %o "isa3ree4

men%- T!eir ues%ion ( &!ic! is also %!e ues%ion o# $ublic reason liberalism (

is &!e%!er a socie%' #ace" &i%! .in%rac%able s%ru33les/ an" .irreconcilable/ con4

6ic%s o# .absolu%e "e$%!/ can s!are a common social an" $oli%ical e)is%ence on

%erms %!a% are acce$%able %o all-;

1 An im$or%an% e)ce$%ion is %!e &on"er#ul a$$en"i) o# La&rence Solums .Cons%ruc%in3 an I"ealo# Public Reason,/ San Diego Law Review , *ol- 9< =all 1>>9?: @8>48- See also Mar E- Bu%%on, Con-tract, Culture and Citizenship: Transformative Lieralism from !oes to Rawls =Uni*ersi%' Par, PA:Penn S%a%e Uni*ersi%' Press, 8<<?-8 An" 2an% 0is com$le) $oli%ical $!iloso$!' is mos% o#%en i3nore" in %!e En3lis!4s$eain3 &orl",%!ou3! &i%! %!e $ublica%ion o# Ar%!ur Ri$s%eins "orce and "reedom: #ant$s Legal and %olitical %hilo-soph& =Cambri"3e, MA: 0ar*ar" Uni*ersi%' Press, 8<<>?, %!is ma' c!an3e-9 or a muc! #uller accoun%, see The !istor& of %ulic Reason in %olitical %hilosoph& , e"i%e" b' PiersTurner an" eral" aus =Ne& or: Rou%le"3e, #or%!comin3?-;

+o!n Ra&ls, %olitical Lieralism , $a$erbac e"n- =Ne& or: Columbia Uni*ersi%' Press, 1>>?, $$-))*iii, ;-



%ulic Reason Lieralism'(

Seen in %!is li3!% Ra&ls "oc%rine o# $ublic reason is ( as !e ori3inall' claime" o#

!is %!eor' o# 5us%ice ( a "e*elo$men% o# social con%rac% %!eor'-F In sec%ion 9 I ana4

l'7e %!e "e*elo$men% o# Ra&ls %!ou3!% in %erms o# %!e *arious conce$%ions o# $ub4

lic reason on &!ic! "i##eren% *ersions o# !is %!eor' &ere buil%- I ar3ue %!a% &!ile !is

accoun% in ) Theor& of *ustice relie" on %&o %ra"i%ional claims o# liberal $ublic reason

%!a% &e Gn" in %!e social con%rac% %ra"i%ion ( &!a% I call %!e s!are" reasons an" in4

sula%ion claims ( !is la%er *ersions mani#es% "oub%s abou% bo%!- T!e Gnal Ra&lsian

accoun% is "is%inc%i*e inso#ar as i% sees %o $ro*i"e a case #or liberal $ublic reason

&!ile %ain3 seriousl' c!allen3es %o %!ese %&o %ra"i%ional claims-

Sec%ion ; %!en consi"ers &!a% &e are %o mae o# %!e Ra&lsian le3ac'- A% %!e en"

o# !is career Ra&ls ma"e a number o# inno*a%ions in $ublic reason liberalism, bu%

%!ese &ere no%, I belie*e, &ell &ore" ou%- In %!is sec%ion I $resen% &!a% I see as %!e

&a' #or&ar", embracin3 some o# Ra&ls mos% ra"ical i"eas an" $ressin3 e*en #ur4

%!er alon3 %!ose lines- A %rul' "i*ersi%'4base" $ublic reason o##ers a conce$%ion o#

$ublic reason as an .o*erla$$in3 consensus/ in &!ic! %!e "i##eren% reasons =an"reasonin3? o# ci%i7ens con*er3e on liberal $rinci$les, rules, an" ins%i%u%ions- On %!is

*ie& bo%! %!e s!are" reasons an" insula%ion claims are ei%!er "ro$$e", or so

&eaene" as %o $la' bu% a secon"ar' role in %!e accoun% o# $ublic reason- T!e cri%ical

"is$u%e in con%em$orar' $ublic reason liberalism is, I belie*e, be%&een %!ose &!o

belie*e %!a% %!e #u%ure o# $ublic reason liberalism is %o "e*elo$ a "ee$er un"ers%an"4

in3 o# &!a% "i*erse ci%i7ens s!are an" !o& %!is s!arin3 can be insula%e" #rom %!eir

"isa3reemen%s, an" %!ose &!o are con*ince" %!a% a "i*ersi%' o# $ers$ec%i*es, reason4

in3 an" *alues is i%sel# %!e basis o# a #ree an" s%able social an" $oli%ical or"er-

8 T0E PROBLEM O CONLICTIN PRIHATE +UDMENT AND T0E CELESTIAL SOLUTION

(+ !oes Recognition of the %rolem and his .llieral Solution

Al%!ou3! in %!e or%!o"o), 3ame4%!eore%ical in%er$re%a%ion o# 0obbes, !is concern is

sim$l' %!e $roblem o# con6ic% amon3 essen%iall' sel#4in%eres%e" in"i*i"uals, more

care#ul in%er$re%a%ion !as recen%l' come %o s%ress %!e roo% o# con6ic% in "i##erences in

5u"3men%- In a crucial $assa3e in C!a$%er H o# Leviathan, in !is ini%ial "iscussion o#

reason, 0obbes &ri%es:

reason i%sel# is al&a's ri3!% reason, as &ell as ari%!me%ic is a cer%ain an" in#allible ar%, bu% noone mans reason, nor %!e reason o# an' one number o# men, maes %!e cer%ain%' An"

%!ere#ore, as &!en %!ere is a con%ro*ers' in an accoun%, %!e $ar%ies mus% b' %!eir o&n accor",se% u$, #or ri3!% reason, %!e reason o# some arbi%ra%or, or 5u"3e, %o &!ose sen%ence %!e' &ill bo%! s%an", or %!eir con%ro*ers' mus% ei%!er come %o blo&s, or be un"eci"e", #or &an% o# ari3!% reason cons%i%u%e" b' na%ure, so is i% also in all "eba%es o# &!a% in" soe*er- An" &!enmen %!a% %!in %!emsel*es &iser %!an all o%!ers, clamour an" "eman" ri3!% reason #or 5u"3e,

F +o!n Ra&ls, ) Theor& of *ustice, re*ise" e"i%ion =Cambri"3e, MA: 0ar*ar" Uni*ersi%' Press, 1>>>?, $-1<- I "e*elo$ %!is $oin% more #ull' in .0obbesian Con%rac%arianism, Or%!o"o) an" Re*isionis%,/ in The/loomsur& Companion to !oes, e"i%e" b' S-A- Llo'" =Ne& or: Bloomsbur', #or%!comin3?-



%ulic Reason Lieralism'0

'e% see no more, bu% %!a% %!in3s s!oul" be "e%ermine", b' no o%!er mens reason bu% %!eiro&n, i% is as in%olerable in %!e socie%' o# men- or %!e' "o no%!in3 else, %!a% &ill !a*e e*er'o# %!eir $assions, as i% comes %o bear s&a' in %!em, %o be %aen #or ri3!% reason, an" %!a% in%!eir o&n con%ro*ersies, be&ra'in3 %!eir &an% o# ri3!% reason, b' %!e claim %!e' la' %o i% -@

Because, .all la&s, &ri%%en, an" un&ri%%en, !a*e nee" o# in%er$re%a%ion,/ &!en, as in

%!e s%a%e o# na%ure, &e eac! rel' on $ri*a%e 5u"3men%, &e "isa3ree abou% almos%e*er'%!in3, inclu"in3 our a$$lica%ion o# %!e la&s o# na%ure-> T!ose &!o insis% on em4

$lo'in3 %!eir o&n reason %o "e%ermine %!e reuiremen%s o# %!e la& o# na%ure, asser%4

in3 %!a% %!eir reason is ri3!% reason, $re*en% a $eace#ul social li#e, #or %!e' are essen4

%iall' insis%in3 %!a% &e remain in %!e s%a%e o# na%ure-

T!us, as R- E- E&in ar3ues, #or 0obbes a coo$era%i*e an" $eace#ul social li#e re4

uires .a $ublic mar o# ri3!% reason-/1< Eac! aliena%es !is o&n ri3!% %o $ri*a%e 5u"34

men%, on %!e con"i%ion %!a% o%!ers "o so, b' se%%lin3 on a so*erei3n, &!ose *oice is

%!e *oice o# $ublic reason: .&e are no% e*er' one,/ sa's 0obbes, .%o mae our o&n

$ri*a%e reason, or conscience, bu% %!e $ublic reason, %!a% is, %!e reason o# o"s su4

$reme lieu%enan%, 5u"3e-/11 0obbes %!us $ro$oses %!a% "isa3reemen%s in $ri*a%e reas4on =inclu"in3 "is$u%es abou% %!e "eman"s o# %!e la&s o# na%ure? are %o be resol*e"

b' %!e so*erei3n, &!o is %o ser*e as %!e *oice o# $ublic reason-18 T!us %!e social con4

%rac%:

a common&eal%! is sai" %o be ins%i%u%e", &!en a mul%i%u"e o# men "o a3ree, an" co*enan%,e*er' one, &i%! e*er' one, %!a% %o &!a%soe*er man, or assembl' o# men, s!all be 3i*en b' %!ema5or $ar%, %!e ri3!% %o $resen% %!e $erson o# %!em all =%!a% is %o sa', %o be %!eir re$resen%a%i*e?e*er' one, as &ell !e %!a% *o%e" #or i%, as !e %!a% *o%e" a3ains% i%, s!all au%!ori7e all %!e ac4%ions an" 5u"3men%s, o# %!a% man, or assembl' o# men, in %!e same manner, as i# %!e' &ere !iso&n, %o %!e en", %o li*e $eaceabl' amon3s% %!emsel*es, an" be $ro%ec%e" a3ains% o%!er men- 19

T!e i"ea o# acce$%in3 an" au%!ori7in3 %!e 5u"3men% o# %!e so*erei3n occurs re4

$ea%e"l' in Leviathan- I% is im$or%an% %!a% #or 0obbes %!a% &!ile %!e &ill concerns "e4libera%ion abou% ac%ion, 5u"3men% is .%!e las% o$inion in %!e searc! o# %!e %ru%!-/ 1;

0obbes i"en%iGes $ublic reason &i%! 5u"3men% o# %!e so*erei3n, an" so %!e so*er4

ei3n $ro*i"es a $ublic "e%ermina%ion o# %!e %ru%!, #or e)am$le, o# a claim %!a% a mir4

@ 0obbes, Leviathan , e"i%e" b' E"&in Curle' =In"iana$olis: 0ace%%, 1>>;?, c!a$- F, J9 =$- 89?- au%!ier#ocuses on %!is $assa3e in !is #ascina%in3 essa' on .Public Reason,/ Social %hilosoph& 1 %olic& , *ol- 18=1>>F?: 1>K;8- I "iscuss !is in%er$re%a%ion in m' Contemporar& Theories of Lieralism =Lon"on: Sa3e,8<<9?, c!a$- 9-

0obbes, Leviathan , c!a$- 8, J81 =$- 1<?-> Ibi"-1< R-E- E&in, 2irtue and Rights: the 3oral %hilosoph& of Thomas !oes =Boul"er, CO: es%*ie&, 1>>1?, $-@-11 0obbes, Leviathan , c!a$- 9@, J19 =$- 9<<?- T!is remar occurs in 0obbes "iscussion o# belie# in mir4acles-18 See au%!ier, .Public Reason-/19 0obbes, Leviathan , c!a$- 1, J1 =$- 11<?- I%alics in ori3inal-1;Ibi"-, c!a$- @, J8 =$- 9F?-




acle !as occurre"-1F Cer%ainl' 0obbes %!ins %!a% .&!en i% comes %o con#ession o#

%!a% #ai%!, %!e $ri*a%e reason mus% submi% %o %!e $ublic-/1 0is $osi%ion seems %o be,

%!ou3! %!e so*erei3n canno% "irec%l' comman" us %o belie*e a $ro$osi%ion since be4

lie# is no% un"er %!e con%rol o# %!e &ill, 1@ =i? %!e so*erei3n !as au%!ori%' %o "eclare

$ublic %ru%!s #rom &!ic! &e are obli3a%e" no% %o "issen% = ii? &e can be obli3a%e" %o

$ublicl' a#Grm %!ese %ru%!s an" =iii? %!e so*erei3n !as au%!ori%' %o s!a$e %!e en*ir4

onmen% in &!ic! o$inions are #orme"-1

Because !e sees all $ri*a%e 5u"3men% as $o%en%iall' a %!rea% %o %!e social or"er,

0obbes $u%s no limi% &!a%soe*er on %!e au%!ori%' o# %!e so*erei3n %o "e%ermine "is4

$u%es- 0obbes en"orses %!e 5u"3men% o# Crom&ell an" la%er %!e Tor' Res%ora%ion

$arliamen%s: %!e brie# e)$erimen% in #ree $ri*a%e 5u"3men% "urin3 %!e Grs% 'ears o#

%!e Common&eal%! &as an a$$allin3 %!rea% %o social or"er-1> Pri*a%e 5u"3men% mus%

be subser*ien% %o %!e $ublic reason o# %!e so*erei3n- Un"erl'in3 %!is conser*a%i*e re4

s$onse %o risin3 "i*ersi%' o# belie# is %!e im$or%an% insi3!% %!a% %!ere is no nea% &a'

%o insula%e %!e $oli%ical #rom %!e reli3ious: "is$u%es abou% %!e #ormer can al&a's lea"%o "is$u%es abou% %!e la%%er-8< ace" &i%! %!e %en"enc' o# all belie#s %o become $oli%ic4

al, 0obbes $u%s %!e %eac!in3 o# all "oc%rines un"er %!e au%!ori%' o# %!e so*erei3n-

.or %!e ac%ions o# men $rocee" #rom %!eir o$inions an" in %!e &ell43o*ernin3 o#

o$inions, consis%e%! %!e &ell43o*ernin3 o# mens ac%ions, in or"er %o %!eir $eace, an"

concor"-/81

0obbes %!us insis%s %!a% &!a%e*er %!e so*erei3n $roclaims %o be $ublic reason is

$ublic reason- No limi%s can be $lace" on %!e so*erei3ns au%!ori%': .!e is 5u"3e o#

&!a% is necessar' #or $eace an" 5u"3e o# "oc%rines: !e is sole le3isla%or an" su4

$reme 5u"3e o# con%ro*ersies-/88 T!is .um$irin3/ or $roce"ural solu%ion %o "isa3ree4

1FIbi", c!a$- 9@, J19 =$- 8>>?, an" in no%e 81 on %!is $a3e %o %!e La%in e"i%ion-1 Ibi"-, c!a$- 9@, J19 =$- 9<<?- Em$!asis a""e"-1@ Ibi"-, c!a$- 98, JF =$- 8;? c!a$- 9@, J19 =$- 9<<?-1 I !a*e 3rea%l' beneG%e" #rom "iscussions &i%! S!ane Cour%lan" on %!is ma%%er-1> Mil%ons "e#ense o# #ree"om o# %!ou3!% an" s$eec! in )reopagitica =1;9? re$resen%e" %!e sor% o# "an43erous %!inin3 %o &!ic! 0obbes is reac%in3-8< ree"om o# conscience resul%e" in a $le%!ora o# ra"ical reli3ious "oc%rines %!a% some%imes le" %o ra"4ical $oli%ical *ie&s- Sec%s suc! as %!e uaers, %!e S!aers, %!e Ran%ers, an" %!e Mu33le%onians arose-Amon3 %!e mos% in%eres%in3 o# %!ese sec%s &ere T!e i#%! Monarc!' Men, &!o in%er$re%e" Daniels"ream =Dan- @? as in"ica%in3 %!a% %!ere &oul" be G*e 3rea% le3i%ima%e monarc!ies: %!e las% o# &!ic!

&oul" be %!a% o# C!ris%- T!e' belie*e" %!a% %!e #our%! monarc!', %!e Roman Em$ire, !a" been o*er4%urne" b' %!e C!urc! o# Rome, an" so &ere a&ai%in3 %!e Rei3n o# C!ris%- Conseuen%l', on %!e basis o#%!eir rea"in3 o# %!e Bible %!e' "enie" %!e le3i%imac' o# all s%a%es be%&een %!e Roman Em$ire an" %!eRei3n o# C!ris% =&!ic!, un#or%una%el' #or %!em, inclu"e" %!e Common&eal%!?- T!e i#%! Monarc!'Men brou3!% !ome %&o 3rea% lessons- irs%, once #ree"om o# %!ou3!% &as allo&e" %!e $roli#era%ion o#in%er$re%a%ions o# %!e Bible &oul" be en"less: %!e !o$e %!a% %!e $ries%!oo" o# all belie*ers &oul" lea"%o consensus &as an illusion- Secon", %!e same #ree"om o# %!ou3!% %!a% le" $eo$le %o con6ic%in3 reli43ious belie#s coul" lea" %!em %o con6ic%in3 $oli%ical con*ic%ions-81 0obbes, Leviathan , $- 119 =c!a$- 1, J>?-88 Ibi"- , $- 18 =c!a$- 8<, J9?-




men% a$$lies %o all moral "is$u%es- Remember, 0obbes s%ar%s ou% &i%! "is$u%es

abou% %!e la&s o# na%ure ( basic rules o# e%!ical social con"uc%- 0is solu%ion is %o

$oli%ici7e all "is$u%es abou% in%er$re%a%ions o# %!ese rules o# social con"uc% b' sub4

mi%%in3 %!em %o %!e so*erei3n- I# &e closel' #ollo& 0obbes, i% loos as i# %!e $oli%ical

$roce"ure &ill be "e%ermina%i*e o# all moral "is$u%es abou% in%er$ersonal con"uc% (

!a*in3 5us%iGe" a 5u"3e or an um$ire, &e a$$ear %o !a*e reason %o a$$eal %o i% &!en

&e "isa3ree abou% %!e "ic%a%es o# %!e basic rules o# e%!ical social con"uc%- Poli%ics

s&allo&s u$ morali%'- T!us 0obbes is sca%!in3 abou% %!e "oc%rine .T!a% e*er'

$ri*a%e man is 5u"3e o# 3oo" an" e*il ac%ions-/ A"mi%%e"l', %!is .is %rue in %!e con"i4

%ion o# mere na%ure, &!ere %!ere are no ci*il la&s an" also un"er ci*il 3o*ernmen%,

in suc! cases as are no% "e%ermine" b' %!e la&- Bu% o%!er&ise, i% is mani#es%, %!a% %!e

measure o# 3oo" an" e*il ac%ions, is %!e ci*il la& an" %!e 5u"3e %!e le3isla%or, &!o is

al&a's re$resen%a%i*e o# %!e common&eal%!-/89 T!is is no% %o sa' %!a% %!e so*erei3ns

5u"3men% "e%ermines %!e %ru%! abou% %!e la&s o# na%ure an" &!e%!er %!e' !a*e been

*iola%e": 0obbes is clear %!a% %!e so*erei3n can err in in%er$re%in3 %!e la&s o#na%ure-8; I% is %o sa', %!ou3!, %!a% accor"in3 %o %!e con%rac% &e no lon3er !a*e %!e

ri3!% %o 5u"3e !im %o be &ron3, or %o ac% con%rar' %o !is 5u"3men%, #or !is is %!e $ub4

lic reason- In con%ras%, %!e so*erei3n does cons%ruc% %!e %ru%!s o# 5us%ice 5us%ice is "e4

%ermine" b' %!e ci*il la&, an" %!ere is no ci*il la& &i%!ou% %!e so*erei3n main3 i%

so-8F

(+( Loc6e and the 7mergence of Lieral %ulic Reason

Loce concurs &i%! some #un"amen%al $oin%s o# %!e 0obbesian anal'sis- 0e concurs

%!a% "i*ersi%' o# $ri*a%e 5u"3men% abou% reli3ion is a #un"amen%al social #ac% %!a%

mus% be reconcile" &i%! %!e "eman"s o# social or"er !e also acce$%s %!e cru) o#

0obbes anal'sis o# %!e causes o# "is$u%es abou% %!e la&s o# na%ure an" !o& %!e' are

%o be resol*e"- In a $assa3e %!a% recalls 0obbes com$lain% %!a%, &!ile %!e la&s o#

na%ure are clear %o all, &e ne*er%!eless "isa3ree because &e are .blin"e" b' sel#4

lo*e,/ Loce !ol"s %!a% .%!ou3! %!e La& o# Na%ure be $lain an" in%elli3ible %o all ra4

%ional Crea%ures 'e% men bein3 biasse" b' %!eir In%eres%, as &ell as i3noran% #or &an%

o# s%u"'in3 i%, are no% a$% %o allo& o# i% as a La& bin"in3 %o %!em in %!e a$$lica%ion

o# i% %o %!eir $ar%icular Cases-/8 Peace an" 5us%ice, Loce conclu"es, can onl' be se4

cure" &!en .all $ri*a%e 5u"3men% o# e*er' $ar%icular Member bein3 e)clu"e", %!e

89 Ibi"-, c!a$- 8>, J =$- 818?- I ar3ue #or a more absolu%is% in%er$re%a%ion o# 0obbes ( &!ic! s!ar$l'"is%in3uis!es !im #rom Loce, in .0obbes C!allen3e %o Public Reason Liberalism/ in !oes Toda& ,e"i%e" b' S-A Llo'" =Cambri"3e: Cambri"3e Uni*ersi%' Press, 8<19?: 1FF4@@-8; See e-3-, 0obbes, Leviathan , c!a$- 81, J @ =$- 19>?-8F Ibi", c!a$- 81, J@ =$- 19?- See E&in, 2irtue and Rights , $- 8<- T!ere is a "ee$ com$lica%ion raise" b'0obbes $u77lin3 claim %!a% %!e ci*il la& an" %!e la& o# na%ure con%ain eac! o%!er- Ibi"-, c!a$- 8, J=$- 1@;?-8 Loce, Second Treatise of Government in Two Treatises of Government , Pe%er Lasle%%, e"- =Cambri"3e:Cambri"3e Uni*ersi%' Press, 1><?, 18;- Com$are 0obbes, Leviathan, $- 1< =c!a$- 8, J8<?-




communi%' comes %o be Um$ire b' se%%le" s%an"in3 Rules, in"i##eren%, an" %!e same

%o all Par%ies-/8@ I% is %!e %as o# 3o*ernmen% %o ser*e as Um$ire ( %!e *oice o# $ublic

reason- Once a3ain, %!e solu%ion is essen%iall' $roce"ural an", once a3ain, %!e $oli%ic4

al or"er becomes %!e in%er$re%er o# %!e moral or"er re3ula%in3 in%er$ersonal ac%ions-

Loce, !o&e*er, insis%s %!a% %!ou3! &e "isa3ree "ee$l' abou% reli3ion &e s!are a

common conce$%ion o# ci*il in%eres%s-8 .T!e common&eal%! seems %o me,/ sa's

Loce, .%o be a socie%' o# men cons%i%u%e" onl' #or %!e $rocurin3, $reser*in3, an" a"4

*ancin3 %!eir o&n ci*il in%eres%s- Ci*il in%eres% I call li#e, liber%', !eal%!, an" in"ol4

enc' o# bo"' an" %!e $ossession o# ou%&ar" %!in3s, suc! as mone', lan"s, !ouses,

#urni%ure, an" %!e lie-/8> In con%ras% %o 0obbes, Loce is clear %!a% a "emarca%ion

be%&een reli3ious an" ci*il "is$u%es is bo%! $ossible an" necessar'- .I es%eem i%

abo*e all %!in3s,/ Loce con%inues, .necessar' %o "is%in3uis! e)ac%l' %!e business o#

ci*il 3o*ernmen% #rom %!a% o# reli3ion, an" %o se%%le %!e 5us% boun"s %!a% lie be%&een

%!e one an" %!e o%!er- I# %!is be no% "one, %!ere can be no en" $u% %o %!e con%ro*er4

sies %!a% &ill be al&a's arisin3 be%&een %!ose %!a% !a*e, or a% leas% $re%en" %o !a*e,on %!e one si"e, a concernmen% #or %!e in%eres% o# mens souls, an", on %!e o%!er si"e,

a care o# %!e common&eal%!-/9< T!us Loce a"*oca%es %!e core liberal $rinci$le %!a%

$ri*a%e 5u"3men% s!oul" rule in reli3ious ma%%ers- In con%ro*ersies be%&een c!urc!es

abou% &!ose "oc%rine is %rue .bo%! si"es areQ eual nor is %!ere an' 5u"3e u$on

ear%!, b' &!ose sen%ence i% can be "e%ermine"-/91 or %!e ma3is%ra%e %o see %o re3u4

la%e suc! ma%%ers &oul" be sim$l' an e)ercise o# $ri*a%e, no% $ublic, reason: .as %!e

$ri*a%e 5u"3men% o# an' $ar%icular $erson, i# erroneous, "oes no% e)em$% !im #rom

%!e obli3a%ion o# la&, so %!e $ri*a%e 5u"3men%, as I ma' call i%, o# %!e ma3is%ra%e, "oes

no% 3i*e !im an' ne& ri3!% o# im$osin3 la&s u$on !is sub5ec%s, &!ic! nei%!er &as in

%!e cons%i%u%ion o# %!e 3o*ernmen% 3ran%e" !im, nor e*er &as in %!e $o&er o# %!e

$eo$le %o 3ran%-/98

Loce %!us mo*es %o&ar"s a %rul' liberal accoun% o# $ublic reason base" on %!ree

claims:

The 3oral Disagreement Claim: &!en in"i*i"uals reason abou% %!e reuiremen%s o#

morali%' an" 5us%ice =%!e la& o# na%ure?, %!e' "isa3ree, so $eace#ul an" coo$era%4

i*e social an" $oli%ical li#e reuires %!a%, &i%!in limi%s, %!e' aban"on %!eir $ri*a%e

8@ Loce, Second Treatise of Government, @- Em$!asis a""e"8 I ar3ue #or %!is in%er$re%a%ion more #ull' in .0obbes C!allen3e %o Public Reason Liberalism-/8> Loce, .A Le%%er Concernin3 Tolera%ion,/ in %!e 9or6s of *ohn Loc6e in ine 2olumes , 18%! e"n- =Lon4"on: Ri*in3%on, 18;?, *ol- F, $- 1<-9< Ibi"-, $$- >41<-91 Ibi"-, $- 1>-98 Ibi"-, $- ;9-



%ulic Reason Lieralism';

5u"3men% abou% morali%' an" 5us%ice, submi%%in3 %o %!e $ublic reason o# im$ar%ial

la&-99

The Shared Reasons Claim: %!e basis o# ci*il socie%' is our s!are" reasons %o a"4

*ance on our ci*il in%eres%s %!e resolu%ion o# our moral "isa3reemen%s is a #un"a4

men%al s!are" ci*il an" $oli%ical in%eres%-The .nsulation Claim: $ri*a%e 5u"3men% abou% reli3ious ma%%ers can remain #ree

an" $ri*a%e- T!ese "ee$ an" en"urin3 con6ic%s "o no% in#ec%, an" in so "oin3 un4

ra*el, our concurrence on %!e Moral Disa3reemen% an" S!are" Reasons Claims-

As &e sa&, %!e Moral Disa3reemen% Claim is also !el" b' 0obbes i% is %!e !ear% o#

all $ublic reason $oli%ical $!iloso$!'- As suc!, all $ublic reason accoun%s are #un"a4

men%all' a% o""s &i%! %!e $ic%ure o# social li#e as one com$ose" o# #ull' au%onomous

moral a3en%s, eac! in"e$en"en%l' ac%in3 solel' on %!e basis o# !er o&n subs%an%i*e

5u"3men% abou% %!e "eman"s o# 5us%ice- Suc! a con"i%ion "eGnes %!e s%a%e o# na%ure,

&!ere, as 2an% $u% i%, eac! claims .%!e ri3!% %o "o &!a% seems 5us% an" 3oo" %o !im,en%irel' in"e$en"en%l' o# %!e o$inion o# o%!ers-/9; Public la&, %!en, allo&s us %o

a*oi" reliance on our o&n con%ro*ersial $ri*a%e 5u"3men% abou% morali%', ri3!%s an"

our ci*il in%eres%s, ac%in3 ins%ea" on im$ar%ial consi"era%ions %!a% all can en"orse- As

Rousseau $u% i%, %!e la& as $ronounce" b' %!e so*erei3n is %!e .celes%ial *oice/ o#

.$ublic reason-/9F Bu% in con%ras% %o 0obbes =an" %o some e)%en% Rousseau?,9 #or

Loce $ublic reason "oes no% concern i%sel# &i%! reli3ious ma%%ers accor"in3 %!e In4

sula%ion Claim, %!ose "isa3reemen%s can con%inue unaba%e" so lon3 as reli3ious be4

lie# "oes no% in#ec% a ci%i7ens *ie&s abou% basic ci*il in%eres%s an" %!e au%!ori%' o#

%!e $ublic a"5u"ica%ion o# moral "is$u%es- Loces case #or %olera%ion %!us "oes no%

e)%en" %o Roman Ca%!olics, #or %!eir conce$%ion o# reli3ious au%!ori%' lea"s %!em %oa conce$%ion o# ci*il in%eres%s an" $ublic au%!ori%' incom$a%ible &i%! %!a% o# o%!er

ci%i7ens =since %!e Po$e claime" %!a% e)communica%e" monarc!s &ere no% o&e"

$oli%ical obe"ience?- .Liberal %olera%ion/ %!us onl' a$$lies %o reli3ious *ie&s %!a% "o

no% !a*e im$lica%ions %!a% c!allen3e $ublic reasons au%!ori%' o*er s!are" ci*il in4

99 To a*oi" %!is S%a%e o# ar =&!erein %!ere is no a$$eal bu% %o 0ea*en, and wherein ever& the least differ-ence is apt to end, where there is no )uthorit& to decide etween the Contenders ? is one 3rea% reason of 3ens putting themselves into Societ& , an" ui%%in3 %!e S%a%e o# Na%ure: #or &!ere %!ere is an Au%!ori%', a Po&eron Ear%!, #rom &!ic! relie# can be !a" b' appeal , %!ere %!e con%inuance o# %!e S%a%e o# ar is e)clu"e",an" %!e con%ro*ers' is "eci"e" b' %!a% Po&er-/ = Loce, Second Treatise , 81- irs% em$!asis a""e" o%!4

ers ori3inal-? I else&!ere consi"er %!e im$or%ance o# Loces claim %!a%, because our "isa3reemen% islimi%e", %!e 5uris"ic%ion o# %!e um$ire is limi%e" %o resolu%ions &i%! a cer%ain ran3e, &!ereas #or0obbes %!ere are no limi%s on %!e so*erei3ns com$e%enc' see .0obbes C!allen3e %o Public ReasonLiberalism/ an", more 3enerall' , *usti<cator& Lieralism =Ne& or: O)#or" Uni*ersi%' Press, 1>>?,Par% II-9; The 3etaph&sical 7lements of *ustice , 8n" e"i%ion, e"i%e" an" %ransla%e" b' +o!n La"" =In"iana$olis:0ace%%, 1>>>?, $-11 ;9Q- Em$!asis a""e"-9F +ean4+acues Rousseau, Discourse on %olitical 7conom& in The Social Contract and Discourses , %ransla%e"&i%! an In%ro"uc%ion b' - D- 0- Cole =Lon"on: +- M- Den%, 1>@9?: 11FKF; a% $- 18;-9 See Boo IH, c!a$- o# The Social Contract in ibi"-



%ulic Reason Lieralism'=

%eres%s- T!a% is, onl' i# %!e $ri*a%e "oc%rine i%sel# en"orses %!e Insula%ion Claim is i% %o

be %olera%e"- T!is, %!ou3!, a$$ears an ina"eua%e re$l' %o 0obbes c!allen3e ( i% is

#ar %oo close %o sa'in3 %!a% %!e insula%ion claim !ol"s #or %!ose &!o en"orse i%- No

"oub% bu% %!e ues%ion is &!e%!er i% 3enerall' a$$lies in a "i*erse socie%'-9@

9 RALSIAN PUBLIC REASON

0+ 3oral, not Simpl& %olitical, Lieral Constitutionalism

As &e sa&, bo%! 0obbes an" Loce embrace %!e Moral Disa3reemen% Claim: our

$ri*a%e 5u"3men%s abou% morali%' s's%ema%icall' "i*er3e, an" so &e reuire a $ro4

ce"ure ( la& announce" b' %!e so*erei3n or 3o*ernmen% ( %o $ro*i"e a $ublic im4

$ar%ial mar o# ri3!% reason- A &orrisome conseuence o# %!is accoun% o# $ublic reas4

on is %!a% $oli%ics becomes %!e ul%ima%e arbi%er o# all moral "is$u%es- In !is Grs% $ub4

lis!e" $a$er (.Ou%line o# a Decision Proce"ure #or E%!ics/ ( Ra&ls also sou3!% a

$roce"ural resolu%ion %o %!e $roblems o# con6ic%in3 claims- Lie %!e social con%rac%

%ra"i%ion, %!e $oin% o# "e$ar%ure is a clas! o# con6ic%in3 claims: eac! a"*ances claims

%!a% are sel#4au%!en%ica%in3 in %!e sense %!a% .=a? E*er' claim s!all be consi"ere", on

Grs% si3!%, as meri%in3 sa%is#ac%ion- =b? No claim s!all be "enie" $ossible sa%is#ac%ion

&i%!ou% a reason-/9 T!e $roce"ure is mean% %o s!o& no% sim$l' &!a% claims &e see

as reasonable, bu% &!a% is a reasonable social or"erin3 o# con6ic%in3 claims- 9> T!e

$roblem, %!en, is once a3ain %o $ro*i"e an im$ar%ial, $ublic or"erin3 o# claims base"

on "i*er3en% in"i*i"ual $ers$ec%i*es- An" once a3ain %!e solu%ion is $roce"ural:

Ra&ls "e*elo$s an accoun% o# im$ar%ial, com$e%en%, moral um$ires, &!o "e*elo$

$ublic $rinci$les an" rules %o or"er %!e claims- Ra&ls 3rea% "e$ar%ure #rom %!e so4

cial con%rac% %ra"i%ion is %!a% %!is is no% a $oli%ical $roce"ure, an" %!ese are no% ac%ual$oli%ical um$ires: our mo"elin3 o# !o& %!e um$ires &oul" "eci"e allo&s us %o "e4

*elo$ a %!eor' o# social e%!ics or social 5us%ice- 0obbes an" Loces Moral Disa3ree4

men% Claim %!us becomes:

Rawls 3oral Disagreement Claim: &!en in"i*i"uals reason abou% %!eir claims on

eac! o%!er, %!e' "isa3ree, so a coo$era%i*e an" 5us% social li#e reuires %!a% %!e'

aban"on %!eir $ri*a%e 5u"3men% abou% %!eir claims an" submi% %o %!e $ublic reas4

on o# im$ar%ial 5us%ice-

I% is crucial %o reali7e %!a% Ra&ls is no% %alin3 abou% mere con6ic% o# in%eres%s, bu%

&!a% &e see as our claims on o%!ers ( &!a% !e &oul" la%er call our .sel#4ori3ina%4in3/ or .sel#4au%!en%ica%in3/ claims-;< I% is because Ra&ls is ul%ima%el' concerne"

9@ One coul" rea" muc! o# Loces &ri%in3 on %olera%ion as seein3 %o s!o& %!a% i% "oes I canno% $ur4sue %!is ma%%er !ere-9 +o!n Ra&ls, .Ou%line o# a Decision Proce"ure #or E%!ics/ in *ohn Rawls: Collected %apers , e"i%e" b'Samuel reeman =Cambri"3e, MA: 0ar*ar" Uni*ersi%' Press, 1>>>?: 141> a% $- 1;-9> Ra&ls .+us%ice as airness/ in *ohn Rawls: Collected %apers $$- ;@4@8 a% $- F>-;< Ra&ls re#ers %o %!e claims as .sel#4ori3ina%in3/ in .2an%ian Cons%ruc%i*ism in Moral T!eor'/ in *ohn



%ulic Reason Lieralism'>

&i%! a social or"erin3 o# claims base" on "i*er3en% in"i*i"ual reasonin3 %!a% !is %!e4

or' o# 5us%ice !as suc! close %ies %o social con%rac% $ublic reason %!eories-

T!is ma' seen con#usin3: %!e social con%rac%s "is%inc%ion be%&een $ri*a%e 5u"34

men% abou% 5us%ice an" $ublic le3al rules o# 5us%ice maes $er#ec% sense, bu% i% ma'

no% be $elluci" &!a% is %!e analo3ous "is%inc%ion in Ra&ls %!eor'- Man' rea" Ra&ls

earl' an" mi""le &ors as a"*ancin3 a con%rac%arian $roce"ure %!a% cons%ruc%s %!e

%ru%!s abou% morali%' i# so, !e coul" no% $ossibl' be "escribin3 a con6ic% be%&een

$ri*a%e an" $ublic moral 5u"3men%- On %!ese rea"in3s !e is sim$l' $er#ormin3 %!e

%ra"i%ional role o# %!e moralis%, %ellin3 us &!a% our $ri*a%e 5u"3men%s s!oul" be- I%

&as no% un%il %!e mi" 1>@<s %!a% Ra&ls e)$lici%l' reco3ni7e" %!a% %!is &as no% !is

$ro5ec% ( %!a% !e &as en3a3in3 in a "is%inc%i*e #orm o# moral inuir', &!ic! &as en4

%irel' consis%en% &i%! eac! in"i*i"ual !a*in3 !er o&n *ie&, base" on !er $ersonal

reasonin3, abou% moral %ru%!- In or"er clari#' %!is Ra&ls nee"e" %o "is%in3uis! a "is4

%inc% #orm o# moral inuir' #ocuse" on social morali%', or %!e social moral #rame4

&or, #rom %ra"i%ional moral $!iloso$!' un"ers%oo" as in*es%i3a%ions in%o moral%ru%!- In !is im$or%an% essa's on .T!e In"e$en"ence o# Moral T!eor'/ an" .2an%ian

Cons%ruc%i*ism in Moral T!eor'/;1 Ra&ls "e$ic%s a mo"e o# moral inuir' %!a% !e

calls .moral %!eor',/ &!ic! is no% concerne" &i%! unco*erin3 %!e .moral %ru%!/ bu%,

ra%!er, is a

searc! #or reasonable 3roun"s #or reac!in3 a3reemen% roo%e" in our conce$%ion o#oursel*es an" our rela%ion %o socie%'- T!e %as is %o ar%icula%e a $ublic conce$%ion o# 5us%ice%!a% all can li*e &i%!- !a% 5us%iGes a conce$%ion o# 5us%ice is no% i%s bein3 %rue %o an or"eran%ece"en% %o an" 3i*en %o us, bu% i%s con3ruence &i%! our "ee$es% un"ers%an"in3 o#oursel*es an" our as$ira%ions, an" our reali7a%ion %!a%, 3i*en our !is%or' an" %!e %ra"i%ionsembe""e" in our $ublic li#e, i% is %!e mos% reasonable "oc%rine #or us- e can Gn" no be%%er basic c!ar%er #or our social &orl"-;8

Moral %!eor' %!us un"ers%oo" is a searc! #or &!a% Ra&ls calls a .moral

cons%i%u%ion-/;9 Ra&ls ne*er claims %!a% %!is moral cons%i%u%ion su$$lan%s moral

$!iloso$!' an" reli3ion un"ers%oo" as %!e searc! #or moral %ru%! ra%!er is su$$le4

men%s %!em in %!e sense %!a% i% sees %o arri*e a% a s!are" moral #rame&or all can

li*e &i%! in a social &orl" &!ere %!ese un"ers%an"in3s o# moral %ru%! clas!-;; T!e

&a' in &!ic! Ra&lsian moral %!eor' is an analo3ue o# social con%rac% $oli%ical $!ilo4

so$!' no& becomes mani#es% ( i% is a searc! #or a .cons%i%u%ion/ =moral, no% $oli%ic4

al? %!a% allo&s $ublic a"5u"ica%ion o# "i*erse in"i*i"ual claims base" on "i##erin3

moral an" *alua%ional $ers$ec%i*es-

Rawls: Collected %apers, $$- 9194F a% $- 99;, an" as .sel#4au%!en%ic%in3/ in *ustice as "airness: ) Restate-ment , Erin 2ell', e"- =Cambri"3e, MA: Belna$ Press o# 0ar*ar" Uni*ersi%' Press, 8<<1?, $- 89-;1 C!a$%ers 1F an" 1 in *ohn Rawls: Collected %apers+;8 Ra&ls, .2an%ian Cons%ruc%i*ism in Moral T!eor',/ $$- 9<4@- Em$!asis a""e"-;9 Ibi"-, $- 98-;; Al%!ou3! i% can o*erri"e %!em ( &!en ones claims base" on ones o&n $ers$ec%i*e is inconsis%en%&i%! an a3ree" u$on &a' %o sociall' or"er con6ic%in3 claims-



%ulic Reason Lieralism'?

0+( ) Theor& of *ustice: ) Doule Shared Strateg&

) Theor& of *ustice "e#en"s $ublic $rinci$les o# liberal 5us%ice b' e)%ensi*e a$$eal %o

%!e s!are" reasons claim- T!e e' %o %!e en%er$rise is %!e .%!in %!eor' o# %!e 3oo",/

&!ic! allo&s us %o i"en%i#' .$rimar' 3oo"s-/ As is &ell no&n, %!e $ar%ies in %!e

ori3inal $osi%ion c!oose %!e %&o $rinci$les o# 5us%ice un"er a .*eil o# i3norance/ ( a

ran3e o# in#orma%ion %!a% is s$eciGc %o %!eir o&n an" %!eir socie%'s i"en%i%' is e)4

clu"e" #rom %!e c!oice si%ua%ion- Reuirin3 %!e $ar%ies %o c!oose un"er suc! con"i4

%ions !el$s insure %!a% %!eir c!oice &ill be reasonable an" no% mo*e" b' bias ;F %!e

$roblem is %!a% &i%!ou% in#orma%ion abou% &!a% %!e' consi"er 3oo" an" %!eir $ar%ic4

ular $lans o# li#e, %!e' "o no% !a*e a "eGni%e basis #or c!oice- Ra&ls %!us su$$oses

%!a% %!e $ar%ies !a*e no&le"3e o# some uni*ersal #ea%ures o# 3oo" li*es, so %!e'

no& &!a% %o aim a%-; T!e $rimar' $oin% o# $ar% III o# Theor& is %o $resen% %!e .%!in

%!eor' o# %!e 3oo"/ ( s%ruc%ural an" subs%an%i*e #ea%ures o# all ra%ional an" 3oo"

$lans o# li#e- 0o&e*er, #or %!e Grs% s%a3e o# %!e ar3umen% #rom %!e ori3inal $osi%ion

all %!a% is reuire" is, as i% &ere, a $ar% o# %!e %!in %!eor': %!a% &!ic! s$eciGes cer%ain$rimar' 3oo"s ( %!in3s %!a% ra%ional in"i*i"uals .&!a%e*er else %!e' &an%, "esire

as $rereuisi%es #or carr'in3 ou% %!eir $lans o# li#e-/;@ T!ese are liber%ies, o$$or%uni%',

&eal%! an" income an" %!e social bases o# sel#4res$ec% ( analo3s o# Locean ci*il in4

%eres%s-; T!is $ar% o# %!e "eri*a%ion aims %o s!o& %!a% %!e $ar%ies %o %!e ori3inal $osi4

%ion, because %!e' s!are common in%eres%s, &ill selec% %!e %&o $rinci$les o# 5us%ice-

No& i% is o#%en su$$ose" %!a% %!is is %!e en%ire ar3umen% #rom %!e ori3inal $osi4

%ion, an" once %!e $ar%ies !a*e ma"e %!eir c!oice o# %!e %&o $rinci$les %!eir &or is

"one an" %!e' can, as i% &ere, #ol" u$ s!o$- No% so- .Persons in %!e ori3inal

$osi%ion,/ Ra&ls %ells us, mus% consi"er &!e%!er a &ell4or"ere" socie%' #oun"e" on

5us%ice as #airness &ill be more s%able %!an al%erna%i*e conce$%ions consi"ere" in %!e

ori3inal $osi%ion-;> .O%!er %!in3s eual, $ersons in %!e ori3inal $osi%ion &ill a"o$%

%!e mos% s%able sc!eme o# $rinci$les-/F< T!ere !as been e)%ensi*e "eba%e as %o

&!e%!er Ra&ls concern &i%! s%abili%' &as an error, or is some!o& ina$$ro$ria%e in

a %!eor' o# 5us%ice-F1 0o&e*er, once &e a$$recia%e %!a% Ra&ls aim is %o $ro*i"e a

$ublic moral cons%i%u%ion %!a% sol*es %!e mo"ern $roblem o# ac!ie*in3 a coo$era%i*e

social li#e un"er con"i%ions moral "isa3reemen%, &e see %!a% %!e concern &i%! s%abil4

i%' is absolu%el' necessar' =an" so &e !a*e some conGrma%ion %!a% %!e $ublic reason

;F

Ra&ls, ) Theor& of *ustice, $- 9>8-; Ibi"-, $$- 9;4F<-;@ Ibi"-, $- 9;-; Ibi"-, $- F;-;> Ibi"-, $- 9>- Em$!asis a""e"-F< Ibi"-F1 or a relen%less cri%icism, see Brian Barr', .+o!n Ra&ls an" %!e Searc! #or S%abili%',/ 7thics , *ol- 1<F=+ul', 1>>F?: @;4>1F- See also, -A- Co!ens Rescuing *ustice and 7@ualit& =Cambri"3e, MA: 0ar*ar"Uni*ersi%' Press, 8<<?, $$- 98@499<-



%ulic Reason Lieralism'

rea"in3 o# %!e core Ra&lsian $ro5ec% is on %ar3e% i% maes cen%ral &!a% Ra&ls sa& as

cen%ral?- Recall %!e 0obbesian c!allen3e %o $ublic reason liberalism: "isa3reemen%s

base" on $ri*a%e 5u"3men% &ill in#ec%, an" so un"ermine, an' a3reemen% &e mi3!%

!a*e abou% ci*il in%eres%s, an" so %!e liberal solu%ion %o %!e $roblem o# "isa3reemen%

#ails- Once a liberal $ublic reason accoun% is base" on an a$$eal %o s!are" ci*il reas4

ons, i% mus% res$on" %o %!e 0obbesian cri%iue-

Loces liberalism re$lies b' asser%in3 %!e insula%ion claim: reli3ious "isa3ree4

men%s &ill no% un"ermine %!e 5us%iGca%ion base" on s!are" ci*il in%eres%s because %!e

la%%er &ill no% in#ec% %!e #ormer- Loce comes close %o "eGnin3 acce$%able =&!a%

Ra&ls &oul" call .reasonable/? reli3ious "oc%rines in %erms o# &!e%!er %!e' en"orse

%!e insula%ion claim: Roman Ca%!olicism is e)clu"e" because i%s reli3ious claims are

no% insula%e" #rom %!e ci*il- Ra&ls $resen%s a no*el, an" muc! "ee$er, "e#ense o#

%!e insula%ion claim: &e mi3!% %!in o# i% as a "ouble s!are" s%ra%e3'- e no% onl'

s!are a concern &i%! $rimar' 3oo"s an" a "e*o%ion %o a 5us% coo$era%i*e or"er =%!e

analo3 o# Loces ci*il in%eres%s?, bu% &e also s!are lar3e $ar%s o# our $ersonal con4ce$%ions o# %!e 3oo" li#e- To 3e% a bi% clearer abou% Ra&ls s%ra%e3', le% us c!arac%eri7e

a $ersons o*erall concerns in%o %!ree se%s: ) , s!are" $ublic *alues concernin3

5us%ice / , s!are" elemen%s o# %!e 3oo" C , uns!are" 3oo"s an" reli3ious belie#s-

Ra&ls ul%ima%e claim in Theor& is %!a% se% / s%ron3l' en"orses %!e conclusions base"

on se% ) , insurin3 %!a% an' "isa3reemen%s base" on se% C canno% lea" a $erson %o

aban"on %!e conclusions base" on )- Ra&ls %!us reme"ies Loces #ailure %o

$ro*i"e a s's%ema%ic "e#ense o# %!e insula%ion claim: our s!arin3 o# se% / ser*es as a

sor% o# Gre&all, insula%in3 %!e ar3umen% base" on %!e s!are" se% in ) #rom %!e "ee$

"isa3reemen%s in C-

Theor& a"*ances %&o claims:F8 =i? %!a% 3i*en our sense o# 5us%ice, &e &ill become

"e*o%e" %o %!e $rinci$les o# 5us%ice =base" on se% )? an" so no% be %em$%e" ac% on "i4

*er3in3 $ri*a%e 5u"3men%F9 an", im$or%an%l', =ii? &!en in"i*i"uals reason #rom %!e

.sel#4in%eres%e"/ *ie&, or %!e $oin% o# *ie& o# %!eir o&n 3oo" narro&l' "eGne" =se%s

/ an" C abo*e?, %!e' &ill a#Grm %!eir sense o# 5us%ice, an" so %!e conclusions o# = i?-

!en consi"erin3 %!eir 3oo" narro&l' "eGne" =lea*in3 ou% %!e 3oo" o# ac%in3

5us%l'?, Ra&ls acce$%s %!a% in"i*i"uals ma' be %em$%e" %o in5us%ice- T!is con#ron%s a

&ell4or"ere" socie%' &i%! &!a% Ra&ls calle" %!e .!a7ar"s o# %!e 3enerali7e" $ris4

oners "ilemma/ ( eac! sees %!e collec%i*e ra%ionali%' o# ac%in3 on %!e $rinci$les bu%

is %em$%e" %o "e#ec% in !er o&n case &!en recommen"e" b' !er sel#4in%eres%e" $oin%o# *ie&-F; To o*ercome %!is !a7ar", as Paul ei%!man !as recen%l' ar3ue", Ra&ls

sou3!% %o s!o& in Theor& %!a% in a &ell4or"ere" socie%' 5us%ice as #airness cons%i%u%es

F8 Ra&ls, ) Theor& of *ustice, $- 9>@- I consi"er %!ese ma%%ers in muc! more "e$%! in .T!e Turn %o aPoli%ical Liberalism,/ in The /lac6well Companion to Rawls , e"i%e" b' Da*i" Rei"' an" +on Man"le=Ne& or: ile'4Blac&ell, #or%!comin3?-F9 Ra&ls, ) Theor& of *ustice, @14@F-F; Ibi"-, $$- F<F, ;9F- T!is, o# course, is $recisel' %!e 0obbesian $roblem-




a sor% o# Nas! euilibrium: .Eac! member o# %!e ellQ Oor"ere"Q Socie%'Q 5u"3es,

#rom &i%!in %!e %!in %!eor' o# %!e 3oo" i-e-, se% / abo*eQ, %!a% !er balance o# reasons

%il%s in #a*or o# main%ainin3 !er "esire %o ac% #rom %!e $rinci$les o# 5us%ice as a

!i3!es%4or"er re3ula%i*e "esire in !er ra%ional $lans, &!en %!e $lans o# o%!ers are

similarl' re3ula%e"-/FF Ac%in3 5us%l' &oul" %!en be %!e bes% re$l' %o o%!ers ac%in3

5us%l'-F T!us, &e mi3!% sa', %!a% %!e con3ruence o# %!e $rac%ical reasonin3 base" on

se%s ) an" / , insures %!a% an' "iscor"an% reasonin3 #rom se% C &ill no% o*er%urn our

"e*o%ion %o %!e $rinci$les o# 5us%ice-

!ile a 3rea% a"*ance on $re*ious "e#enses o# %!e insula%ion claim, $ublic reason

liberals mus% !a*e serious reser*a%ions abou% %!is con3ruence anal'sis: i% surel' un4

"eres%ima%es %!e e)%en% o# our "isa3reemen%s- Liberal 5us%ice is sai" %o be s%able be4

cause &e s!are so muc!- Al%!ou3! &e commence" &i%! %!e mo"ern $roblem o# a

socie%' &i%! "ee$l' $luralis%ic $ers$ec%i*es, in %!e en" &e all s!are a conce$%ion o#

%!e 3oo" &i%! bo%! s%ruc%ural an" subs%an%i*e com$onen%s- In %!e course o# !is s%a4

bili%' anal'sis ar3umen% Ra&ls maes %!e #ollo&in3 s%ron3 claims abou% s!are" un4"ers%an"in3s o# %!e 3oo":

=i? e s!are an un"ers%an"in3 o# %!e 3oo" as $lans o# li#e &i%! a cer%ain s%ruc4

%ure-F@

=ii? e s!are a conce$%ion o# our social na%ure as #ormin3 a communi%' in &!ic!

members .reco3ni7e %!e 3oo" o# eac! as an elemen% in %!e com$le%e ac%i*i%' %!e

&!ole o# &!ic! is in%en"e" %o 3i*e $leasure %o all-/F

=iii? e $ossess .na%ural sen%imen%s o# uni%' an" #ello& #eelin3-/F>

=iv? e aim a% sinceri%' in our rela%ions &i%! o%!ers-<

=v? e are a%%rac%e" %o $lans %!a% con#orm %o %!e Aris%o%elian Princi$le ( accor"4

in3 %o &!ic! .o%!er %!in3s eual, !umans en5o' %!e e)ercise o# %!eir reali7e" ca4

$aci%ies =%!eir inna%e or %raine" abili%ies? an" %!is en5o'men% increases %!e more

%!e ca$aci%' is reali7e", or %!e 3rea%er i%s com$le)i%'/1 ( as &ell as i%s .com$an4

ion e##ec%:/ .As &e &i%ness %!e e)ercise o# &ell4%raine" abili%ies b' o%!ers, %!ese

FF Paul ei%!man, 9h& %olitical LieralismA Bn *ohn Rawls %olitical Turn =Ne& or: O)#or" Uni*ersi%'Press, 8<1<?, $- ;-F T!is &oul" no% assure s%abili%' on 5us%ice, #or i% onl' s!o&s %!a% ac%in3 5us%l' is a $ossible euilibri4um- Because o# %!is &e con#ron% a sor% o# assurance 3ame: &e nee" %o be assure" %!a% o%!ers &ill $la'

%!e coo$era%i*e euilibrium =ei%!man, 9h& %olitical LieralismA ;>?- ei%!man =$$- >, 1F@, 1@9? ar43ues %!a% a 3eneral reco3ni%ion %!a% .e*er'one elses $lans &ill be re3ula%e" b' %!eir sense o# 5us%ice/&oul" "o %!e %ric- I ues%ion %!is conclusion in .A Tale o# T&o Se%s: Public Reason in Euilibrium-/%ulic )ffairs uarterl& , *ol- 8F =Oc%ober 8<11?: 9<F498F-F@ Ra&ls, ) Theor& of *ustice , $$- 9F4@8-F Ibi"-, $- ;F>-F> Ibi"-, $- ;9>-< Ibi"-, $$- ;>>4F<<-1 Ibi"-, $- 9@;-




"is$la's are en5o'e" b' us an" a arouse a "esire %!a% &e s!oul" be able %o "o %!e

same %!in3 oursel*es- e &an% %o be lie %!ose $ersons &!o can e)ercise %!e abil4

i%ies &e Gn" la%en% in our na%ure-/8

=vi? In"i*i"uals /!a*e a "esire %o e)$ress %!eir na%ure as #ree an" eual moral

$ersons-/9

0+0 %olitical, not 3oral, Lieral Constitutionalism: The )andonment of the Doule SharedStrateg&

As Ra&ls sa's, !is mo*e %o $oli%ical liberalism &as mo%i*a%e" b' a searc! #or a more

a"eua%e 3roun" #or s%abili%' in %!e li3!% o# our .in%rac%able s%ru33les/ an" %!e #ac%

%!a% &e &i%ness .irreconcilable con6ic%/ o# .absolu%e "e$%!/ on a *arie%' o# moral

an" reli3ious issues-; One as$ec% o# %!is res$onse is ob*ious bu% no% su#Gcien%l' a$4

$recia%e": !e aban"ons !is ma5or inno*a%ion o# resol*in3 %!e con6ic% o# $ri*a%e 5u"34

men% %!ou3! a moral, as &ell as a $oli%ical, cons%i%u%ion- T!e .$oli%ical/ %urn is ac%u4

all' a re%urn %o %!e s%ra%e3' o# earl' $ublic reason liberalism, seein3 %!e $oli%ical as%!e sole s$!ere o# $ublic reason, an" so once a3ain $oli%ics becomes %!e arbi%er o#

moral "isa3reemen%- T!is con%rac%ion in ambi%ion is s%riin3, an" in man' &a's si34

nals !is $essimis%ic conclusion %!a% !is %!ree4"eca"e $ro5ec% =#rom %!e 1>F<s %!rou3!

%!e 1>@<s? #aile"-

In %erms o# our anal'sis o# %!e las% sec%ion, &e can un"ers%an" $oli%ical liberalism

as aban"onin3 %!e "ouble s!are" s%ra%e3'- Ins%ea" %!e %!ree se%s, ) , / , an" C =&!ere

&e s!are %!e Grs% %&o?, $oli%ical liberalism assumes %!a% .ci%i7ens o*erall *ie&s !a*e

%&o $ar%s/ %!a% &!ic! is s!are" an" on &!ic! %!e $ublic conce$%ion o# 5us%ice is

buil%, an" %!a% &!ic! is $ar% o# a $ersons com$re!ensi*e conce$%ion o# %!e 3oo"-F

Because %!e "ro$$e" se% / can no lon3er ser*e as a Gre&all be%&een %!e s!are" se% )

=on &!ic! !e buil"s !is liberal accoun%? an" %!e "ee$ "isa3reemen%s in se% C , i% is

!ar" %o see a $lausible &a' %o insula%e %!e "isa3reemen%s in C #rom in#ec%in3 )-

Ra&ls res$onse is a #un"amen%al brea%!rou3! in $ublic reason liberalism: ins%ea"

o# insula%in3 ) #rom C , !e ar3ues %!a% in our con%em$orar' &orl" a &i"e arra' o# se%

Cs su$$or% %!e conclusions base" on %!e s!are" se% =)? in a *arie%' o# &a's ( ) ma'

be con3ruen% &i%! C , no% con6ic% &i%! C , or a% a minimum no% con6ic% .%oo s!ar$l'

&i%!/ C- As lon3 as se% C "oes no% %oo s!ar$l' con6ic% &i%! C , %!e s!are" $oli%ical

conclusion base" on se% ) &ill be s%able- In %!is case %!ere &oul" be an .o*erla$$in3

consensus/ on %!e $oli%ical $rinci$les "eri*e" #rom )-

8 Ibi"-, $- 9@-9 Ibi"-, $- ;8-; Ra&ls, %olitical Lieralism, $$- ;, ))*iii-F Ibi"-, $- 9 ei%!man, 9h& %olitical LieralismA, $- 999- Ra&ls, %olitical Lieralism , $$- 11, ;<, 1;<-




O*erla$$in3 consensus ma' no% !a*e been a*ailable %o Loce as a core claim o#

!is $ublic reason liberalism: i% is $lausible %o su$$ose %!a% a ma5or c!an3e be%&een

%!e se*en%een%! an" %&en%'4Grs% cen%uries &as &!a% &e mi3!% call %!e 3eneral liber4

ali7a%ion o# conce$%ions o# %!e 3oo" in &es%ern "emocracies- @ T!e basic %ene%s o# lib4

eralism, inclu"in3 #ree"om o# s$eec! an" %!ou3!%, re$resen%a%i*e ins%i%u%ions, &i"e

sco$e #or #ree"om o# ac%ion an" li#e s%'les, $ri*ac' an" %!e mare% or"er, are *er'

&i"el' embrace" an" embe""e" in a &i"e *arie%' o# &orl"*ie&s- e%, &!ile &e

ma' su$$ose %!a% %!ere is suc! a con*er3ence on %!ese essen%ial #ea%ures o# liberal

"emocrac', i% is "oub%#ul %!a%, &!en looin3 a% %!e combine" im$lica%ions o# %!e

s!are" se% ) an" eac! $ersons o&n se% C , %!ere is a3reemen% o# s$eciGc $ro$er%'

ri3!%s, $rinci$les o# "is%ribu%i*e 5us%ice, or la&s concernin3 abor%ion, !eal%! care or,

sa', 3a' marria3e- An" i% is no mis%ae %o brin3 se% C in%o 5us%iGca%or' issues: Ra&ls

e)$lici%l' %ells us %!a% %!e $rinci$les "eri*e" #rom %!e . pro tanto/ ar3umen% base" on

sim$l' se% ) are no% .#ull' 5us%iGe"/ un%il %!e belie#s an" *alues o# a $ersons se% C

conGrm =or no% con6ic% %oo muc! &i%!? %!ose $rinci$les-> Unless a ci%i7en a#Grms %!e$rinci$les on %!e basis o# bo%! se%s, %!e $rinci$les are no% 5us%iGe" %o !im-

0+4 Civil %ulic Reasoning: The Return to an .nsulation Claim

To&ar"s %!e en" o# !is career Ra&ls a$$eare" %o become $essimis%ic %!a%, e*en re4

s%ric%in3 our reasonin3 %o sim$l' %!e s!are" se% ) , &e coul" arri*e a% %!e sor% o# "e4

%aile" $rinci$les o# 5us%ice !e "e#en"e" in Theor&- In %!e $re#ace %o %!e $a$erbac e"i4

%ion o# %olitical Lieralism !e s%resses %!a% reasonable $luralism an" %!e bur"ens o#

5u"3men% a$$l' %o %!e $oli%ical conce$%ion as &ell:

In a""i%ion %o con6ic%in3 com$re!ensi*e "oc%rines, PL "oes reco3ni7e %!a% in an' ac%ual $oli%4

ical socie%' a number o# "i##erin3 liberal $oli%ical conce$%ions o# 5us%ice com$e%e &i%! one an4o%!er in socie%'s $oli%ical "eba%e- T!is lea"s %o ano%!er aim o# PL: sa'in3 !o& a &ell4or"ere" liberal socie%' is %o be #ormula%e" 3i*en no% onl' reasonable $luralism o# com$re4!ensi*e conce$%ionsQ bu% a #amil' o# reasonable liberal conce$%ions o# 5us%ice- @<

Ra&ls %!us obser*es %!a% %!e same consi"era%ions %!a% s!o& us %!a% &e ine*i%abl'

"isa3ree abou% %!e 3oo" an" reli3ious ma%%ers .lea" us %o reco3ni7e %!a% %!ere are

"i##eren% an" incom$a%ible liberal $oli%ical conce$%ions-/@1

No& because %!e #ac% o# reasonable $luralism in#ec%s se% ) , &e canno% su$$ose

%!a% reasonin3 on %!e basis o# s!are" reasons &ill lea" us all %o %!e same conce$%ion

o# 5us%ice =an" %!is inclu"es Ra&ls o&n %&o $rinci$les?- @8 T!ere is no uniuel' reas4

@ T!ou3! one ma' rea" Loces le%%ers on %olera%ion as ar3uin3 %!a% %!ere &as a &i"es$rea" o*er4la$$in3 consensus on %!e claim %!a% reli3ious %olera%ion is consis%en% &i%! reli3ious %ru%!-

I "e#en" a *ersion o# %!is claim in .T!e Role o# Conser*a%ism in Securin3 an" Main%ainin3 +us% Mor4al Cons%i%u%ions,/ in omos: 9ither ConservatismA =Ne& or, Ne& or Uni*ersi%' Press, #or%!comin3-> Ra&ls, %olitical Lieralism , $$- 9##-@< Ibi"-, $- )l*iii-@1 Ibi"-, )li)-@8 Ibi"-, $- 81>-




onable &a' %o or3ani7e an" &ei3! %!e s!are" *alues o# se% )- Conseuen%l', as %!e

im$lica%ions o# %!e #ac% o# reasonable $luralism #or %!e $oli%ical se% becomes our main

concern, &!a% Ra&ls calls .%!e $rinci$le o# liberal le3i%imac'/ %aes cen%er s%a3e-

E*en i# a s%a%e "oes no% ac% on %!e $rinci$les o# 5us%ice &e see as mos% reasonable, &e

can s%ill see i% as le3i%ima%el' e)ercisin3 $oli%ical $o&er i# can be reasonabl' 5us%iGe"

base" on s!are" *alues- T!e 3ui"elines #or %!is 5us%iGca%ion are 3i*en b' &!a% Ra&ls

calls .%!e i"ea o# $ublic reason-/@9 In 5us%i#'in3 %!e coerci*e use o# $oli%ical $o&er on

ma%%ers o# basic 5us%ice an" cons%i%u%ional essen%ials, ci%i7ens are %o a$$eal onl' %o

conce$%ions o# 5us%ice in*ol*in3 reasonable &ei3!%in3s o# %!e s!are" se% = )?, alon3

&i%! me%!o"s o# inuir' &!ic! are %!emsel*es $ar% o# %!e $ublic cul%ure =an" so in

)?- Ra&ls is e)$lici% %!a% %!e con%en% o# $ublic reason canno% be res%ric%e" %o !is %&o

$rinci$les o# 5us%ice- .Ra%!er, i%s con%en% ( %!e $rinci$les, i"eals, an" s%an"ar"s %!a%

ma' be a$$eale" %o ( are %!ose o# a #amil' o# reasonable $oli%ical conce$%ions o#

5us%ice-/@;

One more %&is% in our %ale abou% %!e insula%ion claim: a% %!is $oin% Ra&ls resur4rec%s i%- A#%er 5e%%isonin3 i% in %!e 5us%iGca%ion o# !is o&n $rinci$les o# 5us%ice =&!ere i%

is re$lace" b' %!e i"ea o# an o*erla$$in3 consensus?, in %!e use o# $ublic reason in

%!e $ublic #orum a moral "u%' o# ci*ili%' a$$lies- In %!e ori3inal s$eciGca%ion o# %!is

"u%' &e are %o res%ric% our ar3umen%s %o $oli%ical reasons s!are" b' all ci%i7ens, an"

so no% em$lo' consi"era%ions base" on our com$re!ensi*e conce$%ions =se% C? in

ma%%ers o# basic 5us%ice an" cons%i%u%ional essen%ials- Ra&ls la%er rela)es %!is, allo&4

in3 reasons #rom se% C %o en%er in%o $ublic "iscourse so lon3 as .in "ue course/ %!e'

can be su$$or%e" &i%! reasons #rom se% )-@F In essence, Ra&ls !ol"s %!a% ci%i7ens

!a*e a moral "u%' in $ublic "iscourse abou% ma%%ers o# basic 5us%ice %o en"orse %!e

insula%ion o# %!e "i*er3en% reasons in %!eir se%s C #rom %!e s!are" se% )- A#%er suc!

lon3 searc! %o s!o& %!a% conclusions base" on our s!are" reasons &ill no% be o*er4

%urne" b' "isa3reemen%s #rom our uns!are" reasons, i% mus% be seen as "isa$$oin%4

in3 %o .s!o&/ %!is b' asser%in3 a moral "u%' %!a% i% be so-@

@9 Ibi"-, $$- 88F4, 8;9-@; Ibi"-, $$- lii4liii-@F I consi"er %!ese ma%%ers more care#ull' in .T!e Place o# Reli3ious Belie# in Public Reason Liberalism/in 3ulticulturalism and 3oral Conict , e"i%e" b' Maria Dimo*ia4Cooson an" P-M-R- S%ir =Lon"on:Rou%le"3e, 8<<>?, $$- 1>49@- See %olitical Lieralism , Lec%ure HI, an" .T!e I"ea o# Public Reason Re*is4i%e"/ in *ohn Rawls: Collected %apers, $$- F@941F-@ No% sur$risin3l', %!is "u%' !as been %renc!an%l' cri%ici7e" b' man' #ai%!4#rien"l' liberals- T!is "is4$u%e is cen%ral %o 2e*in Halliers /e&ond Separation: Eniting Lieral %olitics and %ulic "aith =Ne& or:Rou%le"3e, #or%!comin3?-




; SORTIN OUT RALS LEAC

4+ The Rawlsian TraFector&: The Shrin6ing .nuence of Shared Reasons and the 7vapora-tion of .nsulation

A number o# $rominen% an" so$!is%ica%e" $!iloso$!ers essen%iall' en"orse Ra&ls

$oli%ical liberalism, an" see i% as, o*erall, &ell 5us%iGe" an" co!eren%- @@ I% is, !o&e*er,

*er' !ar" no% %o see Ra&ls $oli%ical liberalism as an unGnis!e" $ro5ec% ma5or

c!an3es became $rominen% onl' in se%c!' $resen%a%ions ra%!er la%e in %!e "a', an"

i% is !ar" %o conclu"e %!a% %!eir im$lica%ions &ere #ull' &ore" ou%-@ On %!e basis o#

%!e abo*e anal'sis, &e can see %!a% a ma5or unresol*e" $roblem is %!e im$lica%ion o#

allo&in3 si3niGcan% "isa3reemen% in%o se% ) ( %!e #rees%an"in3 $oli%ical ar3umen%-

As la%e as %!e 1>>9 in%ro"uc%ion %o %olitical Lieralism Ra&ls claime" %!a% .%!e $oli%ic4

al conce$%ion is s!are" b' e*er'one &!ile %!e reasonable "oc%rines are no%/ =&e

a3ree on se% ) an" i%s im$lica%ions bu% no% on C?, &!ile in %!e 1>> $re#ace %o %!e $a4

$erbac e"i%ion Ra&ls s%resses %!a% reasonable $luralism a$$lies %o %!e $oli%ical con4

ce$%ion as &ell-@>

No& once &e allo& serious "isa3reemen% &i%!in %!e se% o# .s!are"reasons/ %!e core o# %!e s!are" reasons s%ra%e3' be3ins %o colla$se- T!e $oin% o#

Ra&ls .%&o se%/ s%ra%e3' &as %o se$ara%e %!a% on &!ic! &e a3ree #rom %!a% %o &!ic!

reasonable $luralism a$$lies, !o$e#ull' &i%! %!e resul% %!a% a #a*ore" conce$%ion o#

liberal 5us%ice coul" be 5us%iGe" b' a$$eal %o s!are" reasons- Bu% once reasonable

$luralism a$$lies %o bo%! se%s, Ra&ls aban"ons %!is !o$e-

A $o&er#ul reason #or Ra&ls #ollo&ers con%inuin3 %o insis% on %!e %&o se%

s%ra%e3' in %!e 5us%iGca%ion o# $oli%ical $rinci$les is, $er!a$s, %o #ores%all &!a% &e

mi3!% call T!e Ni3!%mare: unless &e res%ric% %!e ran3e o# reasons rele*an% %o $oli%ical

5us%iGca%ion %o a small se%, ) =an" so e)clu"e se% C?, $er!a$s no *ersion o# liberalism

can be 5us%iGe" =more on %!is in ;-;4F?- So %!e su33es%ion is %!a% &e #ocus %!e 5us%i4Gca%ion o# liberal $rinci$les onl' on ) , a se% o# s!are" liberal commi%men%s- O""l',

!o&e*er, Ra&ls insis%ence %!a% $oli%ical $rinci$les are no% .#ull' 5us%iGe"/ un%il %!e'

are conGrme" b' a ci%i7ens com$re!ensi*e conce$%ion o# %!e 3oo" =se% C?, s!o&s

%!a% #ocusin3 on se% ) as %!e ini%ial 5us%iGca%ion canno% $re*en% T!e Ni3!%mare, #or in

%!e en" se% C !as i%s sa'- In"ee", Ra&ls s%ra%e3' increases %!e lieli!oo" o# T!e

Ni3!%mare- Ra&ls reuires %!a% %!e #ull 5us%iGca%ion o# liberal $rinci$les $asses %&o

%es%s: Grs% a pro tanto 5us%iGca%ion on %!e basis o# se% ) alone, an" %!en a #ull 5us%iGca4

%ion on %!e basis o# se% C- Su$$ose %!a% %!ere are some ci%i7ens &!o re5ec% %!e ar3u4

men% #or liberalism base" on ) , bu% en"orse liberal $rinci$les =cons%i%u%ions, e%c-? base" on %!eir C- or Ra&ls, because %!e' !a*e no% a#Grme" liberalism on bo%! se%s i%

@@ Per!a$s %!e mos% $rominen% an" sub%le is Samuel reeman- See !is *ustice and the Social Contract: 7s-sa&s on Rawlsian %olitical %hilosoph& =Ne& or/ O)#or" Uni*ersi%' Press, 8<<?-@ Bur%on Dreben %!ou3!% %!a% %!e 1>> $a$erbac e"i%ion s!oul" be consi"ere" a secon" e"i%ion o#%olitical Lieralism- .On Ra&ls on Poli%ical Liberalism/ in The Camridge Companion to Rawls , e"i%e" b'Samuel reeman =Cambri"3e: Cambri"3e Uni*ersi%' Press, 8<<9?, $$- 9149;-@> Com$are Ra&ls, %olitical Lieralism , $$- ))i, )l*iii-



%ulic Reason Lieralism';

is no% 5us%iGe" %o %!em i# onl' C &as reuire" more, no% less, ci%i7ens mi3!% en"orse

liberal $rinci$les-<

In ) Theor& of *ustice %!e s!are" reasons reuiremen% #or 5us%iGca%ion ma"e sense:

%!e s!are" se%s ) =%!e consi"era%ions em$lo'e" in %!e ar3umen% #rom %!e ori3inal

$osi%ion? an" / =%!e s!are" %!in %!eor' o# %!e 3oo"? &ere mean% %o o*er&!elm an'

resi"ue "isa3reemen% #rom se% C %!a% mi3!% lea" %o un5us% ac%ion- Bu% once o*erla$4

$in3 consensus re$laces %!is $ic%ure an" se% / "ro$s ou%, se% C %aes on 5us%iGca%or'

rele*ance, &!ile se% ) no lon3er e*en !as "e%ermina%e $oli%ical im$lica%ions- No&

once i% is a"mi%%e" =i? %!a% se% C is o# 5us%iGca%or' rele*ance an" =ii? %!e $oli%ical im4

$lica%ions o# se% ) are ra%!er *a3ue, insis%in3 %!a% consi"era%ions #rom C canno% be

a$$eale" %o in $oli%ical "iscourse =%!e "u%' o# ci*ili%'? loos un"er mo%i*a%e"- !'

s!oul" consi"era%ions o# 5us%iGca%or' rele*ance be insula%e" #rom $oli%ical "iscus4

sion I% is re*ealin3 %!a% Ra&ls more or%!o"o) #ollo&ers 5us%i#' %!is *ersion o# %!e

insula%ion %!esis on %!e 3roun"s %!a% i% in"uces s%abili%': because s%abili%' reuires

insula%ion o# %!e se%s, &e !a*e a "u%' %o insula%e- Lea*in3 asi"e #or no& i%s $lausibil4i%',1 %!is claim re*erses %!e or"er o# 5us%iGca%ion: ra%!er %!an =as in Theor&? s!o&in3

%!a% liberal $rinci$les &ill be s%able because %!e' are insula%e" #rom con%ro*ersial

reasons base" on com$re!ensi*e conce$%ions, i% is no& ar3ue" %!a% because &e see

s%abili%', &e mus% a"mi% a moral "u%' %o insula%e $ublic "iscussion #rom con%ro*er4

sial reasons-

4+( Retreating to Lieralism as Shared Reasons

Per!a$s i% &oul" be %oo s%ron3 %o sa' %!a%, a% %!e en", Ra&ls $ublic reason liberal4

ism &as in "isarra' ne*er%!eless #un"amen%al $u77les are unresol*e" concernin3

%!e rela%i*e roles o# s!are" reasons an" %!ose base" on ones o&n com$re!ensi*e

conce$%ion in 5us%i#'in3, an" $reser*in3, a liberal $oli%'- To man' o# !is #ollo&ers

Ra&ls o##ere" a "ee$l' a%%rac%i*e %!eor' o# 5us%ice base" on %!e s!are" reasons

mo"ele" in %!e ori3inal $osi%ion =lea*e asi"e #or no& Ra&ls &orries %!a% e*en &i%!4

in %!e s!are" reason $!ase o# %!e ar3umen% "isa3reemen% ma' arise? %!e $roblem #or

%!em is %!a% Ra&ls &as unsuccess#ul in insula%in3 %!is ar3umen% #rom broa"er con4

6ic%s- In $ar%icular, i% is "oub%#ul %!a% %!e conclusions o# %!e .#rees%an"in3 ar3umen%

#rom %!e ori3inal $osi%ion/ =base" on se% )? remain in%ac% once "elibera%ors consi"er

%!eir com$re!ensi*e conce$%ions o# *alue =se% C?- T!e ra"ical res$onse b' some neo4

Ra&lsians is %o sim$l' "en' %!a% se% C coul" e*er o*er%urn %!e conclusions o# se% )-

< Reuirin3 onl' en"orsemen% base" on C &eal' "omina%es reuirin3 en"orsemen% base" on bo%! )an" C i% canno% "o &orse =i% %erms o# %!e $eo$le %o &!om liberalism is 5us%iGe"? an" can "o be%%er- See#ur%!er m' .On %!e A$$ro$ria%e Mo"e o# +us%i#'in3 a Public Moral Cons%i%u%ion-/1 Paul ei%!man =9h& %olitical LieralismA $$- 98@## ? !as ar3ue", #ollo&in3 Ra&ls, %!a% res%ric%in3$oli%ical "eba%e abou% basic 5us%ice an" cons%i%u%ional essen%ials %o s!are" reasons in"uces s%abili%' b'$romo%in3 mu%ual assurance %!a% &e are all 5us%- I !a*e ues%ione" %!is anal'sis in .A Tale o# T&oSe%s-/ or similar "oub%s see +o!n T!ras!er an" 2e*in Hallier, .T!e ra3ili%' o# Consensus: PublicReason, Di*ersi%', an" S%abili%',/ The 7uropean *ournal of %hilosoph&, #or%!comin3-



%ulic Reason Lieralism'=

T!us as +ona%!an uon3 sees i%, %o allo& #ull 5us%iGca%ion =se% C? as a c!ec on %!e ar4

3umen% #rom %!e ori3inal $osi%ion =se% )? ren"ers )s conclusions resul%s !os%a3e %o

.illiberal/ *alues an" un5us% *ie&s-8 or uon3 %!e aim o# $oli%ical liberalism is %o

5us%i#' liberal $rinci$les %o liberals an'one &!o &oul" re5ec% ar3umen%s base" on

s!are" liberal *alues sim$l' because %!e' clas!e" &i%! !er "ee$ me%a$!'sical or re4

li3ious commi%men%s &oul" sim$l' s!o& !ersel# no% %o be a liberal- e %!us seem

bac %o our Locean s%ar%in3 $oin%: liberals 5us% are %!ose &!o en"orse %!e insula%ion

claim, an" liberalism is a "oc%rine #or suc! $eo$le- +us% as Loce e)clu"e" Roman

Ca%!olics #rom %!e 5us%iGca%or' $ublic because %!e' re5ec%e" %!e insula%ion claim,

uon3 "eems .unreasonable/ an' &!o &oul" ues%ion %!e conclusions o# se% ) on

%!e 3roun"s o# %!eir C-9 Bu% %!is loos more lie a "oc%rine o# liberal reason %!an o#

$ublic reason- e no& !a*e e)%ensi*e e*i"ence %!a% &!en "elibera%in3 abou% $oli%ics

an" social morali%', man' or"inar' reasoners "ra& on consi"era%ions %!a% are ou%4

si"e o# se% )- +ona%!an 0ai"%s recen% researc! in%o %!e moral a%%i%u"es o# le#%4leanin3

liberals an" conser*a%i*es s!o&s %!a% &!ile conser*a%i*es an" liberals s!are a se% o#moral reasons base" on #airness an" a*oi"in3 !arm an" o$$ression =se% )?, conser4

*a%i*e reasoners "ra& on a &i"er se% o# consi"era%ions, &!ic! inclu"e i"eas o# %!e

sacre" an" %!e $ure ( i"eas alien %o liberal %!ou3!%- ; T!us %o "eem as .unreason4

able/ %!ose &!o "elibera%e abou% $oli%ical morali%' on %!e basis o# .nons!are" reas4

ons/ is %o sim$l' "eGne %!e reasonable as, essen%iall', le#%4leanin3 liberals-F

4+0 Lieralism 9ithout .nsulation

e are no&, I %!in, in a be%%er $osi%ion %o see %!e &a' #or&ar" #or $ublic reason lib4

eralism- Ra&ls la%er &or s!o&s us %!e "ee$ im$lausibili%' a% %!e !ear% o# %!e

s!are" reasons s%ra%e3': i% su$$ose" %!a% &!ile our reasonin3 abou% reli3ion, moral4

i%' an" me%a$!'sics &as "ee$l' $luralis%ic, our reasonin3 abou% our moral an"or

$oli%ical cons%i%u%ion &as !omo3enous- As Ra&ls came %o a$$recia%e, !o&e*er, %!e

*er' bur"ens o# 5u"3men% %!a% $ro"uce "isa3reemen% in %!e #ormer lea"s %o $lural4

ism in %!e la%%er- I# some!o& &e coul" $lausibl' claim %!a% reasonin3 in one s$!ere

&as basicall' !omo3enous &!ile in %!e o%!er !i3!l' !e%ero3eneous, i% &oul" be

&or%!&!ile seein3 %o buil" Gre&alls =as in Theor&? %o s%o$ %!e "i*ersi%' #rom con4

%amina%in3 %!a% abou% &!ic! &e a3ree- Bu% once &e aban"on %!is im$lausible bi#urc4

a%ion o# our norma%i*e reasonin3, &e are le#% &on"erin3 &!e%!er %!e a%%em$% %o in4

sula%e se% ) #rom %!e "isa3reemen% in se% C is &or%! %!e e##or%- Moreo*er, Ra&ls8 +ona%!an uon3, Lieralism 9ithout %erfection =O)#or": O)#or" Uni*ersi%' Press, 8<11?, $$- 1@41>-9 .Suc! $eo$le are no% $ar% o# an i"eal, &ell4or"ere" liberal socie%', an" so ob%ainin3 %!eir a3reemen%is irrele*an% %o %!e $ro5ec% o# liberal %!eor's in%ernal co!erence-/ Ibi"-, $- 11-; +ona%!an 0ai"%, The Righteous 3ind: 9h& Good %eople are Divided & %olitics and Religion =Ne& or:Pan%!eon, 8<18?, es$- Par% II-F I !a*e "e*elo$e" %!is cri%icism o# uon3 in more "e%ail in .Sec%arianism i%!ou% Per#ec%ionuon3s Poli%ical Liberalism,/ %hilosoph& and %ulic .ssues , *ol- 8, No- 8 =all 8<18?: $$- @41F- uon3re$lies in %!e same issue, $$- F14-



%ulic Reason Lieralism'>

s!o&s us !o& &e mi3!% $rocee" &i%!ou% insula%ion: %!e i"eas o# an o*erla$$in3

consensus an" #ull 5us%iGca%ion $resu$$ose %!a% se% C , ra%!er %!an bein3 a "an3er %o a

5us%iGe" liberal or"er, ma' be a resource %o be "ra&n u$on- T!us %!e &a' #or&ar":

aban"on %!e se$ara%ion o# se%s ) an" Ci , &!ere ) is %!e se% o# all %!e rele*an% reasons

members o# %!e $ublic s!are, &!ile Ci concerns all %!e rele*an% 5us%iGca%or' reasons

%!a% member o# %!e $ublic i !ol"s, bu% "oes no% s!are &i%! all o%!ers- A moral or

$oli%ical cons%i%u%ion =or rule &i%!in suc! a cons%i%u%ion? is %!us $ublicl' 5us%iGe" i#

#or all i &!o are members o# %!e $ublic, ) , Ci en"orses i%- e mi3!% call %!is $ublic

reason in %!e "is%ribu%i*e sense %!e reasonin3 is "is%ribu%e" o*er %!e en%ire $ublic,

eac! en"orsin3 %!e cons%i%u%ion =or rule? on %!e basis o# !er o&n ) , Ci se%-@

4+4 9a6ing Ep from the ightmare

Ra&ls #ollo&ers re5ec% %!is o$%ion because, I belie*e, %!e' %!in i% lea"s %o T!e

Ni3!%mare- As uon3 $u%s i%, %!ose &i%! .un5us%/ an" .illiberal/ *ie&s &oul" be

able %o *e%o liberal $rinci$les, ei%!er lea*in3 us &i%! a $ublicl' 5us%iGe" illiberal con4s%i%u%ion, or no 5us%iGe" cons%i%u%ion a% all- In or"er %o a*oi" %!is Ni3!%mare, uon3

an" o%!ers mae commi%%e" Ra&lsian liberals %!e *oice o# $ublic reason, in a &a'

no% so "issimilar %o 0obbes, &!o ma"e %!e so*erei3n %!e *oice o# $ublic reason- I#

%!e %o%al reason o# e*er'one coun%s, %!en surel' &e &ill be able %o 5us%i#' no%!in3 (

or a% leas% no%!in3 reco3ni7able as .liberal-/ T!e reason o# liberals becomes %!e celes 4

%ial *oice-

Consi"er %!e &ors% Ni3!%mare Grs%: no%!in3 a% all &ill be 5us%iGe", because

someone &ill e)ercise !er *e%o #or e*er' $ro$osal- Tal o# .*e%o/ can lea" us as%ra'

&e are a$% %o %!in o# !a33lin3 or bar3ainin3, &!ere a $erson !as %!e ri3!% %o sa'

.no,/ an" uses %!is %o !er s%ra%e3ic a"*an%a3e- Bu% our concern no& is &!e%!er, 3i*4

en %!e reasons o# %!e members o# %!e $ublic, %!ere is an' moral or $oli%ical cons%i%u4

%ion %!a% all members o# %!e $ublic !a*e reason %o en"orse- To mae %!e c!oice $rob4

lem &ell4#orme", le% us mo"el i% in %erms o# $air&ise c!oices: con#ron%e" &i%! o$4

%ions an" & , %!e $ersons reasons in"ica%e ei%!er %!a% is be%%er %!an & , & is be%%er

%!an , or %!e' are eual- No& once &e %ransla%e a .*e%o/ in%o suc! a c!oice $rob4

lem, a *e%o o# cons%i%u%ion &> mus% mean %!a% %!e $erson &oul" c!oose %o !a*e no

cons%i%u%ion a% all ra%!er %!an &- I#, #or e)am$le, s!e sim$l' !a" reason %o c!oose con4

T!e subscri$% Ci in"ica%es %!a% #or eac! member o# %!e $ublic, Ci &ill be "i##eren%- I am assumin3 %!a%

%!ere ma' be a s!are" se% ) i# %!ere is no%, %!en all consi"era%ions %!a% $erson i "ra&s u$on &ill be inCi-@ T!is is %!e a$$roac! I "e*elo$ in The Brder of %ulic Reason: ) Theor& of "reedom and 3oralit& in a Di-verse and /ounded 9orld =Cambri"3e: Cambri"3e Uni*ersi%' Press, 8<11?, es$eciall' Par% II- In %!e Brder of %ulic Reason =$$- 9<941<?, I s!o& %!a% a consi"erabl' &eaer con"i%ion &ill su#Gcee*en i# a $erson canno% ran an" & , &e s%ill can mo"el a ra%ional social c!oice si%ua%ion-> rom !ere on I s!all sim$l' %al o# a .cons%i%u%ion,/ allo&in3 %!a% %!is coul" be a$$lie" ei%!er %o&!a% Ra&ls calle" a moral cons%i%u%ion or a $oli%ical cons%i%u%ion- Or, &e coul" #ocus ins%ea" =as I %!in&e s!oul"? on s$eciGc rules &i%!in %!e cons%i%u%ion- See The Brder of %ulic Reason , $$- ;><4>@- See alsom' .On %!e A$$ro$ria%e Mo"e o# +us%i#'in3 a Public Moral Cons%i%u%ion-/



%ulic Reason Lieralism'(?

s%i%u%ion o*er & , %!is &oul" no% be a .*e%o/ o# & , bu% sim$l' a ranin3 o# an al%ern4

a%i*e cons%i%u%ion as su$erior-

Once &e see &!a% is cons%i%u%e" b' a *e%o, &e also see !o&, sur$risin3l', 0obbes

!el$s us &ae u$ #rom T!e Ni3!%mare: a common s's%em o# moral an" $oli%ical

rules is a %remen"ous 3oo" %o all, #or i% is %!e *er' #oun"a%ion o# a coo$era%i*e an"

#rui%#ul social li#e- A #rame&or o# social an" $oli%ical rules %!a% all "eem le3i%ima%e,

an" are &illin3 %o in%ernali7e =an" so #eel 3uil%' &!en %!e' *iola%e %!em?, an" are "e4

*o%e" %o main%ainin3 is %!e sine ua non o# our li#e %o3e%!er- To *e%o suc! a #rame4

&or is %o "eem i% so un5us% or o%!er&ise cos%l' %!a% one &oul" ra%!er #or3o %!e %re4

men"ous beneG%s o# a morall' or"ere" social li#e %!an en"orse an" in%ernali7e suc! a

cons%i%u%ion as norma%i*e- T!is cer%ainl' ma' !a$$en, bu% i% is no% a "ecision %!a% a

serious $erson li3!%l' maes- To be sure, %!ere is a 3rea% "eal o# $os%urin3 in our

$!iloso$!ical "iscussions %!a% one &oul" *e%o all cons%i%u%ions %!a% "o no% con#orm

%o ones #a*ore" $!iloso$!ical accoun%, bu% %!e real ues%ion is &!e%!er one &oul"

reall' c!oose a sor% o# norma%i*e anarc!' o# social li#e in $re#erence %o i%- T!a% &e all( e*en moral an" $oli%ical $!iloso$!ers ( %eac! our c!il"ren %!e basic moral rules

o# our socie%' ra%!er su33es%s no%-

4+5 The eo-Rawlsian ightmare

Per!a$s, %!en, %!e neo4Ra&lsian Ni3!%mare is %!a%, unless our norma%i*e conclu4

sions are conGrme" b' se% ) alone, $ublic reason canno% be 3uaran%ee" %o 'iel" a

%rul' liberal #rame&or as uon3 su33es%s, %!e resul%s o# $ublic 5us%iGca%ion is .!el"

!os%a3e/ %o %!ose &i%! illiberal *ie&s- No& &e s!oul" "is%in3uis! %&o *ersions o#

%!is liberal Ni3!%mare: %!a% =i? %!e basic #rame&or mi3!% be au%!ori%arian or "ee$l'

!os%ile %o in"i*i"ual liber%' an" =ii? %!e moral cons%i%u%ion &ill no% con#orm %o cer4

%ain con%ro*ersial accoun%s o# liberalism, suc! as Ra&ls %&o $rinci$les o# 5us%ice-

No& =i? seems im$lausible- Liberalism broa"l' cons%rue" sim$l' is %!e !is%oricall'

3enera%e" solu%ion %o %!e $roblem o# !o& $eo$le &!o "ee$l' "isa3ree abou% almos%

e*er'%!in3 can s!are a s's%em o# social coo$era%ion %!a% all see as norma%i*e- T!e

cons%i%u%ions %!a% reall' &ill be *e%oe" are %!ose %!a% buil" social or"er on %!e re4

uiremen% %!a% some renounce %!eir mos% c!eris!e" con*ic%ions e*en as %!e i"eals o#

%!eir o&n $ersonal li*es- !ile man' o# us man' ran mos% !i3!l' social or"ers %!a%

e)$ress our i"eals in $ublic li#e, &!a% is %rul' unacce$%able are social an" $oli%ical or4

"ers %!a% insis% &e aban"on our "ee$ i"eals as %!e basis o# our o&n e)is%ence-In con%ras% =ii? is liel': %!ere is no 3uaran%ee %!a% com$re!ensi*e $ublic reason

( %!a% &!ic! "ra&s on eac! member o# %!e $ublics %o%al se% o# rele*an% e*alua%i*e

consi"era%ions ( &ill en"orse an' s$eciGc con%ro*ersial .%!eor' o# 5us%ice-/ !a%, I

belie*e, is mos% liel' is %!a% a se% o# liberal cons%i%u%ions &ill be "eeme" eli3ible b'

%!e $ublic =eac! &ill be rane" b' e*er'one as be%%er %!an no cons%i%u%ion a% all,

%!ou3! &e &ill "isa3ree abou% &!ic! is bes%?- No%ice %!a% %!is is %!e conclusion a%




&!ic! Ra&ls !imsel# arri*e" =9-94;?: a .#amil'/ o# liberal arran3emen%s are 5us%i4

Ge", bu% %!ere is no uniuel' $ublicl' 5us%iGe" *ersion->< T!is #amil', I sus$ec%, is

ra%!er broa"er %!an Ra&ls or man' o# !is #ollo&ers &oul" lie- Per!a$s one mo%i*a4

%ion #or insis%in3 on %!e $rimar' 5us%iGca%or' im$or%ance o# se% ) alone is %o narro&

%!e ran3e o# acce$%able liberalisms %o %!ose %!a% con#orm %o a cer%ain %!eor' o# "is4

%ribu%i*e 5us%ice- Bu% %!a% is !ar"l' com$ellin3 #or %!ose &!o "o no% alrea"' embrace

%!a% %!eor'-

Once &e acce$% %!a% $ublic reason can onl' i"en%i#' a se% or #amil' o# eli3ible

cons%i%u%ions, $ublic reason liberalism is #ace" &i%! an euilibrium selec%ion $rob4

lem- Since an' eli3ible cons%i%u%ion is rane" as be%%er %!an no cons%i%u%ion a% all b'

all members o# %!e $ublic, an' eli3ible cons%i%u%ion can $ro*i"e %!e sor% o# Nas!

euilibrium Ra&ls sou3!%- or an' cons%i%u%ion in %!e eli3ible #amil', i# e*er'one else

is con#ormin3 %o i%, ones bes% res$onse is %o also con#orm %!is is 3uaran%ee" b' %!e

#ac% %!a%, 3i*en eac! member o# %!e $ublics en%ire se% o# rele*an% reasons ) ,Ci s!e

rans con#ormi%' %o suc! a cons%i%u%ion as be%%er %!an unila%eral "e#ec%ion- T!e ues4%ion #or con%em$orar' $ublic reason liberals is !o& one o# %!e man' euilibria is %o

be selec%e"-

F T0E UTURE O PUBLIC REASON LIBERALISM

I !a*e %rie" %o s!o& %!a% %!e $ublic reason $ro5ec% !as been a% %!e core o# liberal %!e4

or'- A% leas% since Loce, i% !as been buil% on %!e insula%ion claim: &e can insula%e

our "ee$ an" in%rac%able "is$u%es abou% reli3ious con*ic%ions an" $ersonal i"eals

#rom a3reemen% on s!are" ci*il in%eres%s- T!e !i3!$oin% o# %!is .insula%ion/ *ie& o#

$ublic reason &as ) Theor& of *ustice- Ra&ls re*olu%ionar' la%er $!iloso$!' &as %o&or %o&ar" a *ersion o# $ublic reason liberalism %!a% "ro$$e" %!e insula%ion claim

an" lessene" %!e role o# s!are" reasonin3 in $ubic 5us%iGca%ion- Al%!ou3! some o# !is

mos% im$or%an% #ollo&ers see %o mo*e Ra&ls bac closer %o Theor& , %!e &a' #or&ar"

in %!e $ublic reason $ro5ec% is %o in*es%i3a%e !o& "i*erse reasonin3 can lea" %o $ub4

licl' en"orsable rules an" cons%i%u%ions->1 M' "iscussion !as onl' simme" %!e sur4

#ace o# %!e com$le)i%ies an" $ossibili%ies- e% %!is muc! is clear: %!e #u%ure o# $ublic

reason liberalism is no% %o "e*elo$ a con%ro*ersial i"eolo3ical $osi%ion %!a% sees %o

e)clu"e lar3e $ar%s o# our socie%' as .unreasonable,/ bu% %o $ress %!e boun"s o# in4

clusi*eness as #ar as $ossible ( an" in "o "oin3, s!o&in3 %!a% %!e "ee$ s%ren3%! o#

>< Ra&ls, %olitical Lieralism, $- )l*iii>1 re" DA3os%ino !as been a $ioneer in anal'7in3 "i*erse $ublic reasonin3 see !is "ree %ulic Reason: 3a6ing it Ep as 9e Go =O)#or": O)#or" Uni*ersi%' Press, 1>>?- Es$eciall' im$or%an% !ere is %!e &oro# 'oun3er sc!olars suc! as 2e*in Hallier, +o!n T!ras!er an" R'an Mul"oon- See, #or e)am$le, Hallier,.Consensus an" Con*er3ence in Public Reason/ in %!e Con*er3ence +us%iGca%ions in Public ReasonS'm$osium, %ulic )ffairs uarterl& , 8F=;?: 8148@> T!ras!er an" Hallier, .T!e ra3ili%' o# Consensus:Public Reason, Di*ersi%', an" S%abili%'/ R'an Mul"oon, C!iara Liscian"ra, Mar Col'*an, Carlo Mar4%ini, iacomo Sillari, +an S$ren3er .Disa3reemen% Be!in" %!e Heil o# I3norance/ a*ailable a%!%%$:&&&-sas-u$enn-e"uVrmul"oon$a$ersDisa3reemen%4be!in"4*eil4o#4i3norance-$"#



%ulic Reason Lieralism'((

liberalism is i%s uniue abili%' %o no% onl' accommo"a%e, bu% "ra& u$on, our "ee$

"i*ersi%'-

%hilosoph&Eniversit& of )rizona

public reason liberalism

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