public awareness and response to environmental problems...

Public Awareness and Response to Environmental Problems

and Sustainable Development - A Case Study of Kuttanadu in Alappuzha District

Thesis submitted to

Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam

for the award of the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy under the faculty of Social Sciences

Environmental and Atmospheric Sciences

by

Jayasreeamma K.

under the Guidance of

Prof. Dr. M. Maharajan, M.A. Ph.D., D.Litt, LL.B. University Professor and Director

School of Gandhian Thought and Development Studies

Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam

SCHOOL OF GANDHIAN THOUGHT AND DEVELOPMENT STUDIES Mahatma Gandhi University Kottayam, Kerala - 686 560

August 2009

Acknowledgement

First and foremost, I thank God the Almighty, who enabled me to

materialise a long cherished dream in the form of this thesis.

I owe a deep sense of gratitude to my supervising teacher

Prof. Dr. M. Maharajan, M.A., Ph.D., D.Litt, LL.B, Professor and Director of

School of Gandhian Thought and Development Studies, Mahatma Gandhi

University, Kottayam. Without his help and encouragement, it would have

been extremely difficult for me to accomplish this research work.

I would like to express my deep-rooted thankfulness to Dr. Rajan

Gurukkal, the respected Vice-Chancellor, of the esteemed institution,

Mahatma Gandhi University.

I am particularly grateful to the Management, Nair Service Society for

granting me the permission to take up this research work.

I express my gratitude to Dr. T. V. Muralee Vallabhan, Selection-

Grade lecturer, S.D.V.R. N.S.S. College, Vazhoor, Dr. N. Ajith Kumar, Associate

Professor of Management Studies, Cochin, (Former Professor and Principal of

the Cochin College, Cochin), and Dr. B. Gopakumar, Selection-Grade Lecturer,

N.S.S. College, Pandalam for their generous help and encouragement.

I am extremely grateful to Dr. T. M. Jacob, Department of Statistics,

Nirmala College, Moovattupuzha who had helped me in the statistical

analysis of this investigation. My thanks are also due to Mr. K. G. Kerala

Varma, and Mr. N. S. Nair (Rtd. Supervisor Engineer), for correcting this

manuscript.

I am indebted to N. Somanathan Pillai, Advocate, District Court,

Kottayam, (Rtd. Registrar of Mahatma Gandhi University, Academic Section),

his wife Prof. T. S. Geetha Kumari, S.D.V.R. N.S.S. College Vazhoor and

Prof. M. V. Suresh, N.S.S. Hindu College, Changanacherry, for their advice

and support to carry out this research work.

I sincerely express my gratitude to K. C. Soman Pillai, B. Renjith

Kumar, Advocates (Additional District Court, Mavelikara), Prof. L Jayanthi

Pillai (Rtd. Selection-Grade Lecturer, Dept. of Economics, N.S.S. Hindu

College, Changanacherry) and Prof. Valsalakumari Kunjamma, N.S.S. College,

Pandalam, for their generous help and constant encouragement.

I am grateful to the Principal, N.S.S. Hindu College, Changanacherry

and my colleagues in the Department of Economics, for their good will and

encouragement.

I also thank all the members in the office of Gandhian Thought and

Development Studies, Members of the Ph.D. A. II. Section, E.B.X. Section,

Librarians of Libraries of Gandhian Thought and Development Studies,

Mahatma Gandhi University, (Kottayam) Centre For Development Studies,

University Library, Kerala Legislative Assembly (Thiruvananthapuram) for

providing their help and assistance.

I extend my acknowledgement with respect and gratitude to

Dr. K. C. Joseph (Ex. M.L.A.), Mr. C. K. Chandrappan (Ex. M.P.), his wife

Smt. Bulu Roy Chowdhari (Scholar in Women Studies) and Dr. Devika,

Associate Professor, Mancompu Rice Research Centre, for their valuable

suggestions and help.

I express my gratitude to the members of the Mancompu Rice Research

Centre, Kuttanad Development Authority, Presidents and Secretaries of

various Non – Governmental Organisations working in Kuttanad, members of

Puncha Special Office and Krish Bhavan for their generous help and

assistance.

My special thanks are to Ayodhya Computer Centre, Mavelikara;

Minitek Computers, Kottayam, for their prompt and neat execution of the

word processing and photocopying of this manuscript.

In the preparation of this thesis I have received a lot of encouragement

and assistance from many sources. It may not be possible for me to mention

all of them, but I acknowledge with sincere thanks, the co-operation, guidance

and help, however big and small, extended by all concerned to accomplish

this project.

I remember the constant motivation offered by my parents to do and

complete the research and I place my heart - felt gratitude towards them, who

were already joined the Al mighty and eternal peace.

Words cannot express my heart - felt gratitude to my family members,

especially my husband Adv: M. R. Nandakumar, Daughters Parvathi. J. and

Maheswary J., Son-in-laws Sooraj Sudhi and Gopikrishnan, their respected

family members and above all my two and a half year old pet grandson Anand

Sooraj for the support and encouragement I have received from them. In spite

of the busiest schedule my husband persuaded, guided and assisted me to

complete this work and once more I feel my words are inadequate to express

my deep gratitude and sincere thanks to him.

Jayasree Amma K.

Contents

Chapter I

Introduction ..................................................................... 1-18

Chapter II

Review of Earlier Studies ............................................. 19-45

Chapter III

An Overview of the Land, People and

Environmental Specificities of Kuttanad .................... 46-94

Chapter IV

The Developmental Projects of Kuttanad ................. 95-149

Chapter V

The Environmental System of Kuttanad-

An Empirical Study ................................................... 150-181

Chapter VI

Awareness and Response of the Public on

Environmental Problems .......................................... 182-235

Chapter VII

Summary of Findings, Conclusions and

Suggestions ................................................................ 236-266

Bibliography

Interview Schedule

Appendices

LIST OF TABLES

Table No Title Page No

3.1 Classification of Total Area of Kuttanad ....................................... 50

3.2 Total Wet –land Area of Kuttanad in Three Districts ................... 51

3.3 Distribution of Karapadam in Kuttanad ....................................... 55

3.4 Estimated Area to be brought under a Second Crop by

Kuttanad Development Project ..................................................... 61

3.5 Agronomic zones in Kuttanad ....................................................... 70

3.6 Paddy Seasons in Kuttanad ........................................................... 71

5.1 Socio-Economic Background of Sample Population .................. 151

5.2 Residence ship in Kuttanad ......................................................... 153

5.3 Source of Drinking Water ........................................................... 155

5.4 Occupation of the people in Kuttanad ......................................... 157

5.5 Area of Paddy field owned by agriculturalists ............................ 158

5.6 Reduction of Area under cropping .............................................. 159

5.7 Switching over to other crops than Rice ...................................... 160

5.8 Extend of Reduction of Land ...................................................... 161

5.9 Switched over Crops .................................................................... 163

5.10 Reasons for switching over to some other Crop. ......................... 164

5.11 Reduction of Frequency of Cultivation ....................................... 166

5.12 Reasons for Reduction of Cultivation ......................................... 167

5.13 Conversion of Wet Land in to Dry Land ..................................... 169

5.14 Environmental Problems Faced by people of Kuttanad .............. 170

5.15 Nature of Environmentally Induced Diseases ............................. 172

5.16 Expenditure Incurred for Environmentally Induced Diseases ..... 174

5.17 Nine Variables used to study the Impact ..................................... 178

5.18 Ranking of Variables on the basis of Public opinion .................. 180

6.1 Awareness about Environmental Pollution of Kuttanad

Sex- wise Analysis ...................................................................... 186

6.2 Environmental Pollution of Kuttanad; Age-wise Analysis ......... 188

6.3 Awareness about Environmental Pollution; Education wise –

Analysis ....................................................................................... 189

6.4 Awareness regarding use of Chemical Fertilizers ....................... 191

6.5 Awareness regarding use of Organic Fertilizers ........................ 193

6.6 Awareness Regarding use of Chemical Pesticides ...................... 195

6.7 Awareness regarding use of Organic Pesticides .......................... 197

6.8 Awareness regarding sustainability; Education-wise Analysis ... 200

6.9 Awareness regarding sustainability Age wise Analysis .............. 202

6.10 Regulatory measures for the sustainable Development of

Kuttanad ...................................................................................... 203

6.11 Role of Institutions in the sustainable Development ................... 205

6.12 Opinion of people regarding Developmental Activities in

Kuttanad ...................................................................................... 209

6.13 Opinion of people regarding measures to increase agricultural

production. ................................................................................... 210

6.14 Opinion of people regarding the Administrative Steps ............... 212

6.15 Opinion of people regarding regulatory guidelines ..................... 214

6.16 Public participation in the Agitation and Movements ................. 215

6.17 Awareness or Membership in various Voluntary

Environmental Organisation ....................................................... 217

6.18 Agriculture leads Sustainable Development ............................... 219

6.19 Pollution Cause Hurdle to Sustainable Development ................. 220

6.20 Sustainable Development Serious Issue ...................................... 222

6.21 Proposed Projects of the Government leads to Sustainable

Development ........................................................................................ 224

6.22 Working of Vikasana Samathies Lead to Development of

Kuttanad ...................................................................................... 226

6.23 Environmental laws ..................................................................... 227

6.24 Movement by the people ............................................................. 229

6.25 People of Kuttanad are Environmentally Literate ....................... 230

6.26 Ecological Disasters Hindrance Sustainable Development ......... 232

6.27 Insufficient Main Stream Policies ............................................... 233

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. No Title Page No

3.1 Classification of Total Area of Kuttanad ....................................... 50

3.2 Total Wet-land Area of Kuttanad in Three Districts ..................... 51

3.3 Distribution of Karapadam in Kuttanad ....................................... 56

3.4 Estimated Area to be brought under a Second Crop by

Kuttanad Development Project ...................................................... 62

3.5 Agronomic zones in Kuttanad ....................................................... 70

5.1 Residence ship in Kuttanad ......................................................... 154

5.2 Source of Drinking Water ........................................................... 156

5.3 Area of Paddy field owned by agriculturalists ............................ 158

5.4 Extend of Reduction of Land ...................................................... 161

5.5 Switched over Crops .................................................................... 163

5.6 Reasons for switching over to some other Crop. ......................... 164

5.7 Reasons for Reduction in Cultivation .......................................... 167

5.8 Environmental Problems Faced by people of Kuttanad .............. 170

5.9 Nature of Environmentally Induced Diseases ............................. 172

5.10 Expenditure Incurred for Environmentally Induced Diseases ..... 174

6.1 Role of Institutions in the sustainable Development ................... 206

6.2 Opinion of people regarding Development Activities in Kuttanad .... 209

6.3 Opinion of people regarding measures to increase agricultural

production .................................................................................... 211

6.4 Opinion of people regarding the Administrative Steps ............... 213

6.5 Opinion of people regarding regulatory guidelines ..................... 214

6.6 Agriculture leads Sustainable Development ............................... 219

6.7 Pollution Cause Hurdle to Sustainable Development ................. 221

6.8 Sustainable Development Serious Issue ...................................... 223

6.9 Proposed Projects of the Government lead to Sustainable

Development ................................................................................ 224

6.10 Working of Vikasana Samathies Lead to Development of

Kuttanad ...................................................................................... 226

6.11 Environmental laws ..................................................................... 228

6.12 Movement by the people ............................................................. 229

6.13 People of Kuttanad are Environmentally Literate ....................... 231

6.14 Ecological Disasters Hindrance Sustainable Development ......... 232

6.15 Insufficient Main Stream Policies ............................................... 234

LIST OF GRAPHS

Graph. No Title Page No

5.1 Impact of environmental pollution .............................................. 177

6.1 Awareness about Environmental Pollution of Kuttanad

Sex- wise Analysis ...................................................................... 187

6.2 Environmental Pollution of Kuttanad; Age-wise Analysis ......... 189

6.3 Awareness about Environmental Pollution; Education-wise

–Analysis ..................................................................................... 190

6.4 Awareness regarding the use of Chemical Fertilizers ................. 192

6.5 Awareness regarding the use of Organic Fertilizers ................... 194

6.6 Awareness Regarding the use of Chemical Pesticides ................ 196

6.7 Awareness regarding the use of Organic Pesticides .................... 197

6.8 Awareness regarding sustainability; Education-wise

Analysis ....................................................................................... 201

6.9 Awareness regarding sustainability Age-wise Analysis .............. 202

6.10 Regulatory measures for the sustainable Development of

Kuttanad ...................................................................................... 204

Chapter I

Introduction

Contents

1.0 Prelude ................................................................................. 1

1.1 Significance of the Study .................................................... 5

1.2 Scope of the Study ............................................................... 7

1.3 Statement of the Problem .................................................... 9

1.4 Objectives of the Study .................................................... 11

1.5 Hypotheses ........................................................................ 12

1.6 Methodological Approach and Data Base ........................ 13

1.7 Limitations of the study..................................................... 15

1.8 Layout of the study ............................................................ 16

Reference ........................................................................... 18

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Prelude

Economic development is a multi-dimensional process. Starting

with per capita income and its growth rate, economists began to use several

indicators of development. No single measure can capture the whole

process of development. Development should therefore, be perceived as a

multi-faceted process, involving the reorganization and re-orientation of

entire economic and social systems.

Development implies a progressive transformation of economy and

society by the utilization of available resources. Development is a wider

concept, not of mere material growth (GNP Growth Rate) but also of other

aspects of human existence. Though the development has brought

tremendous success in the fields of science and technology, transport and

communication, goods and services, industry, energy and so on, but also

brought negative consequences like poverty, unemployment and

environmental degradation like deforestation, soil erosion, lack of water

supply, ozone layer depletion, acid rain, global warming, air and water

pollution, which threaten the very existence of human beings. Hence, as a

reaction to the negative consequences of development, a new development

ethos has emerged in 1990, conceptually a re-development, has now taken

the shape of ‘sustainable development’.

Introduction 2

Sustainability is a dynamic concept linked with development. If a

development consists in solving the basic economic problems, then

sustaining it means progress in the direction of reducing poverty,

unemployment and economic inequalities. Sustainability is not attainable

without economic growth. Sustainability requires alleviation of poverty, a

decline in fertility, substitution of human capital for natural resources, a

demand for an effective environmental quality and responsive supply. 1

The World Commission on Environment and Development in ‘Our

Common Future’ (1987) defines sustainable development as development

that meets the need of the present without compromising the ability of

future generations to meet their own needs.2

It contains two key concepts;

The concept of needs, in particular, the essential needs of the world’s poor

which include a secure and adequate source of income, shelter, health,

education, security and amenities. The second concept is the idea of

limitations imposed by technology and social organization on the ability of

environment to meet the present and future needs. Sustainable development

must not endanger the natural system environment that supports life of

earth, the atmosphere, the soil and the living beings. The two concepts

imply that sustainable development involves something more than growth.

It was the growing environmental concerns in the eighties and nineties that

have added sustainability to the concept of development and has become

mandatory to prefix the term ‘sustainable’ to ‘development’.

Introduction 3

Human Development Report of UNDP (United Nations Development

Programme) has been giving useful information about the state of human

development on a worldwide basis. Sustainable development, as defined by

UNDP in this report, (1990) becomes, “Development that improves health

care, education and social well-being”.3

The 1992 UNDP Report states,

“Sustainable Development is a process in which economic, fiscal, energy,

agriculture and industrial policies are all designed to bring about a

development that is economically, socially and ecologically sustainable”.4

Its 1993 report adds weight to people-centered development by stating that

the development has to be weaved around the people, but not people

around development. Sustainable development is, thus one that persists

over generations and undermines neither its physical nor its socio-cultural

and techno-economic systems of support. The concept of sustainable

development is closely related to the carrying capacity of eco-system. It

provides the physical limits to economic development and may be defined

as the rate of maximum resource consumption and waste discharge that can

be sustained identically in a definite region without impairing bio-

productivity and ecological integrity.

Sustainable development is a process of change in which the

exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of

technological development and institutional change are all in harmony and

Introduction 4

enhance both current and future potential to meet human needs and

aspirations.

There are four dimensions of sustainability in development. They can

be categorized under four heads, such as, technological-ecological resources

sustainability, economic-administrative sustainability, social-cultural

sustainability and political- structural sustainability.

Sustainable development does not mean a return to a pre-industrial

era but calls for continued economic growth in achieving sustainable

livelihood for all people and thus alleviating poverty and improving living

standards while maintaining the integrity of the global environment.

Sustainable development requires three key elements; such as, an

adequate resource base of natural resources, knowledge and technology

and financial resources, a community organisation capable of tapping both

internal and external resources and of advocating its own agenda relating it

to the national and global ones and a political environment which promotes

community requirement for development.

For achieving sustainable development a sustainable economy

should be built up. For building a sustainable economy, proper resource

development and utilisation should be planned. Demand for natural

resources is multiplying in geometric progression whereas the resource

base is almost static.

Introduction 5

1.1 Significance of the Study

Man is an integral part of environment. The history of human

civilization, in fact, may be regarded as a process of adjustment and

progressive control over the natural environment, by man, to satisfy his

urge for material and environmental resources and ensure a still higher

standard of living. In this process the ‘careless technology’ has caused

havocs, to the extent of bringing about serious ecological problems and

environmental imbalance.

Man and environment symbiosis is now in disarray. The

environment is being degraded and disrupted by modern man, knowingly

or unknowingly, at an ever-accelerating rate. Air and water pollution,

deterioration in natural surroundings and cultural heritage, destruction of

wild life and forest wealth, soil erosion and land degradation, acid rain, the

side effects of excessive use of pesticides and chemicals, disturbances in

food chain, nutrient cycles, energy flow and heat are some of the evil

products of the monstrous technology.

The environmental problems arising out of the inadequacy of

development are rather more serious in the developing countries. The

Global 2000 report is of the opinion that many of the World’s most severe

environmental problems are in part a consequence of extreme poverty.

Lack of sanitation, sewage and drinking water, low level of cultivation and

literacy, rapid growth of population, high incidence of diseases and

Introduction 6

overstrained health facilities and public utilities impair the quality of life

and damage the environment. India, a developing country, is in a very

precarious situation, suffering from problems of inadequate development

and industrialization as well as urbanization.

Environmental problems and sustainable development which are

currently receiving attention are vital mainly with the adverse impact of

human activities on the development. The adverse impacts damage the

environmental resources and ecological foundations of the life support

system. Growing industrialization and coal based electricity generation

have led to atmospheric pollution. The disposal of untreated industrial

wastes into the water bodies created the problem of water pollution. The

use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides leads to water pollution. Modern

man has violated the outer limits of the earth’s space without satisfying the

inner limits.

Environmental awareness has continuously grown since the

beginning of the seventies. Most of the people are now aware of the

preservation of environment. However, most of the decision makers,

project planners and administrators are not aware of the local constraints

and pressures which force the population to deplete the resources in spite

of their knowledge of the importance of conservation of these resources in

sustaining life .5

Introduction 7

This study is a humble attempt in this direction. The objective of the

study is to narrate the environment of Kuttanad, the lowest portion of

Alappuzha district of Kerala and to find out the public response and

awareness regarding the sustainable development of the region. Here, a

linkage is made between the role of the public and environmental

protection.

1.2 Scope of the Study

Environmental protection is a topic which is discussed world wide

because of massive degradation of environment and its severe consequences.

Political leaders, social thinkers and scientists have almost reached a

consensus that the causes of global environmental degradation should be

arrested. All are in search for sustained growth in development and have

reached the conclusion that the public, at large, have a great role in the

maintenance and protection of nature.

India is the second largest populated country in the world. This itself

puts excessive pressure on the trifle environment of the country. The living

environment habitat of the people is an area of concern. The water people

drink, the air they breathe and the physical amenities like cooking fuel,

housing, sanitation, energy and transport are the major criteria by which the

quality of life of a population is assessed.

Introduction 8

About 80 percent of the population does not have access to drinking

water. Over a third of India’s urban populates live in slums and over three

quarters of them are without adequate sanitation. Water and sanitation

related illness accounts for about 60 percent of all urban death.6 Air

pollution in bigger cities is a growing hazard to health and comfort. The

state of India’s environment thus presents a dismal picture.

Kerala, the southern part of India is bestowed with natural beauty

and coastal zones. Unfortunately pollution problems have become acute in

this state owing to deadly effluences from factories, synthetic and organic

chemicals, pesticides etc. This kind of pollution causes extensive damage

to the life and activities of living organism and even mass mortality.

Alappuzha, the smallest district of Kerala has been endowed with

wealth and water-spread by nature. The rivers, back waters and the

adjoining coastal water bodies serve an important role in the life and

activities of people of this district. The very high population and

consequent pressure on resources lead erosion, wetland elimination,

pollution, silting of water ways, intrusion of salinity, irrational industrial

activities, housing and transport development and lack of coastal zone

management have resulted in serious consequences on the healthy

development of this area.

Introduction 9

Kuttanad, the lowest portion of Alappuzha district, lies below the

sea level and nearly two third of Kuttanad constitutes fields, rivers and

canals. Hence, it possesses many special environmental conditions. Here,

the scope of the study is limited to the environmental problems and

sustainable development of Kuttanad.

1.3 Statement of the Problem

The geographical entity known as ‘Kuttanad’ is a best example of

land reclamation from water through decades. Kuttanad, the man- made

granary of Kerala, is by and large, a homogeneous area with identical

physical features and cultivation practices. At present, Kuttanad is not a

well- defined geographical area but should not be confused with the

administrative taluk by name Kuttanad, formed in the year 1956, largely

due to changes in administrative boundaries made from time to time.

Kuttanad, the largest wetland eco-system in the Indian west coast, is

a marshy delta lying below the mean sea level and fed by four major rivers

in its southern part viz, Pampa, Achenkovil, Manimala and Meenachil and

receives inflows from two major rivers in its northern part ie,

Muvattupuzha and Periyar rivers. This unique eco-system supports a high

density of population by allowing a multiplicity of livelihoods based on

inland marine, fisheries, rice, coconut, several allied enterprises and the

water tourism.

Introduction 10

Kuttanad is one of the principal rice growing regions of Kerala State

and is markedly distinct from the rest of the country. Kuttanad, a unique

heritage of humanity with natural beauty and enterprising people, is facing

several economic and environmental problems like flood, water pollution,

paucity of drinking water, health, intrusion of salt water, obstruction to

navigation, depletion of natural resources, damages of fishing, industry and

the like. Multiple human interventions causing obstructions to the natural

and free flow of the river back water system and the disruption to the

seasonal and tidal mixing of saline and fresh water, pollution of river and

lake water and so on have resulted in several agricultural distresses in

Kuttanad.

The environmental problems of Kuttanad are arising from the

effects of varied processes of development and conditions of poverty and

underdevelopment. Continuous agriculture has brought about a plethora of

environmental problems in Kuttanad. Most of them stem from the

indiscriminative use of fertilizers, abuse of pesticides and the intensive use

of persistent plant protection chemicals. Lack of proper water management,

large scale reclamation of the Vembanad Lake, inadequate management of

saline intrusion, unregulated fishing, dredging for white clam (kakka),

letting in untreated sewage from pilgrimage places ,the increasing number

of hotels and resorts ,hospitals, industries, coir retting and so on seriously

threaten the sustainability of this man made land of Kerala.

Introduction 11

In recent years, Kuttanad has been the subject of research by teams

of highly skilled, motivated and well- funded research workers, both at

home and abroad. This is an independent study to explore, in detail, the

environmental problems, the awareness and response of the public towards

the same and sustainable development of Kuttanad.

1.4 Objectives of the Study

The broad objective of the study is to examine the role of public

awareness and response to environmental problems and sustainable

development of Kuttanad. Keeping this in view, the following specific

objectives are set out for the study.

To review the land, people and environmental specificities of

Kuttanad.

To study the environmental problems and their impact on human

health and wellbeing of the people of Kuttanad.

To examine the various developmental projects of Kuttanad and to

study the environmental laws and pollution control.

To evaluate the socio-economic profile of the residents of Kuttanad

and the impact of environmental pollution on the people.

To measure the awareness and response of the public on

environmental problems of Kuttanad.

Introduction 12

To evaluate the awareness and response of the public on sustainable

development of Kuttanad.

1.5 Hypotheses

In line with the objectives stated above, the following hypotheses

were formulated and tested for the purpose of this study.

Environmental movements and human involvement in environmental

matters have significant impact on developmental thinking of the people.

There is no significant difference on the awareness of pollution

between men and women.

There is no significant variation in the awareness level among

different age groups.

There is no variation in the awareness level among people having

different educational background.

There is no relationship between awareness and usage of chemical

fertilizers.

People are ignorant of the use of organic fertilizers.

People are ignorant of the evil effects of chemical pesticides

The environmental awareness and response of the people are poor

when compared with the intensity of problems of Kuttanad.

Introduction 13

1.6 Methodological Approach and Data Base

In pursuance of the above-mentioned objectives and hypotheses, the

following methodology was adopted for conducting the study. The study is

an empirical one based on both primary and secondary data. The first four

objectives were pursued by the collection and analysis of data from

secondary sources, where as, all the other objectives have been achieved

through collection and analysis of primary data.

1.6.1 Secondary Data

The secondary data has been drawn from various publications and

also from personal discussions with the officials of various Governmental

and Non-Governmental organisations. Various studies and publications

from where secondary data have been drawn are:

a. State Agriculture Department

b. District Agriculture Department

c. Moncompu Rice Research Centre.

d. Draft summary Report of M. S. Swaminathan Research foundation,

Chennai.

e. Water Supply in Kuttanad, Government of Kerala Project.

f. Status Papers of Alleppey District, District Planning Office, Alleppey

Introduction 14

g. Study Report for Kuttanad Development Authority by Kshatrapati

Shivaji I.A.S., Special Office, Alappuzha.

Research studies conducted in this and related areas in different

universities, books and journals dealing with the subject and various

reports published by agencies working in this field were the other sources

of secondary data.

1.6.2 Primary Data

The study is based on primary data, obtained from a well-designed

interview schedule and open discussion with agriculturists and non-

agriculturists. This interview schedule has been finished after conducting

proper pilot study among the residents of Kuttanad. The interview schedule

for collecting data from the people of Kuttanad is given as Appendix I.

1.6.3 Sampling Design

The Taluk of Kuttanad has been divided into three regions viz,

upper Kuttanad, central Kuttanad and lower Kuttanad. The final sample

units are selected on a random basis from these three areas. In order to get

a proper representation, it was decided to select 100 units, each spread over

the three sample areas as sample units. Accordingly, 300 sample units were

selected for the purpose of study.

Introduction 15

1.6.4 Period of Reference

In the secondary data, information upto 2008 were analyzed. The

primary data, from the people of Kuttanad, were collected between 1st April

2008 and 30th

September 2008.

1.6.5 Tools used for the Analysis

The data have been processed and analyzed with the help of

computer using SPSS/PC + Ver 4.0. Suitable mathematical and statistical

techniques like averages, standard deviation, students ‘t’ test, chi-square

test, ANOVA, stimulus co-ordinates and Euclidean Distance Model graph

have been employed for data analysis.

1.7 Limitations of the study

In making and presenting this study, some limitations could not be

ignored on account of the constraints of the general environment and

government policies. The major limitations are:

The study is based on public response and awareness and hence has

the limitation of inconsistency of opinion.

Some of the people have been reluctant to part with information

pertaining to diseases, evil effects of pollution etc., fearing that the

investigation is from some government departments. Information on these

items has been collected by the researcher in rapport with them.

Introduction 16

In a few cases, the respondents took a negative approach in their

response to the interview schedule and in few other cases, even after

exerting strenuous efforts, it was found difficult to locate the people. In

such cases, it becomes necessary to substitute another one to keep the

sample size intact.

It was not possible to attain cross verification of facts supplied by

the sample units as they are purely personal judgments.

The study was confined to people of Kuttanad.

1.8 Layout of the study

The content of the study has been organized in seven chapters.

The first chapter is the introduction and exposes the objectives and

methodological design of the study. It contains significance of the study,

statement of the problem, scope of the study, objectives of the study,

hypotheses, methodology and sample design, period of reference, tools of

analysis, limitations of the study and the chapter layout.

In the second chapter, a brief review of existing literature in the field

is presented, in order to provide a proper perspective on the proposed

study.

The third chapter contains an overview of land, people and

environmental specificities of Kuttanad. It also describes the environmental

problems of Kuttanad.

Introduction 17

The fourth chapter brings out various developmental projects of

Kuttanad and a brief review of draft report of M. S. Swaminathan Research

Foundation, Chennai.

The fifth chapter presents a socio-economic profile of the selected

sample units and the impact of environmental pollution on the people of

Kuttanad.

The sixth chapter evaluates the awareness and response of the public

on environmental problems. The perception of people on different

environmental issues is also analyzed in the chapter.

The seventh and the last chapter, presents a summary of the findings

in the foregoing chapters, conclusions arrived at and suggestions based on

the findings of the study.

Introduction 18

Reference

1. Dr. Lakshamon, Rao, V. (1992). ‘Sustainable Growth and Development’,

Himalayas publishing House, Noida.

2. Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development,

(1987). ‘Our Common Future,’ Oxford, Oxford University Press.

3. Human Development Report, (1991). Government of India, New Delhi.

4. Lester, Brown. (1991). ‘Is Economic Growth sustainable’, Proceedings

of the World Bank, Annual conference on Development Economics,

P. 353.

5. Ram, Bal, Singh and Minati, Singh. ‘Environmental Education in

India, It’s Need and Rational Environmental Education in India’, P.

259 - 265.

6. Joseph, K, V. (1988). ‘Migration and Economic Development of

Kerala’, Mittal Publications, New Delhi.

Chapter II

Review of Earlier Studies

Contents

2.1. Literature of an International Dimension ......................... 20

2.2 Literature of a National Dimension .................................. 24

2.3 Literature of a Local Dimension ....................................... 33

Reference ........................................................................ 44

REVIEW OF EARLIER STUDIES

The study and management of the environment by the application of

many disciplines deal with the analysis of the conditions, circumstances

and influences affecting life. It is a study of physical, chemical and

biological conditions surrounding the living organisms. The continuing

increase of population and destruction of natural environment with

pollutants have awakened the public to the study of environment.

Moreover population explosion, industrialization, urbanization and green

revolution have brought out many changes in the quality of environment.

These changes in the environment have put the survival of man at stake. So

a study of environment is a need in the life of mankind.

Along with the changes taking place in the economy, man needs

development of the society. The development must be aimed at a solution

for the adverse impact on the quality of air, water and other natural

elements. Hence, a development is sustainable only with a sound change in

which the exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the

orientation of technological development and institutional change should

go in harmony with the environment and enhance both current and future

potential, to meet human needs and aspirations.

Environmental issues and sustainable development of the economy

have become a serious continuing concern of not only academicians and

Review of Earlier Studies 20

policy makers but of the common man as well. However, even after the

green revolution and industrialization the problems of the economy are

increasing day by day and act as hurdles to sustainable development. As a

result of various studies conducted on different levels, it was obvious that

environmental problems and their impact on sustainable development are

relevant problems and they require a detailed investigation. A large volume

of literature is available, wherein different aspects of environment and

sustainable development have been studied. The important studies on these

issues may be grouped under three major categories;

2.1 Literature of an International Dimension

2.2 Literature of a National Dimension

2.3 Literature of a Local Dimension

2.1. Literature of an International Dimension

Common (1996)1 made a careful and rigorous yet accessible

introductory survey of the contribution of economic analysis to an

understanding of the relationship between economic activity and the

natural environment. The natural environment has great influence in

shaping an economy. The basic factors shaping any economy are climate,

fertility of soil, industrial culture etc.

The importance of the concept of sustainable development in the

literature on environment is clearly brought out by Baker et al (1997)2. The


concept of sustainable development has achieved broad acceptance among

politicians, academicians and professionals as the path to an

environmentally better future. Uniting theory, policy and practice, this

book explores the possibilities of how sustainable development theory can

be applied within Europe at all levels of Government. The book focused on

the legacy of the Brundland Commission Report and explores its impact on

perceptions of and approaches towards economic development on the one

hand and environmental protection on the other. The book also explores the

practice of sustainable development within European Union. It begins with

an observation on the policy of sustainable development formulated by

European Union followed by an analysis of policy implementation in top-

down practice. This is followed by a parallel but complementary view from

a ‘bottom-up’ perspective. It discussed the integration of theory and

practice by developing the concept of a ladder of sustainable development

for advanced industrial societies. The possibilities for the future are also

analysed.

David Elliot (1997)3, in his book, entitled ‘Energy, Society and

Environment’ presents a new perspective on the environmental problems

of the world. The author views the usage of energy by the society as the

core of many of the gravest environmental problems of recent years such as

global warming and acid rain. The author believes that new technologies will

help us more towards a more sustainable approach to energy use. The book is


an introduction to energy and energy use, and the interaction with technology,

society and environment. The book examines the key environmental issues

and the harmful impacts of energy use. Some of the other concerns of the

book are the new technological solutions to the environmental problems,

implementation of possible solutions and implications for society in

developing a sustainable approach to energy use.

The author attempts to locate social processes and strategic solution

to problems within a clear technological context. There are several topical

case studies and diagrams illustrating the key issues. The book examines

the potential and limits of technological solutions to environmental

problems and suggests that social, economic and political changes may

also be necessary to avoid serious environmental damage in the future.

One of the leading contributions in recent years is the one by

Kolstad (2000)4. He discussed the problems of earth, air and water

pollution with emphasis on, both, Government regulations and private

sector anti - pollution incentives. The filed of environmental economics in

relation to general economics and ecological and resource economics is

discussed in detail. It also explained the market failure and considers why

even with apparent environmental protection, the market often fails to work

properly. The Government regulations of pollution using industrial

organization literature and the demand for environment quality covering


both revealed preference and stated preference methods are stated in the

last part of the book. Because of global interest in environmental

economics, the author includes many international examples and places

special emphasis on the way, countries around the world, approach and

control their own environmental problems.

Dalby, Simon (2003)6 discusses the issues relating to the emergence

of environment as a major area of concern and as a potential cause of

political conflict in the aftermath of the cold war. The study critically

reviews the concepts of ‘environmental security’ and examines the

assumptions underlying the debates around environmental conflicts from

the perspective of political ecology and global political economy. It argues

that attention to the specificities of local context must be combined with an

appreciation of the continued salience of the structures of imperial

knowledge and power.

The emerging environmental concerns at the global level are

summarized in the World Development Report (2003)7. This document

addresses the fundamental questions of providing productive work and a

good quality of life for the poorest of the world in an environmentally and

socially sustainable way.

The solution for the above requires substantial growth in income

and productivity in these countries. This task necessitates management of


the social, economic and environmental problems and opportunities

accompanying the transition to a predominantly urban world. It also

discusses the issues related to the management of environmental and

social assets. The main findings of the report are that the actions of even

one person may impose environmental costs such as pollution and social

costs. For creating sustainable development, countries require

co-ordination of many agencies and institutions. By listening to grassroot

organizations and testing ideas, Government’s civil society and donors can

promote creativity, adaptable institutions, relevant policies and workable

solutions to address the social, environmental and economic problems

affecting one quarter of the people in developing countries.

Government must establish institutions to equitably allocate water

rights and ensure adequate stream flows to maintain aquatic eco - systems.

Government must also intervene to protect the environmental values of

land, before economic scarcity emerges. Some of the major issues are

settlement of population in the slums, empowering the poor by providing

access to assets and job creation.

2.2 Literature of a National Dimension.

Singh (1992)8 in his book ‘Indian environment’ exhibits the

increasing concern of scholars on the environmental deterioration that has

been going on in the country for the last several years. There is close

association between the environmental deterioration and the developmental


activities undertaken in the country under the programme of planned

development since independence. The population explosion, multiplication

of the desires of people, wrong orientation of science and technology,

construction of major dams, growing poverty, problems of the ‘haves’ and

the ‘have nots’, the deterioration in forest cover, explosion in cattle

populations, riots, violence and the development of a new culture based on

the visual media are all manifestations of the philosophy of development of

the country, which had been following for the last few years. In this

volume the problems, the country confronts on various counts, are

discussed and suggestions have been made to re-orientate our philosophy,

so as to ensure sustainable development and environmental conservation

for our future generations.

Sukla and Srivatsava (1992)9 discussed global environmental issues

and suggested that global environment is the combination of those physical

circumstances which are essential for their health and well being, enjoyment

of life and the opportunity to develop their individuality and purpose of life.

The air, which the human being breathes some 25 times per minute, is

essential for existence. Compared to the past many ages, basic maintenance

of life though essential, is not the only purpose in life today. Since man is a

rational being, he requires an environment, which will allow him to maintain

self-respect, develop individual personality and allow enjoyment of life.


Another notable contribution to environmental science has been

made by Kerret. et al. (1997)10

. The book focuses mainly on what

distinguishes natural resource economics from agricultural economics and

other applied economic fields especially property rights, externality, time

and space.

The geographical aspects of environment is the main focus of

Saxena (1999)11

. Environmental geography is one of the fast emerging

areas of academic discipline within the broader area of environment and

sustainable development. The book attempts a close analytical scrutiny of

the various facts of environment, its degradation as well as management.

The book discussed the conceptual and theoretical issues of environment

and the problems of environmental degradation, pollution, population and

ecological crisis. The issues related to management of environment and

sustainable development and global and Indian environmental issues have

been analyzed. The book has succeeded in providing a thorough overview

of the vast field of environment and sustainable development.

Bhattacharya (2001)12

made an attempt to provide a comprehensive

treatment of environmental science for college and university students.

There is a growing awareness that many environmental goods are no

longer free goods but have become scarce resources. Due to population

growth, industrialization and globalization and policy failures to


internationalize environmental externalities in production and consumption

decisions observe degradation of environmental resources. There has been

a shift in environmental policies in both developed and developing

countries from command and control type of regulation to an approach,

which relies largely on incentives and dis-incentives. It gives a good

exposure to the basic concepts, current environmental concerns both local

and global and policy initiative taken at the national and global levels.

Sekhsaria (2001)13

analyses the impact of deforestation on the

aboriginal community of onge in Andaman and Nichobar Island. The

study pointed out that the Islands have seen wide spread deforestation in

the years since independence endangering the habitat, the inhabitants and

the wild life. Only a concerted effort by Government and its agencies, the

mill owners, the labour in timber felling and the Non-Governmental

Organizations can preserve the pristine biodiversity of these Islands and

protect the rights of the inhabitants.

Sengupta (2001)14

made yet another valuable contribution in

understanding the inter-connections between the economy and eco-system

and in turn between ecology and economics. Apart from introducing the

basic concepts with respect to earth and its bio-sphere, this book outlines

the main laws or processes in relation to its functions. It focuses on the

inter-linkages between these laws and economic processes, particularly


from the point of view of sustainable development. The chapters on

population growth and human ecology delineate the implications of these

scientific laws in terms of the carrying capacity of nature. The

environmental problems discussed range from soil erosion and chemical

pollution to desertification, ozone depletion, acid rain and global

warming. In the discussions on ecological laws and their implications for

the sustainability of economic processes, illustrations have been taken

from Indian Scientific experiments and developmental experience to

provide a distinct Indian perspective to the subject.

Nathan and Govind (2001)15

argues that forests are not only

sources of timber and non-timber forest-products but also of

environmental services. It is through the fall in the supply of local

environmental services, like nutrient, recycling and soil formation that

forest communities bear the external costs that are not included in the

price of timber and other forest products. Local environmental services

are taken into account of forest management decisions by local

communities, but not by external agents like forest departments and form

a basis for setting up local forest management systems. In arguing for the

establishment of forest community property rights over forests, the study

supports the establishment of markets for regional and global

environmental services provided by forests.


Behera and Reddy (2002)16

analyses the impact of industrial

pollution on rural communities. While there are several empirical studies

on agriculture related environmental problems such as soil erosion by

wind and water, few studies have dealt with environmental problems in

the agriculture sector due to industrial pollution. The study attempts to

analyze the environmental impact of water pollution on rural communities

in general and on agricultural production, human health and live stock in

particular. Some important issues in this regard are linkages between

industrial development and changes in the micro environment, linkages to

crops and animal husbandry due to industrial pollution and impact of

health and sanitation in rural communities.

A notable contribution falling under this category is the one by

Subrahmanyam (2002)17

written for the under graduate and post graduate

courses in environmental economics in Indian Universities. This book

aims at giving a broad exposure to problems faced by our environment. A

remarkable feature of the book is the data based approaches to evaluate

the concept of pollution, possible impact on climate and commonly

understood remedial measures. This book covers almost all aspects of

interactions of man and environment. The book also addresses issues

related to air, water and soil pollution and their cyclic nature. The concept

of bio-diversity has been introduced in relation to the dangers posed to

the diversity of flora and fauna.


Gupta (2003)18

discusses the emerging issues relating to pollution

standards in accordance with the Kyoto Protocol. It has made it

mandatory for countries like India to abide by the emission standards of

Green house gases. With the protocol, the world is moving towards

market-based solutions for environmental problems. Despite the

uncertainty about the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), market and

the price of Certified Emissions Reductions (CERs), it is likely that India

will be a major player. In the long run, India along with other developing

countries may take on some commitments, especially, where emissions

trading may be an important component of the abatement architecture.

Iyengar (2003)19

discusses the issues related to the environmental

damage to land resources. In India, rise in human and live stock

population and development of modern agriculture has led to degradation

of land environment. If unchecked, the land resources may become

increasingly less productive and may get irreversibly damaged. It is

important, therefore, that a systematic data base is built to assess changes

in land use and type and extent of environmental damage to land

resources. The study describes the existing system for generating land use

data and shows that it is not adequate to enable environmental assessment

of land use. It makes a case for technological advancement and

institutional change to improve the land use data base in the country.


Karan, et. al (2003)20

presents the result of a survey on the living

environment and health conditions of 1070 households in four poor

settlements in Mumbai comprising slum and pavement dwellers and

squatters. The study attempts to examine the consequences of socio-

economic and environmental factors in terms of income, literacy,

sanitation and hygiene for morbidity. The needs of the urban poor and

their priorities are seen to be hierarchical.

Reddy (2003)21

studied the issues related to land degradation in

India. In several regions in India, especially the arid and semi-arid

regions, environmental degradation is nearing irreversible levels even as

replacement costs continue to rise. Land degradation occurs mainly in the

form of water induced soil erosion, though agro-chemicals and wind have

also made an impact. The study seeks to measure the extent of damage

due to land degradation of various types and their expected trends in the

future. Besides, examining the trends in land use pattern across states and

estimating the extent and costs of degradation, the study also explores the

linkages between degradation and policy and institutional environment in

the context of agro-climatic regional planning.

Sylendra (2003)22

attempts to find out the extent to which Area

Enclosure Programme in Ethiopia and joint Forest Management

Programme in Gujarat have been able to incorporate and address various


issues concerning the livelihood security of the local people. Since

common pool resources from a primary source of livelihood support the

poor, efforts to rehabilitate these could form a viable strategy for

livelihood improvement. Since these programmes are to contribute

significantly to livelihood securities, they need to address issues like

ensuring equity in participation, increasing productivity and reducing

uncertainty over sharing long-term benefits.

Vaidynathan (2003)23

studied the environmental and related issues

of the proposed interlinking of peninsular rivers in India. According to

the author, there are many aspects of the project for interlinking the

peninsular rivers. Conceptual, technical, environmental and economic,

which need careful, detailed and objective review by independent experts

and there has to be open public discussion of the issues, before the project

is taken up for implementation. A proper review of the project must

assess both its technical feasibility and whether the costs of increasing

effective supply by augmentation through interlinking to commensurate

with the benefits by way of increased production. It must be examined

whether there is scope for improving efficiency of use beyond what is

assumed, what the cost and benefits would be and how they will compare

with those of interlinking.


2.3 Literature of a Local Dimension

Report of the Kuttanad Enquiry Commission (1971)24

covered

history, geology, soil classifications, reclamations and problems of

cultivation in Kuttanad. It reveals that natural hazards, flood, salinity and

acidity of soil and pests and diseases of rice were the major problems of

rice cultivation in Kuttanad. The report gives a detailed version of

facilities provided by the Government for agriculture. The report

suggested that an Intensive Agriculture District Programme should be

conducted covering adequate supply of credit, fertilizers, price incentives,

providing timely education and training etc.

Dr. Babu Ambatt (1992)25

in his book, ‘Kuttanad, Myth and

Reality’ described the history of Kuttanad, the development lessons of

Kuttanad, a water equality study and the future development of Kuttanad.

The construction of bunds, control of weeds and drainage of water and

health problems were some of the problems of Kuttanad. The book

covered the study of water equality process in Kuttanad by Indo-Duch

programme. It also suggested the ways for controlling flood in Kuttanad.

Kshatrapati Shivaji (1995)26

in the study report for Kuttanad

Development Authority, described the main features of Kuttanad as most

of the area was water logged below sea level, high incidence of

environmental pollution on account of heavy dose of pesticides and

insecticides. Agro-based economy with high population pressure, highly


fragmented small land holdings, poor water supply infrastructure and

highly organized agricultural labourers were the other notable features.

The main problems of the region were the poor infrastructure, the

ecological imbalances, conflicts in different users as well as the

relationship between the water supply and water demand in the region.

The report also stated the strength, weakness and opportunities of the

region. The strategy, functions and objectives of the Kuttanad

Development Authority are also stated in the report. To ensure

environmental sustainable development in the region by integrating the

developmental activities of the Government and Non-Governmental

agencies was the mission of Kuttanad Development Authority.

V. R. Pillai and P. G. K. Panicker (1995)27

in his book, ‘Land

Reclamations in Kerala’, specially mentioned Kayal reclamations in

Kuttanad. It was claimed that the reclamation of land from water turned out

to be more economic than the purchase of cultivable rice fields at high

prices. The book pointed out the features of Kayal reclamation. Among

them a remarkable feature of Kayal reclamation in Kuttanad is that it was

essentially a private enterprise, a classic example of entrepreneurial

innovation. The book also pointed out reclamations of other areas of

Kerala.


Murali Vallabhan (1996)28

made an attempt in analyzing the

relevance of green policies and sustainable development, in particular

context of Kerala in his study ‘Green Policies and Sustainable

Development in Kerala since 1980’. The study analyzed various aspects

of the concept of sustainable development. The main focus of the study

was on the formulation of forest policies in Kerala, reviewing their

evolution from the historical point of view. The study had also analyzed

the role of non-governmental organizations in promoting the policies of

sustainable development. The study goes in depth into the circumstances

leading to conflict in the approach of Government and that of

organizations.

Santhakumar. V. and Narayanan Nair. K. in the book ‘Rethinking

Development’, (1999)29

explained the recent trends in Kerala’s

agriculture, the factors shaping its performance and commend on the

prospects of growth in agriculture was mainly due to the increase in yield

and the shift in cropping pattern to higher-valued crops. Relative prices of

crops and profitability had been considered as the main factors that

induced changes in the cropping pattern. The increase in the wage rates of

agricultural labour had adversely affected the profitability of crops.

Another significant finding is that the role of modern technology and its

utilization pattern was different for different crops. The adoption of green

revolution package for paddy was fairly slow. The factors that shaped the


present status of Kerala’s agriculture, the price factor and profitability,

the changes in the landholding pattern and the agro-climatic factors in the

state had influenced the cropping pattern and the input levels.

Geevan. C. P. (2000)30

studied about Kerala’s coastal area. The

study revealed that the coastal waters rich in biodiversity supports the

livelihood of large number of people, especially the traditional fishing

communities. The main aim of the study was to emphasise the urgent

implementation of urgent coastal regulation zone and to articulate a case

for more stringent and comprehensive approach to coastal zone

management covering, both, the coastal land and water. The zone needs

to cover both landward and seaward sides.

In a study about the changing employment scenario in rural Kerala

by Mridul Eapen (2000)31

presents three major determinants of the

employment situation in Kerala. One is the extremely sluggish growth of

the state domestic product, second is the role of sociological factors

operating through the modernizing influence of education in shaping

people’s attitudes towards work and the third is the process of

commercialization of rural economy. An important finding of the study is

that agricultural productivity is stagnant since mid seventies, primarily

due to over all declines of land productivity, mono cropping and large


scale change of natural vegetation. They were affecting micro climate,

land stability and intrinsic nutrient status of soil.

Srikumar Chattopadhyay (2000)32

in his study ‘Land and Water

Management in Kerala’, explained Kerala’s development experience in

the sphere of physical quality of life and human development. While

people’s initiative and resultant institutional forces, operating at various

societal levels provide the main yield increasing factor, farmers are not at

all willing to take price as well as yield risks. The study revealed that

farmers were willing to assume the risk of modern technology to improve

the yield. The study also showed that, though total production had

increased due to increased productivities, the increase is at a declining

rate, this would lead the Kerala economy to a situation of rice shortage.

T. A. Thomas and Joseph. A. Thomas (2000)33

made a study on

‘Agrarian Relation and Practices with special reference to Kuttanad’.

Agriculture sector of Kerala had been experiencing a curious

phenomenon of shortage of labour amidst persistent rise in wages,

mounting unemployment and a decline in the area under cultivation.

Factors like decline in the land-man ratio, a shift to commercial crop from

food crops and the higher level of education, which raised the job

aspirations of the younger generation might have contributed to

occupational diversification.


In a study on environment and agricultural sustainability in Kerala,

Thomas Varghese (2000)34

focused on various concepts of sustainability.

The concept of sustainable development may be different in different

countries and situations. To rich countries it may imply maintaining the

high quality and to poor countries it may imply economic development.

The study found that sustainable agriculture formed the basis of self-

reliance and development of any country. Due to over population, over-

exploitation of natural resources and their indiscriminate use for

developmental activities, a new scenario is emerging, which poses a

serious threat to environment and human existence.

Malayala Manorama (2002)35

conducted a seminar on

‘Kuttanadine Karakayattan’. The discussions on the seminar revealed that

continuous flood, water pollution, decline in agricultural land and

destruction of fish were the problems of Kuttanad. These problems were a

subject of study for many experts and almost all were in vain. The

Governments were providing funds at regular intervals. Construction of

bunds, removal of payal and soil and construction of canal are the

suggestions of the seminar for the sustainable development.

A study by Rajendran (2002)36

examines the issues arising from

the environmental damage caused by aerial spraying of pesticides on

cashew plantations in Kerala. It has been documented to have taken a


heavy toll on human wealth and environmental well being. Ironically, the

anticipated economic gains from it now stand questioned as industrial

countries are increasingly rejecting cashew kernal imports contaminated

by chemical spraying.

Joseph. K. C. (2003)37

conducted a study on socio-economic

conditions of agricultural labourers in Kuttanad. The major economic

activity in Kuttanand is agriculture. The study reveals that labourers of

paddy cultivation makes some improvement in their income. Labourers

with fishing as a subsidiary occupation also earn an income showing

some improvement in their living.

Eswaran. K. K. (2003)38

in a case study of Kuttanad described the

present agrarian situation in Kuttanad. The land reforms had brought

about significant changes in the agrarian social structure of Kuttanad.

There was emerging lease cultivation in Kuttanad. The economic features

of the tenant cultivation sufficiently indicate that it was a subsistence

farming signifying a stage of stagnation in agriculture. The emerging

system of land leasing will certainly have consequences on the trade

union movements of agricultural labourers and peasants in the region.

The organized trade unions had started raising their objections against

land leasing. The study showed the consequences of land leasing practice

in Kuttanad.


Environmental problems and sustainable development occupy an

important place in, both, Indian and Kerala economy. There are many

studies on various aspects of environmental problems and sustainable

development. But only a few studies focus their attention on

environmental problems related to sustainable development. Further, only

the natives of the region can contribute more towards sustainable

development of that region. To fill this gap, present study is important. It

aims to conduct an enquiry on sustainable development of Kuttanad from

the people living there. This study has made a humble step to provide

information on sustainable development of Kuttanad.


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impact, emerging trends from Ethiopia and Gujarat’, Economic and

Political weekly vol. 38, no. 31, P 32 – 35.


23. Vaidynathan, A. (2003). ‘Interlinking Peninsular Rivers: A critique’,

Economic and Political weekly. Vol. 38, No. 27, P. 25 - 28.

24. Government of Kerala. (1971). ‘Report of the Kuttanad Enquiry

Commission’, Thiruvananthapuram.

25. Dr. Babu, Ambatt. (1992). ‘Kuttanad myth and reality’, Kerala Sasthra

Sahithya Parishad, Calicut.

26. Kshatrapati, Shivaji, I.A.S. (1995). ‘Report for Kuttanad

development authority’, Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram.

27. V. K. Pillai and Panicker. (1995). ‘Land Reclamations in Kerala’,

Asia Publishing House, New Delhi.

28. Vallabhan Murali, T. V. (1996). ‘Green Policies and Sustainable

Development in Kerala since 1980’, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis in

M. G. University, Kottayam

29. V. Santhakumar and Narayanan, Nair. (1999). ‘Kerala’s Agriculture

trends and Prospects’, Asia Publishing House, New Delhi.

30. Geevan, C. P. (2000). ‘Kerala’s coastal area’, Rainbow Books,

Thiruvananthapuram.

31. Mridul, Eapen. (2000). ‘The changing employment scenario in rural

Kerala’, DC Publishers, Kottayam.


32. Srikumar, Chattopadhyay. (2003). ‘Land and water management in

Kerala, Some issues in the context of Kerala Model’, Asia

Publishing House, New Delhi.

33. Thomas, T. A. and Joseph, A. Thomas. (2000). ‘Changing agrarian

relation and practices - A study with special reference to Kuttanad’,

Economic and Political weekly. Vol. 38, No. 27, P. 14 – 18.

34. Thomas, Varghese. (2000). ‘Environmental and Agricultural

Sustainability in Kerala’, Economic and Political weekly. Vol. 38,

No. 27, P. 35-38.

35. Report on the seminar conducted by Malayala Manorama (2002).

‘Kuttanadine Karakayattan’, News Paper, Kottayam.

36. Rajendran, S. (2002). ‘Pesticides spraying in Kerala: Human cost

and environmental loss’, Economic and political weekly, vol. 37,

no. 27, P 06-07.

37. Joseph, K. C. (2003). ‘Report on the survey conducted in Kuttanadu

- the rice cultivation and environment of Kuttanadu’, Report

submitted to Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram.

38. K. K. Eswaran. (2000), ‘Emerging trends in agriculture and land

management in Kerala - A case study of Kuttanad’, Asia Publishing

House, New Delhi.

Chapter III

An Overview of the Land,

People and Environmental

Specificities of Kuttanad

Contents

Operational Definitions of Concepts ................................................ 47

SECTION A

3.A.1. Kuttanad in History and Popular Mythology .................... 49

3.A.2 Kuttanad- Physical, Geological and Geographical

Characteristics .................................................................. 49

3.A.3 Ecological setting of Kuttanad .......................................... 55

3.A.4 Kuttanad: People and their Livelihood ............................. 57

3.A.5 Kuttanad Development Project ........................................ 61

3.A.6 Cultivation in Kuttanad .................................................... 63

3.A.7 Agronomic Zones in Kuttanad .......................................... 70

3.A.8. Seasons ........................................................................... 71

SECTION B

3.B.1 Environmental Problems of Kuttanad ............................... 72

3.B.2 Impact of Environmental Problems on Human Health

and Well Being .................................................................. 85

3.B.3 Major Problems of the Region .......................................... 87

Reference .......................................................................... 92

AN OVERVIEW OF THE LAND, PEOPLE AND

ENVIORNMENTAL SPECIFICITIES OF KUTTANAD

Kuttanad is popular as the rice bowl of Kerala. The present

Kuttanad region consists of 54 revenue villages, spread over 10 Taluks in

the districts of Alappuzha, Kottayam and Pathanamthitta with an area of

1157 square kilometers1. Kuttanad is a deltaic formation of four river

systems, namely Meenachil, Pampa, Manimala and Achencovil together

with the low-lying areas in and around Vembanad lake. Most of the vast

expanse in this region is lying below sea level, water logged almost

throughout the year, subjected to continued flood submergence and saline

water intrusion during the summer months.

This chapter is divided into two heads; Section A and Section B.

Section A deals with history, location. topography, climate, area,

geological characteristics, ecological settings, occupational distribution,

cultivation, agro-economic zones and seasons of Kuttanad and Section B

gives environmental and general problems of the region.

Before starting with the study, some of the operational definitions of

different terms and concepts used in the study are explained hereunder:

An Overview of the Land, People and Environmental Specificities of Kuttanad 47

Operational Definitions of Concepts

The important concepts and definitions used in the study are

mentioned below:

GNP : Gross National Product

SPSS : Statistical Package for Social Science

Karinilam : Land with soil characterized by deep black colour,

heavy texture, poor aeriation, poor drainage and low

content of nutrients and highly acidic in reaction.

Karapadam : Upper reaches of Kuttanad.

Kayal land : Reclaimed land from the Vembanad Lake.

Kayal : Malayalam word used for lake

MSL : Mean Sea Level.

AITUC : All India Trade Union Congress

Padasekharam : Co-operative management of farming in clusters with

collective co-ordination of major activities like

dewatering, bund protection, sowing, harvest and so on.

Puncha : Main Crop / A distinct paddy season

Virippu : Additional Crop / A distinct paddy season

Pazhanilam : Land left fallow without cultivation.


Kulappala : A deep water crop, which can sustain flood situation.

HYV : High Yielding Variety.

Udampady : Lease Agreement

Patham : Wages in kind of paddy for the reapers.

Pattom : A customary share of produce that is giving to the

owner of the land by the tenant who has taken the land

for lease.

Nerma : Wages in kind given in addition to patham and

dewatering charges is locally known as Nerma.

PSO : Puncha Special Office

ANOVA : Analysis of Variance, a statistical technique which

analyses the variances of two or more comparable

series or samples.

Chi-square : A statistical technique which tests the significance of

difference between observed frequencies and the

corresponding theoretical frequencies of a distribution,

without any assumption about the distribution of the

population.

‘t’ test : Test applied when we have a very large number of

small samples from a population.


SECTION A

3.A.1. Kuttanad in History and Popular Mythology.

Evidences suggest that Kuttanad has a history dating back to several

hundred years. Kuttanad finds mention in some of the historical material.

Popular myths and legends relate the Karinilams (Black soil) of Thakazhi,

Vaikam, Thuravoor and so on to the ‘Khandava Dahanam’ described in the epic

Mahabharatha2. Early Tamil Literature like ‘Venpai’ and ‘Tholkappiyam’ also

has pointed reference, to the word ‘Kuttanad’. Tamil epics like

‘Thiruvayamozhi’ and ‘Periyapuranam’ also contain reference of Kuttanad3.

3.A.2 Kuttanad- Physical, Geological and Geographical

Characteristics

3.A.2.1. Location, Topography and climate

Lying between latitudes 908 and 9

052 and longitudes 76

016 and

76044

4, the present Kuttanad covers an area of 1157 square kilometers

spread over the taluks of Cherthala, Ambalappuzha, Kuttanad,

Karthikappally, Mavelikara, Chengannur, Thiruvalla, Changanacherry,

Kottayam and Vaikom. Kuttanad lies in the revenue districts of Alappuzha,

Pathanamthitta and Kottayam. Climatically Kuttanad is warm and humid

with temperature varying between 21oC and 36

0C. The area gets an average

annual rainfall of around 300 c.m from the two monsoons ie, south west

and north east. During the south west monsoon the total discharge of water

into the area is estimated to the tune of 1,89,000 cusecs5. Climatic

conditions of Kuttanad, by and large, are same as the rest of Kerala. The


three identifiable topographical features on the Kuttanad land mass are

named; the dry land, the wet land and the water spreads.

Table 3.1

Classification of Total Area of Kuttanad

Sl.No. Type of Land Area in Hectares

1 Total Wet Land Area 55,000

2 Total Dry Land Area 31,000

3 Total Water Spread 1,000

Total 87,000

Source: Compiled from the Annual Reports of Rice Research Centre, Mancompu,

Kuttanad. 2006

Fig 3.1

Classification of Total Area of Kuttanad

1 Total Wet Land Area

2 Total Dry Land Area

3 Total Water Spread


3.A.2.2 Total Wet-land Area of Kuttanad

The total wet land area of Kuttanad is spread over three districts

namely Alappuzha, Kottayam and Pathanamthitta. These areas under three

districts are distinct as;

Table 3.2

Total Wet –land Area of Kuttanad in Three Districts

Sl.No Name of District Taluk Panchayat Area in Hectares

1 Alappuzha 6 30 31,000

2 Kottayam 3 20 18,067

3 Pathanamthitta 1 5 5868

Total 10 55 54,935

Source: Annual Reports of Rice Research Centre, Mancompu, Kuttanad 2006.

Fig 3.2

Total Wet-land Area of Kuttanad in Three Districts

1 Alappuzha

2 Kottayam

3 Pathanamthitta


3.A.2.3 Geological characteristics

Geologists hold that Kuttanad represents a recent sedimentary

formation, made possible by the silt and sand carried by various rivers

from the eastern part of Kerala. Over the years these deposits at the river

mouth gave rise to the present coast and converted shallow bay into lake,

lagoon and backwater system. The natural process of silting and human

intervention by way of land reclamation, converted the lagoons and lakes

into garden lands and paddy fields.

3.A.2.4. Geographical Characteristics

Kuttanad is a unique geographical configuration. Aerial view of

Kuttanad presents a picture of patches of land mass, floating over a

conglomeration of rivers, rivulets, canals and waterways. The deltaic

formation at the confluence of four rivers-Meenachil, Manimala, Pampa

and Achencovil- which enter Kuttanad at different points contribute to this

unique geography in no small measure. An intricacy of canals, rivulets and

waterways interconnect these rivers and consequently it is almost

impossible to trace separately any of these rivers in the region. The deltaic

formation of these rivers slopes down to the Vembanad lake and merges

with it. The estimated length of these water ways is 240 kilometers.

The Vemband lake extends from Alleppey in the south to the

Cochin Harbour in the north where it opens into the Arabian Sea. Water in

this lake is a mixture of saline water from the Arabian Sea and fresh water


from the river system. Cursory evidence suggests that the whole of

Kuttanad region was reclaimed from Vembanad lake over a period of time.

Though it is difficult to ascertain the point of time reclamation began,

available evidences suggest it to be in 1834 A.D. By the beginning of 20th

century about 5500 acres of Vembanad lake had been reclaimed.6

The demarcation of Kuttanad region with any degree of precision is

fraught with difficulties as the land mass is a continuum interlinked with

river systems cutting across administrative boundaries. Neverthless, such

attempts have been made by various committees appointed by the

Government of Kerala to study in depth the developmental issues of

Kuttanad. Kuttanad Enquiry Commission defines Kuttanad as the 79

villages under the jurisdiction of Puncha Special Office, on the other hand,

based on flood submergence, saline intrusion and lack of road

transportation and communication, Kuttanad Development Scheme

demarcates only 39 villages as part of Kuttanad7.

The High Power Committee on comprehensive Development of

Kuttanad has adopted the following criteria to include areas under

Kuttanad region. A core area, which falls within the following four

sub-systems; (a) The resource sub-system, (b) the agricultural sub-system,

(c) the communication sub-system and (d) the administrative sub-system.

A peripheral area, based on the hydrological sub-system, which influences


the ecology of Kuttanad region and the ecology which is influenced by

Kuttanad region.8

Population perception of Kuttanad, however, is different from the

official. On the basis of geographical characteristics and continuity with

Vembanad Lake, people generally demarcate the region into Upper

Kuttanad, Lower Kuttanad and North Kuttanad. What shapes this

perception is the people’s closer relationship with land and water, mode of

transportation, isolation from the rest of the region and the resulting

cultural identity.

Kuttanad is a mix of homogeneity and heterogeneity. There is

considerable homogeneity between different parts of Kuttanad with regard

to the environmental influence, interaction between people and their life

styles. Heterogeneity can be observed with respect to some aspects like

incidence of flood submergence, degree of salinity and configuration of

agriculture. The havoc caused by flood is more serious in the lower reaches

of Kuttanad. Degree of salinity is least in upper Kuttanad and increases

down stream and most vulnerable are the ones contiguous to the Lake.

Different soil types that exist along the river system have given rise to

variation in some agricultural practices.


3.A.3 Ecological setting of Kuttanad

The unique agricultural practices of Kuttanad are conditioned by its

peculiar geography and topographical setting. The time tested practices have

responded well to the challenges posed by recurrent floods, intrusion of sea

water and climatic fluctuations. Depending upon the soil type and

characteristics of land and water, Kuttanad can be classified into three

categories;

3.A.3.1 Karapadams;

3.A.3.2 Kari Lands;

3.A.3.3 Kayal Lands.

3.A.3.1 Karapadams

These are paddy fields reclaimed from low lying areas and can be

found throughout Kuttanad. As per the estimates of a leading Non-

Governmental Organisation of the State, the distribution of Karapadam in

various parts of Kuttanad is as follows:

Table 3.3

Distribution of Karapadam in Kuttanad

Location Area in Hectares

Upper Kuttanad 10145

Central Kuttanad 10120

Lower Kuttanad 10120

North Kuttanad 10120

Source: Survey Data by Non-Governmental Organisation 2000(KSSP)


Fig 3.3

Distribution of Karapadam in Kuttanad

10105

10110

10115

10120

10125

10130

10135

10140

10145

Upper Kuttanad Central Kuttanad Lower Kuttanad North Kuttanad

Lying 0.3 to 3.0 meters below the MSL, these are double cropped

fields. Rich deposits of silt carried by the rivers over the years during

flood keeps these lands very fertile.

3.A.3.2 Kari land

The word ‘Kari’ in vernacular suggests black, the colour of the

soil in these parts is black. Nearly 12,000 acres of Karilands are situated

in the Ambalappuzha, Cherthala and Vaikom Taluks. The northern part of

Kari Land is known as Vaikom Kari while the Southern part is called

Purakkad kari. Lying close to the sea, the salinity level of soil and water

in kari lands is high. Most of the land falling under this category lies

below MSL. The practice of cultivation in these areas is different and

only Puncha crop is raising in a majority of the Padasekharams. For


looking after the special problems of this area an agency called as

Kariland Development Agency had been established by Government, in

1992.

3.A.3.3 Kayal Lands

Recently reclaimed from the Vembanad lake, Kayal lands cover an

area of 8100 hectares spread over the revenue villages of Chennamkary,

Kainakary, Pulinkunnu and some parts of veliyanadu of Kuttanad taluk

and Thiruvarpu and Kumarakom of Kottayam Taluk. Since these fields

are situated 1.5 to 2.0 metres below MSL, the level of salinity of water

and soil is very high. Flood havoc is the major problem that paddy

cultivation in these fields faces.

3.A.4 Kuttanad: People and their Livelihood

Kuttanad, a unique heritage of humanity with natural beauty and

enterprising people, is in decline. This region has high density of

population.

3.A.4.1 Occupational Distribution of Population

Occupational distribution of population of any country or state

depends upon a host of factors. Structure of the economy, level of general

as well as technical education are the major factors in this context.

Kuttanad with its peculiar geographical and topographical features has

always been dependent on agriculture. Consequently the proportion of


people dependent upon agriculture is naturally high. The literacy level of

Kuttanad is 93 percent, slightly higher than the state average. Given the

absence of alternative employment opportunities, people irrespective of

literacy level, depended upon paddy cultivation. Among the poorer

sections, the wages paid in kind, in the form of paddy for various

activities related to paddy cultivation acted as a protection from

starvation. However, since the late 70s the situation underwent a

remarkable change with the availability of rice and wheat through the

public distribution system at subsidized rates. However, the most

important single factor that changed the occupational pattern of Kuttanad

is the radical land reforms put forward by the communist Government in

1957 and subsequently implemented by the successive Governments.9

The land reforms made most of the tenants proud owners of small pieces

of land. Many of the traditional big farmers who were adicts in the art of

cultivating the paddy lands of Kuttanand found the new environment

extremely unfavourable. The low labour productivity coupled with

increasing militancy of agricultural labourers, frequent incidence of

various plant diseases and crop failures forced them to dispose of or lease

out their paddy fields and search for greener pastures10. The result was

that an increasing section of agricultural labourers became owners of

marginal holdings or lease holders of paddy fields.


3.A.4.2 Agriculture Labour in Kuttanad

Kuttand cultivation has been highly labour intensive even from the

very early days. The kayal reclamations in Kuttanad provide a striking

contrast to the reclamations carried in European countries like Holland

and Denmark in which the labour played a more significant and vital role

than in the former. The cultivation operations in the reclaimed lands also

required the service of huge army of labourers. The agricultural workers

form the backbone of Kuttanad cultivation. The entire labour was hired,

mainly because the work involved was arduous and had to be carried out

in the most unhygienic conditions with considerable risk to life even.

Labourers and their entire family work for the landlord as permanent

farm servants. Each landlord used to have one head labourer who was

mainly responsible for the conduct of the cultivation. Besides managing

the operations, he has to keep constant vigil, day and night, against

breaches of bunds.

With the rise in the cost of living, consequent to the Second World

War, the labourers found it very hard to pull on with the low wages paid

in cash. There was considerable discontent among the workers which

paved the way for the trade union movement among the agricultural

labourers in Kuttand. The first trade union, Travancore Karshaka

Thozhilali Union, affiliated to the A.I.T.U.C. was formed in 1940. The

movement got momentum and in 1957, a number of trade unions came in


the scene. Some of the leading trade unions during this period are Thiru-

Cochin Thozhilali Sangam, Thiru-Cochin Karshaka Thozhilali Sangam,

Karthikapally Taluk Karshaka Thozhilali Union etc.

Due to constant representations from these trade unions, the

minimum wages committee for employment in agriculture was appointed

in 1953. The committee submitted its report in 1956. The Minimum

Wages Advisory Board, after taking into consideration the suggestions of

the committee, recommended an enhancement of wage rates.

Accordingly, the Government notified the following minimum wages for

agricultural labour; Wages for male labour for ordinary operations Rs.150

per day and wages for the female labour Rs.100 per day.

The working time shall be five hours per day for kayal areas in

Kuttanad and six hours for other areas. The hours of work fixed are hours

of actual work ie, excluding time spent in assembling, proceeding to work

and return and rest period. The customary shares such as pattom, theerpu,

vellamkudi etc, shall continue to be paid. In view of the considerable

disagreement between the cultivators and labourers regarding the wages

and working hours, the Government issued a press release during the first

week of August 1971 declaring the wage rate and working hours

prevailing in different regions of Kuttanad.


3.A.5 Kuttanad Development Project

This project was undertaken by the Government of Kerala in 1974

for the total area of Kuttanad. The major objective of Kuttanad

Development Project was to undertake various developmental activities

so as to achieve double cropping of rice in Kuttanad and increasing the

rice production in the State. Construction of permanent bunds and the

completion of Thanneermukkom salt water barrier are the major tasks

undertaken. Besides raising the income level of farmers, it was expected

that agricultural labourers will be benefited by additional employment to

the tune of 2.5 million mandays.11

Table 3.4

Estimated Area to be brought under a Second Crop by Kuttanad

Development Project

Year Area in Hectares

1974 -Ist year 1000

1975- 2nd year 9000

1976 -3rd year 18300

1977 -4th Year 29300

1978- 5th Year 41700

1994- 20 th Year 51737

Source Kuttanad Development Project, P. 43


Fig 3.4

Estimated Area to be brought under a Second Crop by Kuttanad

Development Project

Area in Hectares

1974 -Ist year

1975- 2nd year

1976 -3rd year

1977 -4th Year

1978- 5th Year

1994- 20 th Year

As per the above estimates in 1978, an area of 41300 hectares would

be brought under second crop. Reliable estimates however show that only

8100 hectares of Kayal lands and 10120 hectares of Kara lands alone were

actually brought under second crop12

. Even before the implementation of the

project, second crop has been going on in most of the Kara Lands. Out of the

438 padasekharams, only 133 joined the project for the construction of

permanent bunds. Thus the project could benefit only 6600 acres.13

It also

follows that the projected employment of agricultural labourers also could

not be realised. The period of second crop in Kuttanad was not properly

considered when developmental activities were planned for the area.

The primary aim of the Thottappally spillway and the permanent

bunds had been to prevent flood during monsoon season and to facilitate a


second crop. The perception of policy makers regarding the period of

second crop, therefore, was monsoon season. The purpose of construction

of the Thanneermukkom salt water barrier was to prevent the entry of salt

water during summer. This suggests that the period of second crop would

be in summer. It appears that, while designing physical structures in

Kuttanad, the policy makers lacked a clear perspective.

The construction of permanent bunds at huge costs had not actually

prevented the flood in Kuttanad. This was testified by the floods that occurred

in 1979 and 1981. In the past, farmers constructed bunds using local material

in a cost effective manner. The annual maintenance works of these temporary

bunds did not cost much. The permanent bunds aimed at reducing the

recurring expenditure, on the other hand, actually resulted in higher cost to the

farmers.14

The increase in the cost of cultivation along with fall in paddy

prices has made the farmers more and more skeptical about a second crop.

Thus, the human intervention to increase production, disregarding the

environmental consequences had been, by and large, disastrous.

3.A.6 Cultivation in Kuttanad

The rice cultivation in Kuttanad is known as ‘Puncha Cultivation’.

The special features of this cultivation are construction of outer ring bunds

and pumping water out, before the fields are prepared for cultivation. The

Puncha season is generally after the cessation of the North-East monsoon

and before the intrusion of saline water during the summer months.


Generally, one crop of paddy is grown in the Puncha lands but of late, one

additional crop of paddy is also grown during the regular virippu season.

The Karapadams are generally situated along with the water ways and

constitute the lower reaches of the eastern and southern periphery of

Kuttanad. The fertility of Karapadam lying along the water ways is

periodically replenished by the silt deposited by the flood waters of the

rivers. The Kayal Lands, having an extent of 10000 hectares, are recently

reclaimed lands from the Vembanad Lake. The Government encouraged

cultivation by exempting the reclaimed area from taxation for some time.

Regulation IV of 1074 was passed by Travancore Government to give the

rights and every possible encouragement in the matter of cultivating Kayal

lands. In 1970 Kayal lands like Rani, Chithra and Marthandom were

brought under the control of the Kerala Government. Later they were

distributed to agricultural labourers. The Karilands situation in the

Ambalapuzha and Vaikom taluks is peaty and marshy in nature and is over

grown in many areas with wild weeds and grass. Most of the lands lie at or

below sea level and are subject to salinity also.

During the early part of this century, rice was cultivated only once

in two or three years. In order to test the feasibility of annual cropping in

Kuttanad an experimental station was started in 1916 by Travancore State

Department of agriculture and it was demonstrated that annual rice

cultivation is feasible. The practice of allowing Kayal lands to lie fallow


continued even after annual cropping was popular in other areas of

Kuttanad. When the land is left fallow, it is called ‘Pazhanilam’. Recently,

the Government of Kerala initiated fallow land paddy cultivation scheme

through Puncha Special Office and Krishi Bhavan. But most of the farmers

are unaware of the scheme, since there was no orientation regarding the

guidelines and the availability of subsidized seeds and fertilizers. Hence, the

level of participation of the beneficiaries is very low.

Next to paddy the principal crop of this area is coconut. Kuttanad

makes a substantial contribution to coconut production in Kerala. While

coconut is grown in all districts of Kerala, the yield per tree obtained is

maximum in Alleppey, especially in Kuttanad area in view of the

topography and fertility of soil.11

In lands reclaimed by alternative layers of

sand and clay, coconut thrives well. Coconut trees in this area are

extensively tapped for toddy, which when fermented becomes intoxicating

liquor. A substantial quantity of toddy is supplied from R-Block. As total

garden lands are scarce, farmers of Kuttanad had the tendency to grow too

many trees in a limited area. Coconuts are grown in the bunds of paddy

fields also. As the soil is very fertile and there is sufficient sunshine and

moisture, the plants grow quickly, giving higher yield in the bund area.

Other subsidiary crops grown in Kuttanad are arecanut and banana.

Arecanut plants also thrive in Kuttanad, but they are seldom cultivated on a


large scale. Arecanut trees are generally planted around the houses for

domestic consumption. Plantains also grow well in the reclaimed lands. In

newly reclaimed lands it is planted on a large scale. These ancillary crops

are an additional source of income to farmers.

Inland fishing is another major activity in Kuttanad. In recent years, a

major part of fish in this area was destroyed by environmental problems.

During the second crop season, the shutters of Thanneermukkom bunds

were closed to prevent salt water from entering this area. As a result the

quantity of salt water fishes has declined to a great extent.

3.A.6.1. Kulappala Cultivation

In the upper reaches of Kuttanad where the fields are shallow, there

existed a deep water crop of paddy cultivation called ‘Kulappala

Cultivation’. The area under this system of cultivation varied annually

depending on the seasonal conditions.

The cultivation operation starts soon after the harvest of the Puncha

crop in January-February. The fields are ploughed with the residual

moisturizing or with the receipt of a few summer showers, if the soil is too

dry. The seeds are sown in dribbles in plough furrows and covered by

subsequent ploughing. Early sowing is always practiced so as to give a

period of at least one and a half months for the plants to grow to a height of

30 to 40 cms to withstand the early floods which occur by the end of May


or early June. No manuring is usually done except burning the stubbles and

weed. Some cultivators apply bone powder also. The plants grow up with

the rising level of water and reach a height of two or three meters in a

struggling manner. Both roots and tillers arise from the upper nodes and

the plants with the earhead float on the surface of the water. The crop

comes to maturity in September. The harvesting is done by wading through

water and cutting earhead alone, which are bundled and transported in

small canoes. The prominent rice varieties used were Kulappala,

Chennellu, vayalthuva, and Habigunj.

Paddy cultivation in the reclaimed land is unique in several aspects.

This peculiar agricultural operation involved bunding and bailing out the

water in the rice fields which lie below MSL. The bunds have to be

strengthened to avoid breaching during floods. Acidity and salinity of the

soil, the occurrence of weeds and pests are some of the risks to which a

Kuttanad farmer is exposed to. The Puncha crop is sown after the main

flood risk period ie, between November and December and is harvested by

the end of March.

Some of the essential aspects of cultivation in Kuttanad are the

following;

Dry ploughing after harvesting, Wet ploughing, Repairs to bunds, De-

watering, Repairs to inner bunds and levelling, Irrigation, Sowing,


Manuring, Gap filling and second weeding, Top dressing, Application of

pesticides, harvesting and threshing.

3.A.6.2 Elements of Cost of Paddy Cultivation

There are several costs associated with cultivation of paddy in

Kuttanad. The main costs are;

a) Rent

If land is taken on lease for cultivation, rent is to be paid in advance.

The prevailing rate is Rs. 5000 per acre per cultivation. If the land is owned,

allocation of rent is to be made while computing profit or loss.

b) Price of Seed

Good quality of seed is essential for high yield. Seed cost is 1500

per quintal, about 60 kg seed is required for sowing one acre of land.

c) Charges of Pumping

Water is pumped out and weeds are allowed to grow. After 10 days

water is let in and kept for 15 days, destroying the weeds submerged under

water. Cost of this additional pumping is to be borne by the farmers.

d) Manures

Both organic and chemical fertilizers are used by farmers to

improve the quality of soil and yield of rice. The cost of fertilizers forms an

important part of the cost of cultivation. More than one third of total

expenses is incurred for applying manures.


e) Pesticides and Fungicides

Once or twice insecticide is to be sprayed on the plants if attack is

observed. Untimely cultivation may necessitate spraying of suitable

insecticides upto four times, in which case, the expenses will be very high.

f) Machinery Charges

Rent is to be paid for the tiller for preparing the land and for

harvesting and threshing if machines are used for it.

g) Other Charges

This include cost of transplanting seeds and removal of weeds, cost

of half-backed lime shell , if acidity is noticed and charges for loading the

paddy in boats or lorries when sold or brought home for storing.

h) Harvesting

Fruits and snacks are to be served to the farm- hands for attracting

them to undertake harvesting. This is in addition to 20 per cent of the total

paddy produced, given as labourer’s remuneration for harvesting and

winnowing machine, storing the grains and stacking the hay.

i) Miscellaneous Expenses

Cost of gunny bags for soaking the seeds, expense of irrigating land,

cost of basket for handling paddy etc, come under this head.


3.A.7 Agronomic Zones in Kuttanad

The area has been divided into six agronomic zones with more or

less similar physical conditions

Table 3.5

Agronomic zones in Kuttanad

Sl.No. Agronomic zones Area in Hectares

1 Upper Kuttanad 10576

2 Kayal 9464

3 Vaikom 7748

4 Lower Kuttanad 16280

5 North Kuttanad 6556

6 Purakkad 4311

Total 54,935

Source: Compiled from the Annual Reports of Rice Research Centre Mancompu,

Kuttanad 2006.

Fig 3.5

Agronomic zones in Kuttanad

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

14000

16000

18000

Upper

Kuttanad

Kayal Vaikom Lower

Kuttanad

North

Kuttanad

Purakkad

Agronomic Zones

Are

a i

n H

ecta

res


3.A.8. Seasons

In earlier stages rice cultivation with traditional varieties was done

once in two or three years and gradually comes to annual puncha crops

during the period from December to April. This ultimately led to the two

distinct paddy seasons in Kuttanad.

Table 3.6

Paddy Seasons in Kuttanad

Sl. No. Season Period Area in hectares

1 Puncha (main crop) October- April 40,000

2 Additional Crop (virippu) May -August 10,000

Source: Annual Report of Rice Research Centre, Mancompu, Kuttanad 2005

The above analysis shows that Kuttanad has a glorious history. Most

of the areas are lying below sea level and agriculture is the main

occupation of the people living in this place. So flood and agriculture

related problems are the main issues of the people. Hence, a detailed study

of the environmental and agricultural problems is vital to the general

understanding of Kuttanad.


SECTION B

3.B.1 Environmental Problems of Kuttanad

This section deals with environmental and general problems of

Kuttanad. The prime factor influencing the environment of Kuttanad is

water. Management of water in different seasons holds the key to the

environmental balance of Kuttanad. During the two monsoons the excess

discharge of water from the four rivers to the Vembanad Lake causes

floods in the entire Kuttanad region. However, as the level of sea is also

high, the pressure of sea water does not allow automatic flow of flood

water into the sea. Instead, the sea water may also enter Kuttanad adding

to other flood hazards.

Flood causes untold misery to the life of the people. The floods

cause breaching of bunds, which in turn, destroys the standing crops.

When water level rises above the normal level, it causes great hardship to

the people. During floods, the water transport will be suspended. Floods

also cause heavy loss of property. The fruits and vegetables generally

grown in the kitchen garden and home yard would be destroyed completely

by floods. During floods, the main roads connecting upper Kuttanad with

lower Kuttanad i.e., Thiruvalla with Thakazhy and Changanachery with

Alappuzha will be partly under water, with bus services and postal services

suspended for days. The occurrence of flood has become frequent in recent

years15

. Several measures have been taken to prevent flooding of the


region. The Thottappally spill way was designed to deviate the flood

waters from Kuttanad. Unfortunately, it was not recognised that river

system in Kuttanad was directly connected to the reservoir at Thottappally.

By the time the need for a leading channel to the reservoir was realised, the

construction of the spillway was over.

While floods cause untold miseries, it is not without some beneficial

impact. In the past, cultivation in Kuttanad was almost dependent on

natural fertility of the soil. The silt carried by the flood water had

contributed to the fertility of the soil, since the efforts to divert the water

before reaching Kuttanad have not been fruitful. Informed people of

Kuttanad are of the opinion that fertility have already come down and they

are forced to use more and more chemical fertilizers to compensate the loss

of fertility.

Another aspect to be noted in this context is that the construction of

permanent bunds has not been a solution to the floods in Kuttanad. In their

anxiety to encourage farmers to grow a second crop, successive

governments have been liberally financing the construction of permanent

bunds around the paddy fields.

Since 1971, the Kerala Land Development Corporation has

completed 908 kilometres of bunds in Kuttanad, costing nearly Rs. 24

crores. In addition, there has been private construction of bunds by


individual farmers. The expectation that the Thottappally spill way and

Thanneermukkom bunds would solve the flood problem in Kuttanad has

been belied. The fact is that, out of the forty five padasekharams where

breaching of bunds occurred during 1979, forty two had permanent bunds

constructed by the Kerala Land Development Corporation, couldn’t

withstand the floods16

The various environmental pollution in Kuttanad can be discussed

under the following heads;

3.B.1.1. Problem of salinity;

3.B.1.2 Impact of Fauna and Flora;

3.B.1.3. Water pollution from various sources;

3.B.1.4. Air Pollution;

3.B.1.5. Pollution due to solid wastes;

3.B.1.6. Thermal pollution;

3.B.1.7. Soil Pollution.

3.B.1.1 Problem of Salinity

An alarming indicator to guage the impact of human intervention on

the ecology and environment of Kuttanad is to relate it to the level of salinity

of water. Salinity of water in Kuttanad is caused by the entry of sea water

into fresh water bodies of Kuttanad. Salinity of water in Kuttanad is closely


connected with what is known as Cochin estuary. An estuary is a semi-

enclosed coastal body of water which has a free connection with the open

sea and within which sea water is measurably diluted with freshwater

derived from land drainage. During the wet season precipitation and run off

exceed the evaporation so that the estuary is of the positive type with

incoming salt water at the bottom and gradual vertical mixing leading to an

outgoing stream of freshwater near the surface.

The level of salinity varies from place to place in Kuttanad. The

degree of salinity is greater in northern parts and least in upper Kuttanad.

In central and upper Kuttanad salinity reaches the month of April, when the

second crop season will be over. There is no uniform degree of felt need

among the population of Kuttanad for regulating the salinity. Before the

construction of Thanneermukkom salt water barrier, people used their

traditional technique of preventing salinity by constructing temporary

bunds to protect the crops. After the season, the bunds would be breached

to facilitate the growth of fish population.

3.B.1.2. Impact of Fauna and Flora

The impact of fauna and flora is explained under two heads;

a) Problem of Aquatic weeds;

b) Impact on Aquatic life;

a) Problem of Aquatic weeds.


The eco-system of Kuttanad with its canals, water ways and various

rivers is a congenial setting for the growth of various kinds of water plants

like salvinia and water hyacinth commonly called African Payal, Velvet

payal etc, which is a small plant with leaves spread on the water surface.

Though this plant is generally found in the water ways of African

countries, it found its way to Kuttanad via Cochin Port. Prior to the

construction of Thanneermukkom salt water barrier, the problem of

African Payal was not very acute as salt water acted as an effective

preventive mechanism.

Construction of the barrier resulted in the luxuriant growth of the

Salvinia which choked the canals and water ways and also aggravated the

pollution of water and growth of mosquitoes.

Removal of African Payal has become part of the agricultural

operations in Kuttanad and added to the cost of cultivation. The growth of

African Payal has badly affected fishing and transport sectors. In Kuttanad

the water plants competes with other plant life, depriving it of light and

nutrients and thereby affecting fresh water aquatic life and also offering

habitat for several harmful insects.

Aquatic weeds can be controlled by any one or several of manual,

mechanical, chemical or biological methods. Though manual methods have

been highly effective in the context of Kerala, costs are found to be


prohibitive. Biological and mechanical methods of controlling African

Payal have not been very successful.

b) Impact on Aquatic Life

The aquatic life in Kuttanad was well adapted to the salinity of the

Vembanad Lake. As a result of the Thanneermukkom barrier, the

population of prawns, which are well adjusted to the saline conditions, has

decreased. The barrier has also adversely affected the migration of prawn

from Arabian Sea. According to the fishermen of Kuttanad, several

varieties of prawns and other fish are completely absent in Vembanad lake.

At the rate of Rs. 20 lakhs a day, the total loss due to the decrease in

marine population has been estimated as Rs. 48 crores in a season.

Consequently, fishermen find it difficult to earn enough for their

subsistence17

.

Another impact of the absence of salinity has been on the growth of

shell organism in Kuttanad. More than fifty per cent of the shell organisms

in Kuttanad belong to the species Velorita. These organisms grow one

meter below the clay soil in Vembanad lake bed. A minimum quantity of

salinity (8-9 per cent) is necessary for the normal growth of these

organisms. Prevention of salinity by the barrier has adversely affected the

normal growth of shell organisms. This has affected the income and

employment of workers engaged in digging out the shell18

.


3.B.1.3 Water Pollution from various sources

The rivers running through Kuttanad are getting polluted from

various sources. They are;

a). Domestic waste;

b). Intensive use of pesticides and fertilizers;

c). Discharge of Industrial waste water.

a). Domestic Waste

Disposal of human waste and dirt into the water bodies is the prime

factor contributing to water pollution in Kuttanad. Waste water of all forms

is disposed off into water bodies indiscriminately, thereby rendering the

water extremely unsuitable for human consumption. The entire surface water

in this area is contaminated with human excreta, garbage, sewage, fertilizer

and pesticide residue and suspended organic and mineral solids. The Indo-

Dutch Water Balance Study had undertaken coliform bacteria counts during

different seasons in different parts of Kuttanad. It was observed to be

exceeding the tolerance limits for outdoor bathing and drinking water in

most water samples. The stagnant channels of Kuttanad gave recorded

1,30,000 faecal coli/100 ml. In the river water it varied between 500 and

500019. The high level of contamination of water explains several of the

water prone diseases in the area.


b). Intensive use of Pesticides and fertilizers.

The Intensive Agricultural Development Programme implemented in

Kuttanad, as part of the Green Revolution, necessitated the use of pesticides

and chemical fertilizers. The HYV seeds introduced as part of the package

were highly prone to attack of pests, weeds and rodents which could be

tackled only with the application of high doses of pesticides. Indigenous

varieties of seeds to a large extent were resistant to all these and could be

managed by biological control through frogs or snakes. It has been pointed

out that more than 46 different formulations of pesticides amounting to

1000 tones are used in Kuttanad in every crop season20

. The pesticides and

fertilizers from the paddy fields ultimately reach the water bodies.

Examination of water samples from different parts of Kuttanad

between 1988 December and 1989 June was undertaken by the Water

Balance Study. The rates (ng/1) of Lindone, DDT, Endosulfan were

observed to be high during this period. During summer months, when the

regulator of the salt water barrier is closed, the rate increases21

.

The study also found the presence of Potassium, Nitrogen and

Phosphate with various levels of concentration at different locations.

During the months of December-February and July-August which coincide

with the application of fertilizers, the concentration levels are found to be

very high22


The harmful effect of the excessive use of pesticides and chemical

fertilizers are various. Water pollution adversely affects the entire aquatic

life. Weed killers and pesticides very often kill fish, frog, water snakes and

other aquatic fauna. Water birds like cranes, ducks and kites which feed on

dead fish and frog are the next victims. In December - January and

February people in Kuttanad generally avoid fresh water fish and switch

over to sea fish. Naturally, this adversely affects the life of people who

depend on fresh water fishing.

Excessive use of pesticides and insecticides indirectly affects the

bovine wealth of Kuttanad. Straw, which used to be the major food of

domestic animals in the past, is not very dependable anymore. Cases of the

death of animals due to poisoning have been reported. The old practice of

letting buffaloes and cows loose into the paddy fields immediately after

harvest no longer exists. People wait for rains, which wash away part of

the poison from straw and grass. Veterinary doctors have reported that

scarcity of fresh water has caused several diseases to the domestic animals.

The increasing price of fodder is partly responsible for the decline in the

livestock population in Kuttanad.

c). Discharge of Industrial Waste Water

Industrialization, though at a slow pace, is one of the major causes

of water pollution in Kuttanad. The fact is that environmental specificities

of Kuttanad are against any aggressive industrialization programme.


However, both modern and traditional industrial units have been set up in

various parts of Kuttanad and on the banks of rivers flowing through

Kuttanad. Among traditional industries, coir is a major source of pollution.

The process of fiber extraction from coconut husk, known as retting is a

major source of water pollution. Coconut husk is allowed to decay by

soaking it in water for a few months. This process gives rise to large

quantities of hydrogen- sulphide and organic acids. Among modern

industries, rubber based industries, distilleries, sugar mills, pulp and paper

mills, dairying, chemicals and fertilizers cause maximum water pollution.

The waste water generated by these industries is not always treated. The

dumping of effluents into aquatic bodies seriously affects its flora, fauna

and biotic compounds. The major effort of toxic discharges on aquatic

organisms and water quality causes fish death and contamination of fresh

water by heavy metals, pesticides and organic materials. Almost all rivers

which flow through the Kuttanad is highly polluted by bio-degradable

organic waste of industrial origin.

3.B.1.4. Air pollution

There is a widely held notion that air pollution is a serious problem

in urban centres only. This is not entirely correct. It is true that in the

present day world two primary sources of atmospheric pollution are

industrial enterprises and automobiles. The accumulation of waste gases

and particles from combustion, production and other economic activities


exceeds the natural dispersion capacity of the atmosphere. Deteriorating

air quality has important consequences on human beings, animals, flora

and fauna properties and climate at Kuttanad. It has been well established

that fungus, bacteria, viruses, algae and insects pollute the air. Burning of

bio-gas like firewood and cowdung fuel causes indoor air pollution in

settlements of the poor who have to inhale air, surcharged with smoke and

fumes, that the burning of bio-mass cause. Women, who do cooking and

prepare hot water for the family members, are the victims of such

pollution. In Kuttanad, the use of firewood and cowdung is higher than in

other parts of Kerala.

3.B.1.5. Pollution Due to Solid Waste

Compared to other parts of urban India, pollution caused by solid

waste may not be a serious problem in Kuttanad. Solid waste consists of

the discarded items of households, dead animals, industrial and agricultural

wastes and other large wastes like debris from construction sites,

automobiles, furniture etc. In Kuttanad the problem is the manner in which

solid waste is disposed off. It is observed that in Kuttanad solid wastes are

disposed off by the crude dumping method without any formal regulations

or control allowing unrestricted scavenging and uncontrolled burning of

combustible components. Generally, waste is dumped in fish ponds, in low

lying lands, near water ways or seashore. Almost 45 percent of the rural

population of Kuttanad has no proper sanitation facilities. Open air


squatting by the people lead to air, water and soil pollution. Solid wastes

are used by people for land filling. When carried out without adequate

precaution, the solid wastes get submerged in water and this leads to

contamination of surface and ground water. Flies, rodents and scavenging

birds add to the problems. Sometimes incineration is resorted to, which

causes air pollution and withdrawal of organic matter from bio-cycle. In

Kuttanad large quantity of garbage, along with building and road

construction rubbish and earth, passes into water and sewage lines. Water

tourism is adding more pollution, either as solid waste or as fuel,

contamination.

3.B.1.6. Thermal pollution

Thermal pollution is the discharge of unwanted heat energy into rivers

and lakes by various industrial processes. The various industrial processes

like coir factories, rice factories, husk retting and so on utilize water for

cooling and discharge the remnant of warm water into rivers and lakes.

Evidences suggest that thermal pollution is conducive to the growth of green

algae and increases bacterial multiplication rate which affects fish life.

Thermal pollution adversely affects the quality of water and aquatic

life. The capacity to withstand changes in temperature varies between

different types of fish. Rapid and sudden changes in temperature are likely

to cause thermal shock and have fatal effects on the aquatic life. Since the

water bodies in Kuttanad already contain chemical pollutants, the extra


warmth generated by thermal pollution will enhance to toxicity. As the

level of population increases and the demand for energy goes up, the

problem of thermal pollution is bound to become more acute.

3.B.1.7. Soil Pollution

A number of factors are responsible for soil pollution. The soil in

Kuttanad has a certain level of acidity due to the presence of decayed organic

matter under top soil. Cultivators used to neutralize the acidity by applying

lime (alkali) in the soil. The tidal action helps to neutralize various residues to

flow out of the fields. As the Thanneermukkom barrier has prevented the tidal

movement of water, the acidic materials remain in the field.

Another source of soil pollution is the intense use of pesticides and

chemical fertilizers. Though chemical fertilizers result in sudden increase

in production, it is rarely sustainable. It will necessitate application of

more fertilizers and a point will be reached when the soil fails to respond to

fertilizers at all. The experiences of several countries have proved this

beyond doubt. As for pesticides and insecticides, two consequences follow:

First, the increased use of them gives rise to the generation of pests and

insects resistant to them. In Kuttanad, farmers increasingly observe that

pesticides like DDT are no longer effective. Second, pesticides and

insecticides enter the food chain and ultimately produce long term side

effects to human body. Another source of soil pollution is discarded non-

biodegradable waste materials like pieces of glass, tin polythene bags etc.


The presence of these items adversely affects the long term fertility and

productivity of soil. Soil in Kuttanad is increasingly becoming a victim of

various forms of pollution.

3.B.2 Impact of Environmental Problems on Human Health and Well

Being.

The environmental problems outlined above have caused serious

health hazards to the people of Kuttanad. Various studies have revealed

the poor quality of water in Kuttanad. Since drinking water is not available

in Kuttanad, people are forced to use well water which is contaminated

with the residues of fertilizers and pesticides. Since water level is high in

most parts of Kuttanad, the possibility of surface water entering the wells

cannot be ruled out. The high incidence of water borne diseases like

diarrhoea and dysentery testifies to the poor quality of water. The presence

of e-coli bacteria in water also points towards the poor state of affairs of

sanitation. Sample surveys have revealed that only less than a quarter of

the houses in Kuttanad have latrines. It may be noted that due to the high

water level and loose soil, construction of sanitary toilets is a costly

proposition in Kuttanad and therefore, it is not a priority item for majority

of the people. It has been reported that 55 percent of the diseases in

Kuttanad are intestinal which are caused by the re-entry of organisms into

the human body through excreta. Other diseases commonly observed in

Kuttanad are typhoid, jaundice, anemia and scabies.


Interaction with people of the region revealed that the incidence of

such diseases has gone up after the construction of Thanneermukkom

barrier. The health institutions also reported a higher incidence of these

diseases in recent times. The outbreak of Japanese B Encephalitis is linked

to the changes in the environmental structures. The changes in salinity and

flood condition brought about by the Thanneermukkom barrier and

Thottappally spillway are responsible for the vector to breed and grow and

finally to transmit the virus.23

About 10 percent of the total population of Alleppey district suffers

from filarias, a disease transmitted by mosquitoes. The high level of water

pollution and presence of salvinia and water hyacinth are partly responsible

for this.

The general level of living standards of low income families has

declined over the years. Traditional occupations like inland fishing, lime-

shell collection and coir defibering have been adversely affected by the

changes in environment. Though the wage rate of agricultural labourers has

increased, the number of days of employment available has decreased

sharply. This has affected the intake of food of low income families. A

sample study on the level of nutrition deficiency in Kuttanad found that the

average intake of energy was only 66 percent of the requisite minimum of

2200 calories per capita per day. This is against the high energy


requirements for the arduous farming operation in the particular context of

Kuttanad. The incidence of under nutrition and malnutrition is a reflection

of the very low level of income which in turn is due to inadequate

employment opportunities.

3.B.3 Major Problems of the Region

The major problems of Kuttanad are discussed under the following

heads;

a). Uncertainty of Agricultural output

Though there is modernization of agriculture, the farmers still

depend on nature’s blessing to get a better crop. The man- made

constructions could restrict the nature’s hazards very little. Hence,

uncertainty of getting better harvest is still prevailing in this region.

b). Transportation

As the place is full of rivers, canals and small waterways, the better

mode of transportation in this region is water transportation. The persons

having stable income have their own boats for transporting men and

materials. The common and poor people fully depend on state water

transport department.

c). Dewatering

While water is pumped into agriculture farms all over the world for

better crop, water is pumped out from the farms in Kuttanad for cultivation.


The Government is also sparing sizeable money every year as subsidy

towards the pumping.

d). Power Requirements

Since electric power lines have reached most of the places, the

farmers have replaced a good number of oil pumps to electric pumps. But

due to frequent power cuts, the farmers are in difficulty to dewater the

expected quantity in time.

e). Poor Infrastructure

Because of the poor infrastructure for the basic minimum needs

required for the quality of life of the inhabitants, the miseries are critical in

nature. Even the modes of transportation, drinking water supply, sanitation

and so on are underdeveloped pathetically.

f). The Ecological Imbalance

The ecological imbalance on account of the indiscriminate

technological intervention, has led scientists, economists and leaders

seriously reappraise the basic assumptions of the Kuttanad development.

Now it is felt that there is a need for direct involvement of the people at

grassroots level in the project formulation and implementation for the

integrated and sustainable development of the region.


g). Inclement weather

Weather has an all pervading influence on the plants, and rice is not

an exception. Agricultural operations are to be synchronized with climatic

conditions. Farmers must watch changes in climatic conditions and

regulate their operations accordingly. Monsoon will bring flood waters.

Pumping can be started only after monsoon rains and the water level

become normal. If the outer bund of the big farms breaches and gets water

in the sowing and all subsequent operations will be delayed for more than a

month. Delay in sowing leads to more chances of attack of insects.

Insecticides will have to be sprayed to combat with disease resulting in

increased cost of inputs.

h). Non Availability of Quality seeds

Quality of seeds will affect the yield. If the power of resistance is

low, the expenses of insecticide will be more. Plants grown from seeds

brought from other regions of the country will not be able to adapt

themselves to the changed conditions.

i). Labour Problems

Sufficient labour to carry out agricultural operations is not available.

Harvesting is seriously affected by the shortage of farm hands. Though

harvesting machines are available, trade unions resist the use of machinery.

Dispute over wages is raised every year without suitable rise in price of

agricultural produce.


j). Instability of Crops

Destruction of crops due to untimely rainfall, excessive rainfall,

attack of insects and so on is very common. Unless an entire area is

affected and declared as affected, compensation for destruction of crop will

not be given to farmers.

k). Financial Problems

Lack of financial support is another problem. Farmers of Kuttanad

rely on co-operatives and money lenders for finance. Finance will be

provided on surety of land. Only real owners of the land will get such

loans. Most of the farmers hire land for cultivation. Hence, they have to

depend local money lenders for finance, with high interests.

l). Problems of Marketing

As soon as marketing starts, price of paddy falls by not less than

Rs.100 per quintal. Buyers know that the average farmers will not be able

to postpone the sale of paddy because they will have to repay the loans

immediately and that they have no granary to store the grains. Persuaded

by the government, some co-operatives have started purchasing paddy at

prices fixed by the Government.

m). High Production Cost

Cost of inputs is always increasing without proportional increase in

the price of paddy. Price of seeds, fertilizers, insecticides and labour


charges are increasing every year. But the price of paddy decreases during

the harvesting season. Only affluent farmers are able to store the grains for

sale when the prices increase.

Kuttanad has its own distinct and multifarious problems like

depletion of natural resources, damages to agriculture and fishing industry,

water pollution, paucity of drinking water, intrusion of salt water, flood,

health, obstruction to navigation and so on, which are inherent in the

system.

The Kuttanad region has an age old history with unique geographical

configuration. The region is bestowed with several rivers and lakes.

Agriculture is the main occupation of the people in this area. In addition to

this, certain economic activities like fish farming, duck rearing, and

cultivation of commercial crops and so on are carried on a large scale. This

region has a vital role in the rice production of the state. Unfortunately, this

region is suffering from various environmental and other problems, which are

discussed in the forgoing section. Hence, both government and non-

Governmental organizations are initiating many steps for the development of

the region. So further effort is made in the next chapter to explore various

developmental projects of Kuttanad, meant for the sustainable development of

the region.


Reference

1. Menon, A,G,G. (1990). ‘Five Decades of Rice Research’, Kerala

Agricultural University, Vellanikkara, Thrissur.

2. Eswaran. (1990). ‘Re-emergence of Land Leasing in Kerala, The

case of Kuttanad’, Social Sceintist Vol. 18, P.11-12

3. Francis, K. (1990). ‘Dynamics of Rural Labour Markets - An

analysis of Emerging Agricultural Labour Shortage in a Kerala

Region’, M. Phil Dissertation, Centre for Development studies,

Thiruvananthapuram.

4. Government of Kerala. (1978). ‘Report of the High Power Committee

on Comprehensive Development of Kuttanad’, Thiruvananthapuram,

P.6.

5. Ibid

6. Pillai, V, R and Panicker, P,G,K. (1965). “Land Reclamation in

Kerala”, Hindustan Publishing House, New Delhi.

7. Government of Kerala. (1954). ‘Kuttanad Development scheme’

Thiruvananthapuram.

8. Government of Kerala. (1978). ‘Report of the High Power

Committee on Comprehensive Development of Kuttanad’,

Thiruvananthapuram.


9. Ommen M, A. (1971). ‘Land Reforms and Socio-Economic Change

in Kerala’, Christian Literature Service, Madras.

10. Unni, Jeemol. (1981). ‘An Analysis of change in the cropping

pattern in Kerala with particular reference to the substitution of

coconut for Rice, 1960-61 to 1978-79’, M-Phil Dissertation, Centre

for Development studies, Thiruvananthapuram.

11. Government of Kerala. (1974). ‘Kuttanad Development Scheme’,

Thiruvananthapuram.

12. Kerala Sasthra Sahitya Parishad. (1978). ‘Report of the study team

of Kuttanad’, Thiruvananthapuram.

13. Nair, K, R. (1995). ‘Ecology and Health’, Ashirwad Publishers,

New Delhi, P.85.

14. Nair K, R, Op.cit., P.89.

15. Nair, K. R, op.cit., P.90

16. Nair, K, R, Op. cit., P.93.

17. Indian Institute of Regional Development Studies. (1978). ‘Report

on Kuttanad: Problems and Prospects’, Kottayam.

18. Government of Kerala. (1989). ‘Final Report on Kuttanad Water

Balance Study’, Thiruvananthapuram.

19. Op. cit., P.15.


20. Government of Kerala. (1954). ‘Kuttanad Development Scheme’,

Thiruvananthapuram P. 29.

21. Government of Kerala.(1989). ‘Final Report on Kuttanad Water

Balance Study’, Thiruvananthapuram.

22. Government of Kerala.(1989). ‘Final Report on Kuttanad Water

Balance Study’, Thiruvananthapuram .P12-13.

23. Mathew, K, J. (1978). ‘Health Problems of Kuttanad’, Kerala

Medical Journal Vol. 18, P.3.

Chapter IV

The Developmental

Projects of Kuttanad

Contents

4.1. Puncha Special Office ....................................................................... 96

4.2. The Intensive Agricultural District Programme ............................. 103

4.3. Specific Projects .............................................................................. 107

SECTION A

4.3.A.1 Spillway at Thottappally ......................................................... 110

4.3.A.2 Regulator at Thaneermukkam ........................................... 110

4.3.A.3 River Diversion ................................................................. 111

4.3.A.4 Thrikkunnappuzha Lock ................................................... 113

4.3.A.5 Permanent Bunds .............................................................. 113

4.3.A.6 River Dams ....................................................................... 114

4.3.A.7 Twenty four kms long link road between Alappuzha

and Changanacherry .......................................................... 114

SECTION B

4.3.B Impact of Developmental Projects ....................................... 115

4.4. Kuttanad Development Schemes .................................................... 124

4.4.1 Improvements to approach channels of Thottappally

Spill-way .................................................................................... 126

4.4.2 Ambalappuzha Edathua Road ............................................. 126

4.4.3. Implementation of a Recent Land Development Project ..... 126

4.4.4 Measures for strengthening the Ecological security of

the Kuttanad-Report Summary of M. S. Swaminathan

Commission ................................................................................ 130

4.5 Environmental Laws and Pollution Control ................................... 138

Reference ........................................................................................ 149

THE DEVELOPMENTAL PROJECTS OF KUTTANAD

A comprehensive and long term developmental programme for

Kuttanad area, consistent with its socio-economic goals and ecological

balance, has been under consideration of Government for long. To increase

agricultural productivity, by minimizing cost and risk of cultivation,

regulating soil acidity, saline water intrusion and other water shed

management measures and to promote, support and strengthen the

developmental activities of panchayats of this region, the state government

has put forward many conscious efforts. The following is a review of some

of the activities of the Government, planned and implemented, as solutions

for the unique problems of Kuttanad. They can be discussed under the

following heads;

4.1. Puncha Special Office

4.2. The Intensive Agricultural District Programme

4.3. Specific Projects

4.4. Kuttanad Development Schemes

4.5. Environmental Laws and Pollution Control

The Developmental Projects of Kuttanad 96

4.1. Puncha Special Office

Puncha Special Office, Alappuzha is functioning from 1957 onwards

with its head quarters at Alappuzha. The main duties of the Puncha Special

Officer are to provide for facilitating the execution of certain works connected

with irrigation, flood control, drainage for the purposes of agriculture to be

done by the joint financing of cultivators and Government. The total number

of padasekharam under the jurisdiction of Puncha Special Officer, Alappuzha

is 845. Later the jurisdiction of Puncha Special Office of Alappuzha has been

divided into two and a new office has been established at Kottayam, for the

easy disposal of the complaints of farmers.

Puncha Special Officers are having control over few paddy fields

also, which are not included in Kuttanad region. All the paddy fields

which are flooded with water in rainy season and only one crop is raising

during the summer season, comes under the purview of Puncha Special

Officers. Altogether an extent of 95703 acres of paddy field, comprised in

782 padasekharams, are raising puncha crop and an extent of 8386 acres

of kari land, comprised in 62 paddy fields, are also available in upper

Kuttanad area. 782 padasekharam spread over the following taluks,

Kuttanad, Ampalappuzha, Cherthala, Chengannur, Mavelikara and

Karthikapally taluks in Alappuzha districts, Thiruvalla taluk in

Pathanamthitta district and Kottayam, Changanacherry and Vaikom taluks

in Kottayam district1. The following are the main duties of the office;


4.1.1 Dewatering of Padasekharams;

4.1.2 Construction and Repair of Bunds;

4.1.3 Settlement of Disputes;

4.1.4 Collection of Nerma;

4.1.5. Distribution of Pumping Subsidy;

4.1.6 Collection of Electric Current Charges.

4.1.1 Dewatering of Padasekharams

Dewatering of padasekharams in Kuttanad area is arranged in three

ways. They are;

a) Dewatering work arranged through Puncha Special Office;

b) Dewatering work arranged by the cultivators themselves by

executing an ‘Udampady’ (agreement) with an individual;

c) Dewatering work done by the cultivators themselves by using their

own engines or motors.

a) Dewatering work arranged through the Puncha Special Office: - As

the Padasekharams will be completely sub merged in water, no single

cultivator can dewater his field alone. This is an operation which has to be

done at the joint cost of labour of all the cultivators. In most cases, it may

not be possible, to enlist the co-operation of all the cultivators or to get

their express consent in this matter. Hence, it became necessary for the


Puncha Special Office, to arrange it. These functions are done under the

Kerala irrigation works, executed by Joint Labour Act. The Act authorizes

the Puncha Special Officer to arrange the work on the application of a

reasonable number of cultivators.

The Puncha season begins by the middle of August and extends up

to the middle of December. Ordinarily, the pumping operation in the

padasekharam takes about 5 to 30 days. This depends mainly upon the area

and the depth of water to be bailed out. The pumping operations

commence first in the Kayal padasekharams and then in the

padasekharams in the bund area. The work is done last in the

padasekharam which lie in the upper reaches of the rivers as in the case of

padasekharams in the taluks of Mavelikara, Chenganoor and Thiruvalla.

Ordinarily, the applications from the cultivators to arrange dewatering

work are received in the office from the first week of June. The meetings of

cultivators to arrange dewatering work are held from the 2nd week of July.

Notifications regarding meetings of the cultivators to arrange dewatering

work, are published in Malayalam dailies and circulated in the area where

the padesekharams are situated. It should be noted that the works such as

repair of bunds, construction of engine beds, maintenance of drainage

canals, which are necessary for the proper execution of the dewatering

work are also arranged at the meeting.


On the notified date, the meeting of the cultivators is convened by

Puncha Special Officer or by the Assistant to the Puncha Special Officer

for arranging the dewatering work. During the meeting the names of the

cultivators present are recorded. Then proceedings for arranging the

dewatering work are drawn up by the officer after discussion with the

cultivators. The various terms of the contract are discussed among the

cultivators and decisions with regard to them are taken according to the

opinion of the majority of the cultivators. After the terms are discussed the

meeting elects padasekharam committee for the year. The number of

members in the committee varies from 3 to 9 according to the extent of the

padasekharam and the decisions of the cultivators. The main functions of

this committee are to see that the contractor does his work according to the

terms of the contract of the committee and to issue a certificate to the

contractor on the completion of the work. The committee takes an active

role in the proper cultivation of the padasekharam. The majority of the

cultivators are of the opinion that the work of dewatering shall be entrusted

to a particular individual, or other wise, the work is auctioned.

b) Dewatering by Executing an Udampady

In many cases, the cultivators arrange dewatering of their

Padasekharams by executing in an Udampady with a contractor. In such

cases the Udampadies are produced before the Puncha Special Officer for

verification and approval. For the purpose of claiming subsidy, the


Udampady has to be produced before the officer on or before the date

notified by the government in accordance with the rules for the payment of

subsidy which are framed every year.

c) Dewatering Work by Cultivators.

There are a number of cases in which cultivators use their own

engines or motors for dewatering their fields. In such cases, the question of

collecting ‘Nerma’ does not arise. However, to entitle them to claim

subsidy, they are under the subsidy payment rules, liable to inform the

Puncha Special Office in writing with regard to the installation of the

engine or motor with in 45 days of its installation.

4.1.2. Construction and Repair of Bunds

Dewatering is possible after ring bunds are properly repaired. At the

meeting of the cultivators, which is held to arrange the dewatering work,

decisions are also usually taken with regard to the repair of outer bunds. If

any cultivator defaults to do his portion of work, it is got executed

according to the decision taken at the meeting. In getting the work done,

the procedure laid-down in Kerala Irrigation Works (Execution by Joint

Labour) Act is being followed. The cost of such work is recovered from the

defaulter under the Revenue Act. According to the customary practice

available in Kuttanad every cultivator is bound to maintain and repair that

portion of the outer bund which stands on or touching his field, irrespective

of the area possessed by him. If any cultivator fails to do it under the


provisions of the Act, any other cultivator can do it after issuing a notice to

the defaulter under the Revenue Recovery Act, through the Puncha Special

Officer. The same procedure is followed with regard to cases in which any

defect or weakness is noticed in any portion of the bund.

4.1.3 Settlement of Disputes

A number of disputes arise among the cultivators or inter the

cultivators contractors’. In the former case, the dispute is mainly related to

drainage and irrigation problems arising as a result of non-cooperation and

lack of understanding among the cultivators. These disputes are settled by

conferences and negotiations. This is one of the most important functions of

the Puncha Special Officer during the cultivation season. The number of

disputes that will have to be handled is very large. It should be borne in mind

that it is essential to settle the disputes very quickly with much tact and

resourcefulness on that part of the officers who deal with these questions.

The disputes that arise between cultivators and contractors are also many in

numbers. These arise out of failure on the part of the contractor to discharge

the work according to the terms of the contract. On the spot enquiries are

made, if not serious could be settled by the Village Officers and appropriate

actions are taken. Most of the disputes which are not serious could be settled

by the Village Officer by mediation.


4.1.4. Collection of Nerma

Dewatering charge is locally known as ‘Nerma’. Even though it has

been made incumbent upon the cultivators to pay nerma so as to become

entitled to get subsidy, number of cultivators try to avoid payment of

nerma even at the risk of losing the subsidy. In all such cases, prompt

action has to be taken by the Puncha Special Officer, on the applications of

the contractor to collect the nerma under ‘Revenue Recovery Act’.

According to the sanction of the Puncha Special Officer, steps under

Revenue Recovery Act are pursued by Village Officer, as far as possible,

against the year’s crop itself. A number of disputes also arise every year

between the contractor and the cultivators with regard to the payment of

nerma. The Puncha Special Officer settles such disputes after getting

reports of the Village Officers hearing both the parties. Local inspections

and enquiries are also made by the officer in charge where it is deemed

necessary. After hearing both sides, appropriate orders are passed with

regard to nerma.

4.1.5. Distribution of pumping subsidy

Pumping subsidy is given to cultivators of Kuttanad area by the

Puncha Special Officer. The subsidy is given as a portion of the

expenditure incurred by the cultivator in dewatering the field. The payment

of subsidy is regulated by the subsidy payment rules issued from time to

time by the government.


4.1.6. Collection of Electric Current Charges

The Puncha Special Office issues certificates showing the liability

of the contractor to the electric department. According to these

certificates, electric connections for pumping operations will be given to

the contractor. The Village Officers keep a register of defaulters of

current charges in respect of each village. The realization of the

outstanding amounts is effected by the Village Officers under Revenue

Recovery Act. The sanction is given by the Puncha Special Officers who

are vested with the power of a Tahsildar under Revenue Recovery Act.

Electric current dues are received by the Village Officers attached to the

office. Receipts are issued by them to the parties, no amount is received

in the office directly.

4.2. The Intensive Agricultural District Programme

The inauguration of the Intensive Agricultural District Programme,

popularly known as the package programme, in the Alappuzha District in

1960 - 61 had paved the way for substantial progress in Kuttanad agriculture.

On the invitation of the Government of India, a team of agricultural experts

from Ford Foundation visited India in 1959. After a detailed study of the

agricultural problems in the country, they made certain recommendations to

the Government in their report, “India’s Food Crisis & How to solve it”. They

concluded that the main problem concerning agriculture in India was to

concentrate our limited resources in selected area having the potentialities for


a rapid increase in production, such as an assured water supply, minimum

natural hazards, comparatively well developed village institution and so on.

Based on the recommendation of the experts, the Government of India

launched a programme in the country in 1962.2

For the implementation of the programme, a set of districts

(generally one district from each state) was selected where pilot projects

were initiated. As a special case, considering the acute deficit in food-

grains, Palakkad and Alappuzha districts were selected in Kerala under the

programme. As has been said, it was expected that striking increase in

production could be achieved by concentrating attention in selected areas

by providing all requisites to increase agricultural production in these

areas, rather than by diffusing the available resources in larger areas. The

programme was envisaged for five years in the first instance and to cover

all food crops and important cash crops in each district, with special

emphasis on the food crops and evolved a ten point programme to achieve

the objectives of the programme.

The operational part of the programme involved preparation of farm

production plans, making the production inputs available in time and

places, with in easy reach of the farmers and also supplying the

requirements of agricultural credit. In this connection, village institutions

like Panchayats and Cooperatives play a crucial role.


The seventeen development blocks in Alappuzha District were the

focus points for implementation of the programme. The programme was

not taken up simultaneously in all these blocks. The implementation was

done in stages as it was limited to five blocks each in the three years of

1961-62, 1962-63 and 1963-64 and the rest of the two blocks was taken up

in 1964-65.3

A ten point programme was evolved to achieve the objectives of the

programme, to state briefly, they are: (1)Adequate supply of credit through

service co-operatives, (2)Adequate supply of fertilizers and pesticides.

(3) Price-incentives for the produce through assured prices. (4) Providing

ample marketing facilities to cultivation.(5) Providing timely educational

and technical assistance enabling the farmers to adopt improved techniques

of farming. (6) Individual farm planning. (7) Village planning for increased

production. (8) Improvement of infrastructure. (9) Periodical evaluation of

the results of the programme. (10) Co-ordination of all resources of the

central and state governments for carrying out the programme effectively.

As a result of the programme, the cultivators in Kuttanad have

become more and more conscious of the benefits derived from the

application of balanced fertilizers. This is reflected in the off take of

chemical fertilizers for in Alappuzha District. The programme also

envisaged keen interest in the control of various pests and diseases,


affecting the paddy crops in Kuttanad. Plant protection equipment and

materials are stocked in adequate quantities in depots for timely use.

Prophylactic treatment of seeds and crops on area basis to ward off the

attack of pests and diseases are adopted. Besides, plant protection

campaign, with an aim to popularize the operations among the cultivators,

was also being conducted during the crop season.

An agricultural implements workshop was established under the

programme in 1965 with a view to fabricating, popularizing and

demonstrating improved implements as well as imparting training to

village artisans and farmers. A soil testing laboratory for analyzing soil

samples was also established in 1966. In order to store the food-grains

properly, about 100 go downs have already been set up in the district under

this programme.

For the dissemination of information among the cultivators, an

Agricultural Information Unit was set up even from the beginning of the

programme. Leaflets, pamphlets and posters were produced, printed and

distributed by the units. Two film units attached to it are intended for

conducting film shows in the villages.

Improved seed programme is an important activity under the

package programme, which was started initially to accelerate the growth

rate of the agricultural production. The requirement for improved seeds


was assessed and the programme chalked out to produce the required

quantity from nucleus seed and certified these specific schemes for

production and distribution of foundation seeds by opening new farms and

multiplication of foundation seeds through registered growers were

organized.

A scheme under the programme viz, Kayal Reclamation Scheme

was taken up. The Kayamkulam kayal in the Muthukulam Block was

selected for this and considerable portion of the area has already been

reclaimed for paddy cultivation. Thus, the programme could render

considerable encouragement and assistance to Kuttanad cultivation, though

much work has to be done to achieve the objectives set forth in the ten

point programme.

4.3. Specific Projects

The specific project undertaken by Government is discussed under

two sections; Section A and Section B. Section A explains the specific

projects and Section B gives the impact of these specific projects.

SECTION A

The development of Kuttanad is to be considered separately due to

the identity of the agro climatic zone and variations in the problem of the

region, when compared to the remaining portion of the Alappuzha district.

Though agricultural development projects help to increase agricultural


production, but also interfere with the environment. Such interferences are

bound to have external effects directly on the lives of the people of their

‘command areas’ both in the short term and long term. Such externalities

need not, be always beneficial. Here is an attempt to examine and analyse

the nature of externalities, most of which are diseconomies of various

water control projects, designed to increase the agricultural production in

the intensely exploited waterlogged region in Kerala. Pre-occupation with

technical aspects to the exclusion of the broader economic, social and

environmental factors and the institutional constraints in the formation and

execution of the projects seems to have given rise to effect, adverse and

mostly unforeseen.

In Kuttanad, the area below sea-level is annually subjected to severe

floods during both the monsoon periods by water drained by four rivers.

Here, about 80sq.Km comprises the Vembanad Lake and the various water

courses including rivers and man-made canals. The high density of

population in the area and from the moderate to high-rates of growth,

conditions of near-stagnation in the non-agricultural sector and the absence

of any basic institutional changes remain the major features of the economy

of this region. On this background, the impact of the major water control

projects implemented in Kuttanad, for the purpose of agricultural

development is examined.


Efforts to develop Kuttanad as a rice growing area began more than

a century ago. Since the flood water carries a large volume of fertile silt, it

was recognized quite early that if the flood waters were effectively

regulated, much of the low-lying land could be used to grow a rich crop. In

the early phases, reclamation of land and flood control work were largely

undertaken at the initiative of private farmers with the active assistance of

the state. Though the area so reclaimed steadily increased, almost all of it

was used to grow only one crop of paddy a year. In the 1930’s, faced with

severe shortage of rice, the then Government of Travancore explored the

possibilities of raising the crops of paddy in the reclaimed lands. The

studies made then identified the speedy drainage of the flood during the

northeast monsoon season and the prevention of saline water intrusion

during the summer months into the Vembanad Lake as the preconditions

for intensifying paddy cultivation in the region. The projects however were

given concrete shape later and consisted of;

4.3.A.1 Spillway at Thottappally, which was eventually commissioned in

1955, meant to drain-off flood waters;

4.3.A.2 Regulator at Thaneermukkam was meant to check the intrusion of

saline water;

4.3.A.3 River Diversion;

4.3.A.4 Thrikkunnappuzha Lock;


4.3.A.5 Permanent Bunds;

4.3.A.6 River Dams;

4.3.A.7 Twenty four kms long link road between Alappuzha and

Changanacherry.

4.3.A.1 Thottappally Spill way

The Government of Travancore started the search for a permanent

solution to the problem of flood in Kuttanad as early as 1934. In 1937, the

Government commissioned two Italian engineers, suggested the cutting

open of a flood way channel from the Vembanad lake at Aryad, just north

of Alappuzha,to the sea. Two years later, the executive engineer of

irrigation division, suggested the construction of a spill way at

Thottappally, the extreme south end of the flood limit in Kuttanad, to

curtail the flood. The spill way consists of 40 steel regulators and a spill

way channel of 4300 feet long and 1200 feet wide. It is envisaged that

19500 cubic meter water can be drained out through the spill way in a

second but at present, the actual flow is 600 cubic meter per second is

persuaded.4

4.3.A.2. Thaneermukkom Salt Water Barrier

The salt water barrier at Thanneermukkom was envisaged to solve the

problem of saline water intrusion from the sea through Vembanad lake during

summer. It consists of 4500 feet long and a height of 3 feet above the high level


bund connecting Thanneermukkom and Vechoor. Two parallel rows of rubble

dumped walls are built and the space in between is filled with earth.

Provision is made for letting off the flood waters carried by the Meenachil

River through 430 steel shuttered gates on the barrage. There is a 40 feet

wide road running over the barrier with bridges over the locks. The

construction of the regulator had been started in 1955, though incomplete,

commissioned by the end of 1974.5

The salt water intrusion and concentration in the lake area south of

Thanneermukkom bund also depends on the lean season water flow in the

four rivers. Augmentation of this water flow is important for the regulation

of salt water concentration and to prevent salinity in upper regions of the

river system. The salt water barrier was found to be feasible and

Thanneermukkom was located as a suitable site for it on technical as well

as economic grounds. All the puncha fields of Kuttanad which need

protection from salinity, the south of Thanneermukkom, while much of the

flourishing fishing industry, which would suffer by the prevention of tidal

diffusion, is concentrated to the north of it. There is a sufficiently large area

of blackish waters for the coir industry in and around Vaikom to ret the

required husk.

4.3.A.3. River Diversion

Lack of fresh water for irrigation and domestic purpose during the

dry season is a major problem in Kuttanad. Low flow augmentation in


summer could be achieved by diverting the head waters of rivers which do

not flow through the area. In the past, this has been studied, for example, in

connection with the Muvattupuzha river which flows into the Cochin

estuary, north of Thannermukkom. In this scheme some of the frail waters

of the Idukki hydro-power project would be diverted into the Vembanad

lake, south of Thannermukkom. The additional fresh water supply would

compensate for the loss of water from the lake during the dry season due to

evaporation and water removal for irrigation. This supply would also help

to prevent salt water intrusion.

During dry season, water inflows into the Kuttanad are inadequate

and hence the largest new water user upstream is the Pampa Irrigation

Project completed in 1989. Usually, dry season inflows and agriculture

water need to vary from year to year, according to rainfall and other

climatological factors.

Two measures were identified to improve the situation for

agriculture in the dry season. The first measure was the operation of the

Sabarigiri hydro-electric project located in upper reaches of the Pampa

River. Release from this could be attuned more to the pattern of irrigation,

water requirements and downstream. The measure arrested the decline in

cropping intensity as a result of increased diversions of upstream. The

second measure is to divert part of the discharge into the Muvattupuzha


River, which is fed by releases from the Idukki project and presently flow

into the sea. This diversion helped to eliminate the dry season water

shortage in Kuttanad. The water is diverted through existing water ways in

the Vaikom area and along the eastern shore of the Cochin lagoon to the

Thannermukkom barrier. A lake was constructed in the lagoon to form a

fresh water basin isolated from the saline water out side. The water quality

is slightly improved in normal years and significantly in dry years.

Drinking and domestic water supply was provided from surface water to

every household. The Kayamkulam Thermal Power Station (NTPC) takes

cooling water from the lower Achenkovil and discharges it into the sea.

There was some increase in water supply due to return flow from the

Kallada irrigation project constructed to the South of the Kuttanad and the

hydro-construction upstream of the Kuttanad.

4.3.A.4 Thrikkunnappuzha Lock

Salt water intrusion in upper Kuttanad through one of the main

canals at Thrikkunnapuzha is prevented by a lock. In addition, some of the

minor water ways are closed with temporary bunds during dry season.

4.3.A.5 Permanent Bunds

A scheme was drawn up in 1974 for the construction of permanent,

but submersible, bunds to protect 52,000 hectares of paddy field. This

project was launched to solve the problem of flooding of the fields due to

breaches in the temporary bunds during the north east monsoons.6


4.3.A.6. River Dams

Several river dams have already been built or are under construction

to create multi-purpose reservoirs (flood control, hydro power and water

storage).Among the projects proposed, there are schemes for irrigation and

for augmenting dry season flow in the Meenachil River and a multi

purpose project on the Pampa River for augmenting the hydro electric

supply and also the water supply to Kuttanad.

4.3.A.7. Alappuzha- Changanacherry Road.

The third project sponsored by the Government is the construction

of the Alappuzha-Changanacherry road. Kuttanad is crisscrossed with

innumerable natural and artificial water ways giving access to every part of

the region through country boats and motorized boats, both big and small.

Apart from the advantage of accessibility, the water transport system is

also cheap. However, the system has the disadvantage of lack of speed.

Road transport was the quicker and hence, the more efficient. Therefore, a

project for the construction of 24 km long road running east to west linking

two major towns,Alappuzha and Changanacherry, was started in the early

50’s. This twelve meter wide road constructed above the flood level serves

as the barrier to free movement of flood waters from the upper Kuttanad to

the lower Kuttanad, an area worst affected by flood. Construction of this

road seems to have aggravated the flood problems in the part of the region

lying south of the road.


SECTION B

4.3.B Impact of Developmental Projects

4.3.B.1 Spillway at Thottappally

Thottappally Spillway, completed in 1955, was built in the south to

divert flood waters of the Pampa, Manimala and Achenkovil rivers directly

to the sea. The intention was to limit flood levels below the bunds’ level.

Although the principle of the solution was correct, the capacity of the

scheme turned out to be insufficient, partly because the channel leading the

spillway was not constructed as wide as planned. Consequently spillway’s

performance falls far short of the requirements.

When the spillway was commissioned in 1955, it was noticed that it

could not discharge more than one third (20,000 cubics) of the designed

capacity. As a result, the construction of the spillway has not made any

perceptible improvement in the control of flood in Kuttanad. A number of

factors seem to have contributed to the failure of spillway to reach the

original target of flood discharge.

It has become very difficult now to initiate corrective measures to

increase the rate of discharge of water. Not only that substantial additional

investment is needed; the Cochin Port Authorities also fear that, if more

flood waters were to be let out through the spillway, the problem of

siltation in the channels of the Cochin Port will be greatly aggravated.


4.3.B.2 Regulator at Thanneermukkom

The Thanneermukkom barrier across the lagoon to create the

freshwater lake (Vembanad Lake) was commissioned in 1975.Only two

third of the originally designed number of gates has been constructed. The

barrier was designed to prevent salinity intrusion in the dry season and to

retain the fresh water from rivers flowing into the lake created by the

barrier. The structure has been relatively successful in keeping the water in

the Kuttanad fresh and enabling cropping in the dry season to be increased.

However, the barrier has had various adverse effects. Some were

foreseen at the time of its conception, such as the reduction in the fisheries

and an increase in aquatic weed growth. Others, such as, the effect of the

elimination of tidal flushing on pollution levels were unforeseen. The

situation has been aggravated in recent years by the introduction of high

yielding paddy varieties, which require heavy doses of fertilizers and

pesticides.

The combined effect of the spillway and the Regulator was expected

to increase the area under double crop paddy by enabling: (a) the date of

sowing of the first crop to an advanced date in areas subject to north-east

monsoon floods, (b) the raising of a second (summer) crop by preventing

the intrusion of saline water in the summer months and using the fresh

water in the Kuttanad water body for irrigation.


Implicit in the design and location of the regulator seems to have an

assumption that the entire Kuttanad area was affected by the salinity

problems, more or less, uniformly at any rate, that variation in its intensity

between different parts of the region was not significant. The area can be

divided into eight sub divisions based on the above criteria. These can be

further grouped into three broad categories representing distinct soil

topography and water conditions. They are;

a). The Kayal Lands;

b). The Kari Lands;

c). The Karapadam Lands.

a). The Kayal Lands

These lands, covering approximately 8,100 hectares, were released

in the southern parts of the Vembanad Lake. The salinity problem affects

this part of Kuttanad towards February by which time the traditional single

crop, paddy, would have been harvested. Prevention of saline water should

certainly help this area to raise a second crop during summer.

b). The Kari Lands

These are swampy areas, totaling about 6,100 hectares, with black

peaty soil (with a high proportion of carbonations wood) and high acidity.

There are two Kariland areas, one in the northern (Thuravoor and Vaikom-

Vadayar) and the other in the southern (Puracad) extremities of Kuttanad.


The Kari lands are not only of poor quality but are beyond the range of

influence of the regulator. Prevention of saline water intrusion clearly

should help this area also to raise a second crop during summer. Since the

Vaikom, Vadayar and Thuravoor areas are north of Thanneermukkom

Regulator, the regulator does not prevent the intrusion of saline water into

them. In these areas, temporary tidal bunds have to be put up, as in the

past, across the water from the Vembanad Lake to Puracad area. Salinity

intrusion takes place here through Ashtamudi Lake to the south, which is,

checked by a lock at Thrikunnapuzha across the Trivandrum-Shornur canal

about 10 km from Kayamkulam.

c). The Karapadam Lands

These, comparatively shallow, lands coming under old reclamations

and covering a much larger area (42,500 hectares) are also widely

distributed among the different parts of Kuttanad. As North Kuttanad,

Central Kuttanad and Kuttanad proper, each covers approximately 10,120

hectares, upper Kuttanad covers 12,145 hectares approximately. North

Kuttanad, being an area adjacent to Thanneermukkom, is likely to be affected

by the intrusion of saline water, during summer. Such intrusion had been

checked even before the regulator was commissioned by putting up

temporary tidal bunds across the canals and rivers. These bunds are used to

be opened up, as soon as, the harvesting was over, with out waiting for the

onset of the monsoon. The advantages of this method are that the salinity


problem was effectively checked during the critical period of paddy

cultivation, without adversely affecting the occupations (notably fishing).

The commissioning of the regulator has obviated the need for annual

bunding during the dry season but it has created other problems. In the

remaining areas of upper and central Kuttanad, salinity was never the

primary impediment to double cropping because it reached these areas only

in April, by which time harvesting of summer paddy would have already

been completed. Even in those parts affected by salinity, the saline content

was so little, that it was not a major constraint. The more important

problem of these areas is one of controlling floods.

It would, therefore be, seen that the benefit from the regulator in

facilitating a second crop of paddy has been confined mainly to the 8,100

hectares of kayal land and 10,120 hectares of north Kuttanad, even though

little is known about the extent to which this has been realized in fact. The

remaining areas were either not affected at all by the regulator or the effect

was not felt significantly because the problem of saline water intrusion was

not a critical constraint to paddy cultivation in the areas. This view is

supported by the fact that a significant portion of the Kuttanad area has

been switched over to double cropping even by 1968-69 when the regulator

was not ready for the operation. By strengthening the existing bunds, the

farmers used to raise a second crop, inspite of severe problems involved in


the cultivation of the second crop. Whenever the prices of paddy were

high, double cropping was profitable.

4.3.B.3 Impact of the projects on Fishing and other occupations.

Kuttanad which has a water body with an abundance of nutrients,

receives strong sunlight which reaches a few meters below the water surface

and has a temperature conducive to plentiful production of water born fauna.

However, no detailed account is available of the fauna of this region except

of the fish species. It is likely that the lake bed may have a variety of very

rich fauna. According to a study conducted in 1948, the water body in

Kuttanad has more than 32 fish species. Some of the species identified

earlier have, now, become scarce or completely extinct in this area owing to

the lowering of salinity and the thick growth of African Payal.

The population of the giant fresh water prawn and the frog has a

decline during the last decade owing to excessive and indiscriminate

exploitation. The giant prawn breeds in the brackish waters. Changes in the

salinity conditions of the breeding ground are likely to have adversely

affected their life cycle.

4.3.B.4 Other Occupations

Apart from cultivation of paddy and fishing there are three more

important occupations in Kuttanad. They are; a) lime shell collection from

the Vembanad Lake, b) toddy tapping, c) retting and defibring of coconut


husks, to cater to the raw material requirement of coir industry. The last

two occupations are based on the cultivation of coconut.

a) Lime Shell Collection

The fishing resources of the Vembanad Lake in Kuttanad also

include what are called molasses lime shells. The living and the dead

remains of species are the most abundant resources in the Kuttanad area.

The subsoil deposits are of the nature of a layer of 30 to 50 cms thickness.

All these species of mollasse with optimum ranges of salinity are sure to

adversely affect their life cycles.

The effect of the closure of the Regulator during summer months,

when the intrusion of saline water takes place, will be felt on the long-term

availability of the lime shells. The present deposits may be available for

collection for a few more years, but in the long run, the regeneration of the

shell will be adversely affected by the closure of the regulator.

b) Toddy-tapping

A large number of people are estimated to be engaged in toddy-

tapping. The trees are extensively tapped and they give sweet toddy, which

when fermented, forms an intoxicating beverage, the beer of the working

class of Kerala. The distilled toddy which is known by the name ‘coco

brandy’, has won for itself a place in the liquor trade of the country. There

are toddy tappers who are the most highly paid labourers in Kuttanad. They


have their strong Labour Organizations, and the workers are Ezhavas. The

workers are satisfied with their average earnings and the fringe benefits

they receive from their work.

c) Retting and Defibering of Coconut Husks

Processing coir is mainly an agro-based occupation and about 95

percent of those engaged in defibering and spinning are women. Coir

processing in Kuttanad is confined to a few villages. Retting has been

adversely affected because of the regulator while retting of raw-husk takes

three months in saline water, it takes 10-12 months in fresh water.

Besides, the effect on cultivation of paddy, fishing, lime shell

collection and retting of coir described above, a few other problems have

also cropped up since the commissioning of the regulator.

The closure of the regulator stops completely the tidal ebb and flow

and results in the stagnation of the entire water body outside the regulator.

Since the period, during which the regulator remains closed does not

receive any rain, the water level in canals and other courses goes down and

within a few weeks the water gets polluted. Except for a few affluent house

holds, the only source of water for the entire population for drinking,

bathing, washing, retting of coconut husk and even for, basic purposes like,

discharging human wastes are the canals and the other water courses.

Sufficient flow of water and the tidal ebb and flow functioned in the past,


as a natural drainage, prevented the water body from pollution. Now, this

water gets polluted quickly and results in the spread of diseases like

jaundice, dysentery and so on. The extent of the incidence of these diseases

has not yet been quantified.

During the five months, when the regulator remains closed, the

water level north of the regulator rises by 2-3 ft with a corresponding

decline in the southern parts of Kuttanad, i.e., where salt water intrusion is

prevented. Therefore, even in garden lands in the north of the regulator,

water seeps in and remains stagnant, causing considerable damage to the

healthy growth of coconut and other trees. The area also becomes an

excellent breeding centre for mosquitoes, since water remains stagnant

with a thick layer of African Payal. The southern side also provides ideal

conditions for the breeding of mosquitoes.

Though salt water intrusion was a constraint in the past for the

cultivation of paddy crop, water used to be let into the fields immediately

after harvest. The saline water thus let in, prevented the growth of weeds

and pests, when paddy was raised on them. Better yields were realized

because of the absence of weeds. Absence of salinity in the water has now

provided conditions favourable to the growth of weeds, which adversely

affects the productivity of the land.


With the closure of the regulator during summer, the water level in

the lake goes down significantly, partly due to evaporation loss and partly

by pumping water in to the lands where a summer crop is raised after

harvest and for raising a second crop in certain areas. This has given rise to

water shortage in the dry lands and adversely affected the productivity of

coconut trees.

4.4. Kuttanad Development Schemes

The project detailed above forms the first stage of the Kuttanad

development schemes undertaken by the state government. The construction of

artificial outlet for the flood water to the sea at Thottappally, combined road

canal between Alappuzha and Changanacherry has been completed. The

Thanneermukkom barrier also was completed.

The second stage of Kuttanad project undertaken by the state

government was also completed. They are; (1) the construction of

permanent bunds with appartenent works; (2) Improvements to the

approach channel leading to the Thottappally spillway; (3)Protective works

to the bunds of fields affected by the operation of the spill-way gates and

(4) Works connected with the diversion of Idukki tail race waters from the

Muvattupuzha River.

The bunds completed in the Kuttanad area are of the submersible

type. Top level of bund was such that the affluence due to the flood was


kept at the minimum so that it does not have adverse effects on the areas of

human habitation. Even now the flood inundates the land and the people

are put to difficulties. A further rise in level cannot be permitted. Methods

have to be adopted to keep the water level down during floods. For the

fields at present, the height of the bund in any locality has been arrived at

by the farmers after years, by trail and error, and it is very often the

optimum under the existing conditions. The bunds are to be made

submersible so that water spreads and flows over the entire area of the field

during heavy floods. It was noticed that the level of the existing bunds

projected by the rains coincide, more or less, with the average north east

monsoon flood level. The rise of flood level above means water level is

minimum in the lake area and maximum in upper Kuttanad. Complete

protection from all floods may not be possible in Kuttanad at present. A

study of the floods on previous years indicates that, if such bunds are to

remain non-submersible during maximum floods, the top level will have to

be kept very high. The level observed in 1924 was 2.44 meters in

Kayamkulam with flood water freely flowing through fields and

gardenlands. Restricting and channelising the flow will only increase the

rise in level. Submergence during floods is also advantageous and

necessary to the fields, since rich alluvium will be brought by flood water

and deposited in the fields.


4.4.1 Improvements to approach channels of Thottappally Spill-way

The length of the present leading channel of the Thottappally -spillway

is 5,200 meters. The average width is only 72 metres. The designed charge

capacity of the spillway is 64,000 cubic meter. Experience has proved that

the spillway does not function at its designed capacity. The main

bottleneck is found to be the insufficient section of the leading channel. It

is proposed to widen the leading channel to that of the over all bed width of

the spillway, ie, 305.7 meters (1200 ft). The length of the channel is also

proposed to be increased by about 1 kilometer so that there will be free

flow of water from the confluence of the Achenkovil and Pampa rivers.7

4.4.2 Ambalappuzha Edathua Road

The road connecting Ambalappuzha with Edathua is completed after

the construction of a major bridge at Thakazhi.

4.4.3. Implementation of a Recent Land Development Project

One of the major problems faced by the cultivators in raising crop of

paddy was the flooding of the fields due to breaches in the existing

temporary bunds during the north east monsoons. Since increasing the

production of paddy was accorded high priority by the state government, a

scheme was drawn up in 1974 for the construction of permanent but

submersible bunds, 1,966 km long, to protect paddy fields of an area of

52,000 hectares. The scheme was submitted to the Agricultural Refinance

Development Corporation for refinancing a major part of the total outlay of


Rs.20 crores. Some additional infrastructural facilities were also felt

necessary for which an account of Rs.4.5 crores was earmarked. For the

implementation of the project a new corporation known as the ‘Kerala

Land Development Corporation, Ltd’, (KLDC) was formed.8

The farmers have to repay the cost of construction of bunds at 9

percent interest rate in 15 years with a moratorium for the first three years.

The cost per area will vary from place to place depending on the area

covered and the technical specifications for protection. This particular

project, subjected to a detailed social cost-benefit analysis reached the

following conclusions. The project was found to be socially feasible in

view of the high proportion of labour involved both in the construction of

bunds and in obtaining the materials for such construction. However, the

result of the analysis depended on two crucial assumptions: (1) The

completion of the project with in the stipulated period of 6 years and (2) The

level of paddy at 30 quintals per hectare. It was shown that, if the yields of

paddy were to decline to, say, 24 quintals per hectare, or a decline in prices,

the farmers would find the project uneconomical. Both these assumptions

were later proved incorrect. The progress in implementation was extremely

slow and also contributed to a decline return of the second crop.

Though the idea of permanent bunding of paddy fields was

welcomed, the implementation of the scheme has a rough weather. A


number of reasons can be cited for the very disappointing performance of

the scheme. First of all, the fertility of the land in Kuttanad varies with soil

type and the extent of acidity in the soil. Naturally, the value as well as the

productivity of land, varies from region to region. In areas such as Kari

Lands where the value of land is only about Rs. 2,500 per acre, farmers are

reluctant to under take an investment up to Rs. 2,000 per acre with a

repayment obligation of Rs.230 per acre for 15 years.

The economies of the farmers would suggest to them that it is

better to incur an annual expenditure of Rs.100-120 per acre on repairs

to bunds, rather than repaying the double of that amount annually for 15

years. The question therefore, arises whether the improvement/

construction of the bund envisaged is the least-cost one. Farmers do believe

that it is a high cost work under the given uncertainties of the second crop;

they are hardly enthusiastic about the project. It should be borne in mind

that, public works programmes whatever their type, are hardly, orientated

to find out ways and means of cost reduction, often they tend to be costlier

than they ought to be. By January 1978, the total length of bunds already

constructed was just 134 kms. ie, hardly 7 percent of the total length to be

covered under the project.

The raising of a second crop in the paddy fields has not been

hampered by the scheme of permanent bunds. In fact, double cropping of a


large area was started as early as 1968. When the Kerala Land Development

Corporation Scheme was on its way to implementation, CARE, a voluntary

international organization, also came up with a programme for financing the

bunding of fields. Such bunding did not, however, envisage rubble pitching

but only widening and strengthening of bunds by dumping clay, sand, etc.

The sides of the bund facing the lake/water courses could be protected by

planting grass and screw pine. Since this programme was much cheaper

and did not involve any financial commitment to the cultivators, they

adopted this scheme and naturally did not want to accept the KLDC

scheme with financial commitment for the next 15 years. The extension of

the CARE programme was prevented by the government, by making it

obligatory on the part of the cultivators to get the approval of the KLDC

for any development work.

Doubts were also raised by some persons about the technical aspects

of the bund construction. A number of breaches have been developed in

many parts of the newly constructed bunds. This has only helped to erode

the credibility of the project. Further, the unduly long time taken for the

construction of the bunds and the misgiving of the ‘contract’ system,

adopted for execution of the work, have reduced the confidence of the

cultivators in the whole scheme. In theory, construction work is entrusted to

a cultivator who is a nominee of the beneficiaries in a given area. However,


in practice, such cultivators are constructors and their style of functioning

hardly differs from the conventional construction.

Recently, the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development

(NABARD) – NABCONS, a technical wing of the NABARD, was entrusted

to prepare detailed report on the project of developing Kuttanad. The aim of

the project was to increase the basic facilities at Kuttanad to enable the

farmers to cultivate crop every year. The farmer could cultivate either an

additional paddy crop or one fish crop, which would help, end the tendency

to lay the paddy field barren. Project was expected to raise the standards of

farmers and agricultural labourers. Many projects will help to provide more

working days to male and female workers and the labourers in the

agriculture sector would get jobs everyday.

4.4.4 Measures for strengthening the Ecological security of the

Kuttanad-Report Summary of M. S. Swaminathan Commission

The Ministry of Agriculture of India has been providing special

rehabilitation packages for the farm families affected by agrarian distress in

selected districts in Maharastra, Andrapradesh, Karnataka and Kerala. As a

part of the programme the government of India has approved Alappuzha

and Idukki Districts for introducing special plan of action for improving

the farming conditions.

M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation was requested to study the

causes of distress in Alappuzha and offer suitable remedies. A brief


summary of the report on the sustainable development of Kuttanad wet

land ecosystem with particular focus on the ecological security of Kuttanad

is be presented in the following heads.

4.4.4.1 Background on Alappuzha District and Kuttanad

The total cropped area in Alappuzha is 125, 032 hectares, which is

distributed among 4,65,761 operational holdings with 94 percent of them

possessing below 0.5 hectare and 98 percent below one hectare. Two major

crops significantly influencing the livelihood of the people are rice and

coconut. Other important crops in the area with percentage are banana

(4 percent) tuner crops (3.7 percent) and vegetables (1.7 percent).

More than 75 percent of the rice area in the Alappuzha district falls

in Kuttanad. Because of the substantial share of rice that Kuttanad is

contributing to the total rice production in Kerala, the region is termed as

‘The Granery’, The Rice Bowl’ of Kerala. While in the 1970s, the shares of

Kuttanad to the states total rice area and production were 25 percent and 37

percent respectively, it declined to 15 percent and 18 percent in 2003.

Analysis using remote sensing imaginaries available across three decades

shows a huge change that had taken place in the land utilization pattern in

this area.

Although the marshy and poorly drained wet land of Kuttanad

makes it virtually unsuitable for crops other than rice an ever increasing


area is tending to remain fallow. Out of the 1,10,000 hectare area in

Kuttanad, 11000 is classified as wet land and 55000 hectares classified as

Reclaimed Land, which is situated below 0.5 and 2 cm below sea level, are

available for rice cultivation while rice was grown in 60,921 hectares

during 1967. The cultivation in 2003 declined to 37, 624 hectare. During

this period 4.3 percent area was converted to non-agricultural area.

Twenty-nine percent areas were fallowed and 11.4 percent of area under

water bodies reclaimed. Kuttanad also has 31000 hectare garden land with

coconut as major crop.

The productivity challenges, related to both technology and

economics, include variety, management and farming system. In Kuttanad

Jyothi and Uma are the dominant varieties during the Puncha and Virippu

Seasons. The demonstrated yields potential of these varieties arise between

5.5 - 6.5/hectare. The realized yield per hectare in farmer’s field in

Alappuzha, Kottayam and Pathanamthitta, according to 2003 data reports

of Kuttanad, is 3.50t, 3.70t and 2.95t respectively. The virippu crop yield is

3.5/hectare and 3.6t/hectare respectively in Kottayam and Pathanamthitta

parts of Kuttanad. Closing this yield gap without causing environmental

problems from agricultural chemicals and compromising the sustainability

of the production system, is a major challenge.


The strange fact of the Kuttanad rice farming is that increase in

productivity would not automatically enhance profitability to farmers. Rice

farming is under heavy natural social and market pressure. Crop loss and

yield loss due to flood and salt water intrusion are recurrent problems in

many parts of Kuttanad. These periodic calamities wipe out what ever

gains are made from the cultivation during good years and often leave the

small and marginal farmers who constitute the majority, in debt.

The agricultural labourers of Kuttanad are proud owners of a rare

legacy, the invincible power of human labour in transforming major part of

the Vembanad Lake into golden paddy fields. Hundreds of Padasekharams in

the Kuttanad reclaimed from the lake over 150 years stand as the living

testimony to their hard work and skill.

Sustainability of production and productivity is highly important in

Kuttanad. In view of the fragile ecology of this place, soil rich in organic

matter is highly acidic and hence continuous amelioration, as well as,

management of this soil is very important for maintaining its productive

health. Silt harvesting from floodwaters is an essential component in the

soil health management.

4.4.4.2 Small Farm Management Revolution

Innovative approach is important to make agriculture sustainable in

economic level. The padasekharam approach in Kuttanad provides a good


example of co-operative management of farming in clusters with collective

co-ordination of major common activities like dewatering, bund and

vachchal protection, synchronized sowing, harvest etc. This approach can

be fine tuned and replicated to garden and land management as well.

4.4.4.3 Natural Resource Management

Kuttanad is a marshy delta, lying below the sea level and fed by four

major rivers in its southern part - Pampa, Anchenkovil, Manimala and

Meenachil. This eco-system regularly replenishes the soil fertility with silting,

controls flood and drought conditions and acts as a natural cleanser to the

anthropologic wastes accumulating in the water body by detoxification and

decomposition. The seasonal and tidal mixing of saline and fresh water has

promoted diverse and endemic life forms. These natural resources have

allowed a multiplicity of livelihoods based on inland and marine fisheries,

rice, coconut, several allied enterprises and more recently the water

tourism. The attu konchu and karimeen varieties of inland fisheries are not

only priced delicacies but also a part of the Kuttanad culture. Among the

water bodies, Kuttanad supports a high density of population. All these

have made Kuttanad Wetland System (KWS) a truly unique one.

4.4.4.4 Ecological Restoration and Management

The ecological damage in the Kuttanad Wetland System started with

large scale reclamation and encroachment of the Vembanad Lake and its

consequent reduction to less than 1/3rd

of its original expanse. The second


important contributor to the ecological decay of Kuttanad Wetland System

is the inadequate management of salinity intrusion into Kuttanad. Salinity

barriers erected in multiple places for the main purpose of paddy

intensification in low-lying areas of Kuttanad without a holistic approach

are at the root of these problems. The Thannermukkam Barrage, which

plays a major role in regulating salinity intrusion, has been inadequately

managed from the very beginning of its construction. Prolonged period of

its closure to facilitate a non-synchronous planting of the Puncha rice crop

created not only serious ecological problems but also conflict of interest

between farmers and fishing community.

Kuttanad agriculture is also threatened by the salinity intrusion from

Kayamkulam Lake in the south. The major routes of this entry are the

Trikunnapuzha and a few other canals. The third important cause of

ecological decay includes a host of human activities in the Lake and its

souroundings such as unregulated fishing, dredging for white kakka (clam),

destruction of aquatic life due to the creation of high water pollution.

The fourth serious ecological threat is the biological and chemical

pollution of Kuttanad water bodies. Letting in untreated sewage from

pilgrimage places on the riverbanks, particularly pampa, towns, houseboats,

motorboats, hospitals, industries and households have made of heavy

contamination with local, municipal, hospital and industrial wastes. The


contribution of agriculture in dumping agricultural chemicals including

highly toxic pesticides such as lindens, carbofuran, BHC and DDT have

enormously added to the intensity and breadth of pollution. All these are

making Kuttanad a very unpleasant place for human habitation with

uncommon threat for many serious water borne diseases like dengue fever,

elephantiasis, malaria, typhoid, cholera, dysentery, jaundice, Chikungunya

and so on. The health security of local communities is very closely linked

with ecological security of the region.

4.4.4.5 Recommendations of the committee

The following are the important recommendations of the committee.

Extending livelihoods: - The main issue which emerged in the series

of stakeholder interactions of the committee had with the farmers, fishing

community, farm labourers, the women groups etc were strengthening

diversification of existing livelihoods and finding new ones.

Overcoming Technology Fatigue: - Technology being widely

recognised as the prime mover of change, both technology fatigue and

technology gap may hold up change. This will call for revitalization of

records, education and extinction systems and innovative way for solving the

existing distress of common man and attain uniqueness of the ecosystem

with all its complexities such as is the case of Kuttanad.


Training: - For landless agricultural labourer, the aim should be to

convert them into skilled workers and there by adding economic value to

their time and labour.

Techno - Infrastructure: - Infrastructure support in terms of good

accessible farm roads, supply of electricity, bringing energy efficiency

option are important areas to be addressed.

Storage and procurement of paddy produce: - There is an urgent need

to review the storage and procurement of paddy produce and other related

agro-produce for this region.

Services sector both for farm and non-farm: - There is an urgent need

for a paradigm shift from micro-finance to livelihood finance, comprising, a

comprehensive package including financial services, insurance for health,

crops and live stock, improved infrastructure in terms of better roads, post

harvest support and market.

Towards an ecologically responsible Tourism: - The tourism has to be

structured to involve local communities and farm tourism to ensure better

spread effect of the economic gain.

Plan of action and resources for implementing the priorities: - The

restoration of the unique Kuttanad wetland to its pristine glory will need

political will, professional skill, people’s participation and adequate financial

resources. Sufficient fund should be sought from the 25000 crores to be


provided by the Government of India for promoting state specific strategies

which take account of the individual resources, comments and capabilities.9

These are the recommendations of the committee to the Central

Government.

Thus, from the above analysis it can be summarised as the Puncha

Special Office in Alappuzha was established with a view to encourage

cultivation and to adopt annual cultivation regularly. This office has many

responsibilities and rights over the entire revenue villages of Kuttanad. An

intensive agricultural programme was also launched for the substantial

progress of agriculture. There are certain specific projects such as

Thottapplly spillway, Thanneermukkom regulator, Alappuzha–

Chanaganacherry road and so on for the development of the region. These

specific projects have vital impact on agriculture and other occupations of the

region. In addition to these, the second stage of the development of the region

consists of construction of permanent bunds, improvements to Thottappally

spillway and diversion of Idukki tail race. M. S. Swaminathan Commission

also suggested certain measures for the development of the region.

4.5 Environmental Laws and Pollution Control

The Law relating to environment can be discussed under two heads;

4.5.1 Constitutional Provisions;

4.5.2 General Acts.


4.5.1 Constitutional Provisions

The term environment is not referred as a subject on the Union,

State or Concurrent List of 7th

schedule of the Indian Constitution. As a

residuary subject, the Government of India has powers to enact

environmental laws. In 1976, two Articles having a direct bearing on the

environment were inserted, in the 42nd

Amendment of the constitution.

They are:

Article 48 A-the State shall endeavor to protect and improve the

environment and to safe guard the forest and wild life of the country.

Article 51 A (9) - It is the duty of the citizen to protect and improve

the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life and to

have compassion for all living beings. Article 21 of the constitution which

reads as follows “No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty

except according to procedure established by law guarantees fundamental

rights to life and personal liberty to all persons in India and is enforceable

in a Court of Law”. The Supreme Court has interpreted this Article to

include the rights of a living environment congenial to human existence

while disposing the Vellore Tannery case in 1996. A polluted and

unhealthy environment destroys this living environment, which is implicit

in the constitution and in view of this any activity causing damage to the

environment amounts to violation of Article 21.


The Article 47 states that the state is to ensure its primary duty as(i)

raising standard of living of its people and (ii) to ensure the level of

nutrition of the people and to bring improvement in public health.

Article 372 of the constitution permits application of the Law of

Tort, which has its roots in the British Common Law of Justice, equality

and good conscience for pollution cases. This Article comes handy in

absence of specific status.

4.5.2 General Acts

The age-old Indian Penal Code (IPC) and the code of Criminal

Procedure, 1893 had Penal and other provisions against a wide range of

activities which hinder the peace and tranquility in society. The Penal Code

has provisions to punish a variety of acts under Public Nuisance (Section

268-290 of Chapter XIV).

The various Acts discussing environmental Issues are:-

a) Water Act;

b) Air Act;

c) The Water Cess act;

d) The Environment (Protection Act) 1986.


a) Water Act

The Water Act 1974 was passed by the Indian Parliament under

Article 252 (1) of the constitution, water being a state object. The Act was

initially applicable to those states, which had passed, the enabling

Legislative Resolution, under the above Article authorizing the Parliament

to enact on a State subject.

The Water Act has two main objectives.

Provide for the prevention and control of water pollution and

maintaining or restoring the wholesomeness of water.

The establishment of Boards and conferring or assigning them the

necessary powers and functions, with a view to carrying out the purposes

aforesaid.

b) Air Act

It is a Central Legislation passed by the Parliament under Article

253 of the constitution of India, in pursuance of the decision taken by the

United Nations conference on Human Environment held at Stockholm in

June 1972, where India participated actively. This Act was subsequently

amended in 1987.The objectives of the Air Act are same in Water Act ie, to

provide for the prevention and control and abatement of air pollution and to

establish pollution control boards with necessary powers and functions to

carry out the aforesaid aim.


c) The Water Cess Act

The Water (Prevention and Control Pollution) Cess Act passed by

the Parliament came in to force from December 1977. It was again

amended in 1991.This Act is provided for levy and collection of cess on

water consumed by persons carrying on certain industries and by local

authorities with a view to augment resources of the Central and State

pollution Control Boards.

d) The Environment (Protection) Act 1986

The necessity of the Act was particularly felt after the Bhopal Gas

Tragedy. It was perceived that:

Law existing prior to the Act generally focused on specific types of

pollution namely Water Pollution, Air Pollution etc and not on the general

management principles for protection of environment.

Some major areas of hazards were not covered such as disposal of

toxic waste and so on.

There was inadequate linkage in handling matters related to

industrial and environmental safety.

There was a necessity to co-ordinate a system of speedy and

adequate response to emergency situation.

The Environment (Protection) Act 1986 was conceived as an

Umbrella Act. Enactment of this is a follow up action taken by the


Government of India, on the decision taken at the United Nations

Conference on Human Environment held at Stockholm in June 1972. The

objective of the Act, as described in the preamble, is to implement

decisions of the aforesaid conference, so far as they relate it to the

protection and improvement of environment and the prevention of hazards

on human beings, other living creatures, plants and property.

4.5.3 Authorities Engaged in Pollution Control

In addition to the State Government and Central Government there

are certain authorities such as State Pollution Control Board and Central

Pollution Control Board, which are engaged in various activities of

pollution control. Their functions and responsibilities are discussed under

four heads;

a) Functions and Responsibilities of the State Pollution Control Board;

b) Functions and Responsibilities of the Central Pollution Control

Board;

c) Powers and Functions of State Government;

d) Powers and Functions of Central Government.

a) Functions and Responsibilities of the State Pollution Control Board

The functions of the state pollution control board can be classified

as follows;


Advise the government on matters of water and air pollution

prevention control and mitigation;

Research and development, information dissemination and training on

matters of air and water pollution and environmental protection.

Regulatory functions

The following are some of the regulatory powers possessed by the

Pollution Control Board under the Water Act and the Air Act;

To grant or refuse consent within four months after receipt of

completed application with requisite fees;

To obtain any information on water subtraction and discharge;

To regularly inspect and analyze different samples in the prescribed

manner of industries so as to monitor the consent conditions;

To withdraw or modify consent conditions followed the procedures

of law;

To take complaints in the appropriate Court against industries

established or operated without consent, violating consent conditions or

any other provisions of the Acts.

To move to the appropriate court for immediate restriction order

where serious pollution is apprehended;


In the exercise of its powers and functions under the Acts, to issue

any directions in writing to any person, officer or authority which the latter

is bound to comply;

To issue such orders to provide remedy or mitigate pollution or any

other action in case of an episodic discharge of an offence causing serious

pollution;

To carry out any work of remedy or mitigation of air pollution

caused by episodic discharge and charges the cost with the polluter.

b) Functions and Responsibilities of the Central Pollution Control

Board

The functions of this board are;

The Central Pollution Control Board has the same powers and

regulatory functions as a state board has in Union Territories;

In addition the Central Board guides the State Boards, co-ordinates

their activities and provides training to State Board Officials;

The Central Board has the power like that of the State Government.

It can order a State Board to function under the Act. If it is inconsistent

with any such order given by the State Government the decision of the

Central Government will be final.


c) Powers and Functions of the State Government

The powers and functions of the State Government are discussed

under five heads;

I) Administrative powers over the State Board;

II) Powers to make rules;

III) Powers of revision against consent order granted by the Board;

IV) Powers in Areas of jurisdiction;

V) Special powers to direct the State Board.

I) Administrative Powers over the State Board

The State Government nominates the Chairperson and members of

the State Board. It has also powers to remove them only in specific

circumstances and supersede the state board within limitations to do under

the Acts.

II) Powers to make Rules

The State Government has the powers to make rules under the

Water Act.

Similarly, the Central Government has the powers to make certain

Air Rules in consultation with the Central Board.

The State Government also has powers to make certain Air Rules on

specific items, which do not come under the Air Act.


In case of any industry being aggrieved with the directions given in

a consent order by a state board, it can prefer to appeal with in 30 days in

the prescribed manner to the Appellate Authorities constituted by the

Government.

III) Powers of Revision against Consent order granted by the Board

The State Government can at any period of time, call for record of a

case where consent has been granted/refused/ modified/ withdrawn for the

purpose of satisfying itself the legality and propriety of the action of the

board and pass such orders in relation to that as thought appropriate under

the Water Act.

IV) Powers in Areas of Jurisdiction

The State Government can restrict the application of the Water Act in

some areas on recommendation of or in consultation with the State Board.

Powers of restriction of fuel or use of certain application.

V) Special Powers to Direct the State Board

The State government has the power to give orders to the state board in

writing, in performance of the functions of the latter under the Act.

d) Powers and Functions of the Central Government.

The Central Government has similar powers over the Central Board

and the Union Territories as the powers of the State Government over the

state board.


It has to take the final decision when directions given by the Central

Board and the State Government, to the State Board, are inconsistent.

Despite all these, the environmental situation is not better. The goal

of sustainability can be achieved only with the strict enactment of laws

along with people’s participation.

From the above data, it is clear that developmental schemes along

with the enactments for the prevention of pollution are meant for the

sustainable development of Kuttanad. There are certain schemes which are

completed whereas some others are under consideration by the Government.

Various authorities engaged in the pollution control, both central and state,

have certain powers and responsibilities to ensure an eco-friendly

environment. However, the development of the region is still far from reality.

Hence, the variables such as socio-economic characteristics of the people,

settlement variables, impact of environmental pollution and so on are to be

looked upon to have an idea regarding the actual living conditions of the

people in Kuttanad. The awareness and responses of the people on pollution

and sustainable development of Kuttanad are to be enquired into for

understanding the actual developmental measures to be implemented in the

region. These are the main intend of the succeeding chapters.


Reference

1. Kshatrapati, Shivaji, I.A.S. (1995). “Report for Kuttanad development

authority”, Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram.

2. Ibid.

3. Dr. Babu, Ambatt. (1992). “Kuttanad myth and reality”. Kerala

Sasthra Sahithya Parishad, Calicut.

4. Ibid.

5. Government of Kerala. (1978). “Report of the High Power Committee

on Comprehensive Development of Kuttanad”, Thiruvananthapuram.

6. Ibid.

7. Ibid

8. Swaminathan, M,S. (2008), “Measures for strengthening the

Ecological security of the Alappuzha” – Report Summary of M. S.

Swaminathan Commission”,M.S.Swaminathan Foundation, Chennai.

9. Zacharias,Thomas(2003), “Kuttanad Development, Problems and

Prospects”, St. George Offsets, Edathua.

Chapter V

The Environmental System of

Kuttanad-An Empirical Study

Contents

5.1 Introduction ....................................................................... 150

5.2. Socio-Economic Environment. .......................................... 150

5.3 Settlement Variables ..................................................... 153

5.4 Impact of Environmental Pollution among the people

of Kuttanad ......................................................................... 175

THE ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEM OF KUTTANAD-AN

EMPIRICAL STUDY

5.1 Introduction

The environmental system of Kuttanad consists of physical and man

made, socio economic, settlement variable and psychological. These led to

the living conditions of the region. As the area is lying below the sea level,

the physical and man made environment plays a vital role in the life of the

people. The natural environment in Kuttanad is a product of river systems,

the land formations, which lie along the river systems and their

topographical features. These are discussed in the earlier chapter. Hence,

this chapter aims to discuss the socio-economic and settlement variables.

5.2. Socio-Economic Environment.

The Socio economic environment gives a clear picture of the life

style of the people. The variables such as age, sex, income, education etc

are very important in the psychological approach towards the development

of the region. Hence, these variables are analysed in the first part of this

chapter.

The Environmental System of Kuttanad-An Empirical Study 151

Table 5.1

Socio-Economic Background of Sample Population

Sl.No. Particulars Total

Number Percent

1. Age-wise Distribution

Below 25

25-50

Above 50

Total

10

146

144

300

3

49

48

100

2. Sex-wise Distribution

Male

Female

Total

255

45

300

85

15

100

3. Religion-wise Distribution

Hindu

Christian

Muslim

Total

168

112

20

300

56

37

7

100

4. Education-wise Distribution

Primary

Secondary

College

Professional

Total

64

144

83

9

300

21

48

28

3

100

5. Income-wise Distribution

Below Rs. 25000

Rs. 25000-50000

Above Rs. 50000

Total

146

75

79

300

49

25

26

100

Source: Survey data


A perusal of the age wise classification of survey presented in

Table No 5.1 reveals that in aggregate 49 percent of the respondents are

in the age group of 25-50. Forty-eight percent of the respondents are

above 50 years. Only 3 percent are below 25 years. This shows that

people above 25 are more interested in responding to environmental

problems.

Sex-wise classification shows that, in aggregate, about 85 percent

of the surveyed are males and 15 percent are females. This shows that

social problems are more important for men rather than female.

Considering the religious composition of sample, in aggregate 56

percent are Hindus, while 37 percent are Christians and only 7 percent

are Muslims.

Considering the educational attainment of people surveyed

majority, ie, 48 percent got secondary education, 28 percent have

collegiate education, 21 percent have only primary education and only 3

percent got professional qualifications.

An analysis of income level of the sample presented in Table No

5.1 reveals that, in aggregate, 49 percent have below Rs. 25000 incomes

annually, 25 percent comes in the second income group and 26 percent

comes above Rs. 50000 per annum. This shows that majority of the

people have low income in the region.


5.3 Settlement Variables

It should be recognised, at the outset, that year of residence, source of

drinking water, occupation, ownership of land, cropping, switching over to

other crops, reduction of frequency of cultivation, conversion of wetland,

environmental problems, expenditure incurred for environmentally born

diseases, nature of diseases and steps taken for smooth agriculture production

are interrelated. Settlement variables play an important role in the health, well

being and the overall development of the community. An attempt is made

here to analyse the quality, behaviour and the awareness, use, value and

opinions of the people towards the programmes in these variables.

5.3.1 Residence ship in Kuttanad

It is important to know how long people are living in this area to

know the influence of environment on them. Almost all are living in this

area as permanent resident rather than floating population.

Table 5.2

Residence ship in Kuttanad

Sl. No. Number of years Number Percent

1. 5 – 10 21 7.00

2. 10 – 15 59 20.00

3. Above 15 220 73.00

Total 300 100

Source: Survey data


Fig 5.1

Residence ship in Kuttanad

Number

1 5 – 10

2 10 – 15

3 Above 15

The Table No 5.2 shows residence ship of people in years surveyed.

Majority of people ie, more than 73 percent, are above 15 years of

residence ship in Kuttanad. This shows that people live here as permanent

residents.

5.3.2 Source of Drinking Water

In Kuttanad, the social, cultural and psychological lives of the

people are shaped by the water around them. The river systems in Kuttanad

,for years, had catered to the drinking water needs of the community. Due

to the excessive dependence on the river systems for agriculture and waste

disposal, the concord between the people and the river system had

gradually eroded. This dependence was no doubt rational, firstly because

there was no other alternative, secondly, the flowing water used to carry all


the dirt away from the rivers to Vembanad lake and finally to Arabian Sea.

Clean drinking water is no more available to the people of Kuttanad as a

result of the pollution of water bodies sparked off by the developmental

activities. The victims are the poorer household who do not have any other

source of drinking water. They have to depend on polluted canals for

meeting their needs and hence, a good number of people are suffering from

water-borne diseases. Though, water - supply programme, has been

implemented with an objective to provide potable water to the villages in

Kuttanad, it could not meet the criteria of efficiency, quality and quantity.

Table 5.3

Source of Drinking Water

Sl. No. Source Number Percent

1. Public Tap 164 55

2. Well 3 1

3. Pond 133 44

Total 300 100

Source: Survey data


Fig 5.2

Source of Drinking Water

1 Public Tap

2 Well

3 Pond

The data given in Table indicates that majority of the households

(ie, 55 percent) use public tap for the consumption. Only 1 percent is using

wells and it is the most unpopular source of water in Kuttanad. About 44

percent are using pond for drinking water purpose.The households who

have indicated ponds and wells as their source of drinking water are

dependent on common ponds and wells in some areas.

5.3.3 Occupation of the people in Kuttanad

Agriculture is the main occupation of the people in Kuttanad. Living

in the village and observing village life gave some valuable insights in to

the life of the people, which spins around the agricultural economy. The

vocabulary of the people in relation to the problems in the area is also built

around the agricultural economy. The cultivators are concerned about the


economic aspects of agriculture such as profitability from agriculture. For

the agricultural labourers the vocabulary universe consisted mainly of

employment in agriculture.

Table 5.4

Occupation of the people in Kuttanad

Sl. No. Occupation Number Percent

1. Agriculture 252 84

2. Non-Agriculture 48 16

Total 300 100

Source: Survey data

Table No 5.4 shows that 84 percent of the sample are doing

agriculture to make a living. Others ie, only 16 have occupations other than

agriculture. The land is suitable for paddy cultivation and rice cultivation is

the main occupation in this region.

5.3.4 Area of Paddy field owned by Agriculturist of Kuttanad.

The practice of taking land on lease popularly known as ‘Pattom’ is

widely prevalent in the region. Most of the farmers have low income and

no land of their own. They take land on lease and give a portion of their

harvest to the owner of land as ‘ Pattom’ for the lease of land . Paddy fields

are lying together without division. So they need the help of others for

proper cultivation.


Table 5.5

Area of Paddy field owned by agriculturalists

Sl. No. Acres of land Number Percent

1. Below 1 Acre 51 20

2. 1 – 3 138 55

3. Above 3 Acre 63 25

252 100

Source: Survey data

Fig 5.3

Area of Paddy field owned by agriculturalists

1 Below 1 Acre

2 1 – 3

3 Above 3 Acre

The table above clearly shows that majority of the people have

below 3 acres of land ie, 75 percent. This shows that for farmers who own

land not enough for a wide cultivation, continue the practice of lease,

which is popular in this region.


5.3.5 Reduction of Area under Cropping

Farmers in this region have an opinion that agriculture is not

profitable because of so many reasons. They are doing the same as they

have no other alternative for their livelihood. They are facing so many

problems in agriculture. Labour was easily available in Kuttanad during

90’s. But the situation is worse now. Interference of political party on

account of mechanisation of agriculture, is another hurdle before them.

Table 5.6

Reduction of Area under cropping

Sl. No. Reduction Number Percent

1. Reduced 69 27

2. Not reduced 183 73

Total 252 100

Source: Survey data

Out of the total who responded this enquiry, it is seen that a majority

of the farmers ie, 73 percent have not reduced their area of cultivation. But

27 percent have reduced it. The survey reveals that, even though they have

not reduced the area, these farmers have the plan of reducing the area under

cultivation. This will be a serious problem and the policy makers should

take this into serious consideration.


5.3.6 Switching over to other crops than Rice

The rice cultivation in Kuttanad shows a downward trend in terms

of production. But the soil and other environments of Kuttanad are not

suitable for various other alternative methods of cropping. Coconut,

plantain and vegetables are some of the alternatives before the farmers.

Table 5.7

Switching over to other crops than Rice

Sl. No. Switched Number Percent

1. Switched 100 40

2. Not switched 152 60

Total 252 100

Source: Survey data

From the table it is clear that majority of farmers ie. 60 percent are

continuing with rice cultivation. Whereas 40 percent have switched over to

some other crops.

5.3.7 Extend of Reduction of Land

Farmers reduce the area under cultivation on many grounds. Lack of

profitability, labour problems particularly in this region, resistance to

mechanization, political interference and so on forced the farmers to reduce

the area under cultivation. Mechanization, from the beginning of

cultivation up to harvest, helps the farmers with reduction in cost and easy

way of cultivation. But in the initial stages of mechanization, due to


political interference they are helpless to introduce the new methods of

cultivation. Lack of profitability is another vital factor to reduce the area

under cultivation. Hence, an attempt is made to know how much area under

cultivation is reduced by the farmers.

Table 5.8

Extend of Reduction of Land

Sl.No. Acres of land Number Percent

1. Below 25 percent 27 39

2. 25-50 percent 38 55

3. Above 50 percent 3 4

4. Full 1 2

Total 69 100

Source: Survey data

Fig 5.4

Extend of Reduction of Land

1 Below 25 percent

2 25-50 percent

3 Above 50 percent


Out of the 69 farmers who reduced the area under cultivation, 55

percent reduced between 25 and 50 percent of their total holdings ie,

around half of the total. Another 39 percent have reduced below 25

percent. But only 2 percent stopped the cultivation. This shows that

farmers are ready to continue the cultivation in a healthy environment. The

policy makers must consider this to support these farmers.

5.3.8 Alternate Crops of Cultivation

The soil and climatic conditions of Kuttanad are not suitable for the

cultivation of all crops. This environment is suitable for special crops like

rice, coconut, plantain and so on. Fish breeding is becoming popular in this

region as an alternative for rice cultivation and the same field can be used for

fishing also. Hence, the farmers are doing it as an alternative or a permanent

one. It is one of the profitable ventures that can be undertaken in Kuttanad.

Coconut and Plantain are cultivated along the side ways of paddy fields so

that it becomes another source of income for the farmers. Integration of

coconut gardens with dairying, vegetable cultivation , flori culture , and

medicinal plants under the Intensive Farming Systems models, integration of

fish and rice and duck-rearing also offer opportunities for earning income.


Table 5.9

Switched over Crops

Sl. No. Crop Number Percent

1. Coconut 31 31

2. Plantain 10 10

3. Fish Farming 59 59

Total 100 100

Source: Survey data

Fig 5.5

Switched over Crops

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Coconut Plantain Fish Farming

Percent

The above table shows that among the farmers who switched over to

other crops ie, 59 percent have changed their cultivation and started fish

farming. Coconut plantation is undertaken by 31 percent and 10 percent of

the surveyed shifted to plantain cultivation. This change in cultivation is

due to the problems faced by the farmers in this region. According to the

opinion of farmers, fish farming can also be done as an alternative.


5.3.9 Reasons for the change of Cultivation from Rice to some

other Crops.

The survey data shows that farmers have the opinion that rice

cultivation is unprofitable and it is better to turn to some other crops or

fish. This would help them to use the paddy field and continue as farmers

of the same land. An enquiry was done to find out the reasons for their

change over. The result is discussed in the following table.

Table 5.10

Reasons for switching over to some other Crop.

Sl. No. Crop Number Percent

1. Lack of profitability 77 77

2. Labour Problems 16 16

3. Marketing of Product 7 7

Total 100 100

Source: Survey data

Fig 5.6

Reasons for switching over to some other Crop.

77

16

7

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Lack of profitability Labour Problems Marketing of Product

Percent


The table describes the reasons for shifting from rice cultivation to

some other crops. According to 77 percent of the 100 who switched over to

other crops surveyed, lack of profitability of rice cultivation is the main

reason for the change. Labour problem is the reason for 16 percent and 7

percent has the problem of marketing of product.

The increase in the cost of cultivation and lack of mechanization

made the rice cultivation unprofitable. Now a days Kuttanad is facing

severe labour problems as lack of availability, high cost of labour,

incidental expenses and so on. Even though, there are societies and non -

governmental organizations, engaged in mobilizing the harvest, the farmers

are facing difficulties in marketing of their products.

5.3.10 Reduction of Frequency of Cultivation

In Kuttanad, cultivation is done twice in a year. The first cultivation

starts from the month of November and its harvesting is done in March. This

cultivation is known as Puncha cultivation. The second cultivation known as

virippu, starts from May and ends in the month of September.

But, due to the reasons such as labour problems, marketing of the

produce, flood and its consequences and lack of profitability, farmers are

reducing the frequency of cultivation.


Table 5.11

Reduction of Frequency of Cultivation

Sl. No. Frequency Number Percent

1. Reduced 181 72

2. Not Reduced 71 28

Total 252 100

Source: Survey data

The above table shows that majority of the farmers ie, 72 percent of

the surveyed agriculturists who responded this question, reduced their

number of cultivation. This is another matter to the attention of authorities

engaged in making policies for Kuttanad. This is one of the reasons for the

downward trend in production of rice in Kuttanad. The balance 28 percent

are doing cultivation twice in a year.

5.3.11 Reasons for Reduction in Cultivation

A detailed opinion survey was conducted among the respondents to

find out the reasons of reduction in the frequency of cultivation. The result

is given in the following table.


Table 5.12

Reasons for Reduction of Cultivation

Sl. No. Reason Number Percent

1. Lack of Profitability 118 65

2. Labour problems 24 13

3. Marketing of produce 20 11

4. Flood and other Natural Calamities 19 11

Total 181 100

Source: Survey data

Fig 5.7

Reasons for Reduction in Cultivation

65

13

11

11

Lack of Profitability

Labour problems

Marketing of produce

Flood and other Natural Calamities

The cultivators of paddy are not getting remunerative price for

paddy. The modern rice mill owners are getting paddy at cheap rate from

other states and this prevents them to buy paddy from local cultivators.

Some of the cultivators stock paddy in their go downs, thinking that they

will get good profit towards the paddy but , are disappointed . Hence, 65

percent who responded, have such an opinion that the frequency of


cultivations is reduced mainly due to lack of profitability of rice

cultivation.

Labour problem is the main concern for 13 percent, of the answered,

by saying that there is scarcity of labour in the paddy fields of Kuttanad.

The operations like weeding, transplanting, harvesting and threshing could

not be done at the correct time and it takes long periods to complete above

works.

11percent considered marketing their produce is difficult, due to the

interference of intermediaries or brokers whose interest and attitude is

always really detrimental to the farmer’s interests, since these farmers are

being exploited by giving low prices. They added that the cooperative

societies are not in a position to procure the entire paddy produce of the

farmers. The inordinate delay in the procurement of paddy creates

hardships to the farmers and they are forced to reduce the number of

cultivation of paddy.

Again, another 11 percent are of the opinion that there is flood water

flow problem. Increased flooding, high cost of production and other natural

calamities are the other factors to reduce the number of cultivation.

5.3.12 Conversion of Wet Land in to Dry Land

Wet lands are water–saturated or submerged areas which include

both natural and man-made, permanent or temporary, fresh water or marine


habitats. These are important ecotones which are transitional between open

waters and land.

The paddy fields of Kuttanad are wet in nature and there is a

practice of converting it in to dry land for using it for some other purposes.

Even though it is not allowed by Government, there is a wide practice of it

in this region. People are doing the same for house construction, cultivating

other crops and so on. It is seen that the practice of integrating aquaculture

to the agricultural system, prevented to a certain extent the conversion of

productive rice lands, with total disregard to the ecological functions of

these wet lands

Table 5.13

Conversion of Wet Land in to Dry Land

Sl. No. Conversion Number Percent

1. Conversion 74 29

2. Not Converted 178 71

Total 252 100

Source: Survey data

It shows that majority ie, 71 percent have not converted their land in

to dry land. But 29 percent have converted their paddy fields in to dry land

for some purpose.


5.3.13 Environmental Problems faced by people of Kuttanad

Social, cultural and economic lives of the population are shaped by

the environment around them. In Kuttanad there are a lot of problems from

the environment.

Table 5.14

Environmental Problems Faced by people of Kuttanad

Sl. No. Problems Number Percent

1. Skin Diseases 170 68

2. Diarrhoea Diseases 35 14

3. Water Pollution 15 6

4. Drinking Water Pollution 20 8

5. Waste Disposal 5 2

6. Transportation Problem 5 2

Total 250 100

Source: Survey data

Fig 5.8

Environmental Problems Faced by people of Kuttanad

68

14

6 82 2

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Pe

rcen

tag

e

Ski

n D

isea

ses

Dia

rrh

oea

Dis

ease

s

Wat

er P

ollu

tio

n

Dri

nki

ng

Wat

er

Po

lluti

on

Was

te D

isp

osa

l

Tra

nsp

ort

atio

n

Pro

ble

m

Environmental Problems

Skin Diseases

Diarrhoea Diseases

Water Pollution

Drinking Water Pollution

Waste Disposal

Transportation Problem


The data given in the Table indicate that majority of the respondents ie,

68 percent have skin diseases. So it is the main problem of people of Kuttanad.

Diarrhoeal diseases out of drinking water is the problem for 14 percent of the

sample, who answered that acute diarrhoeal disease is the most menacing water

borne disease prevalent in Kuttanad. Infections due to pathogenic E-coli is the

most common cause of diarrhoea. Water and drinking water pollution are

considered important by 14 percent, who are not satisfied with the quality of

water they drink and consider the paucity of safe drinking water to be their

worst problem. Waste disposal and transportation problem causes disturbances

for 4 percent of the sample surveyed. For the waste disposal they have no

special arrangements and commonly, untreated domestic sewage, human,

animal, agricultural and industrial effluents are emptied in to the Kuttanad water

system. Though, numerous roadway network is developed, but, even now, lacks

infrastructure support in terms of good accessible farm roads Out of the total

surveyed 50 respondents did not answer the question.

5.3.14 Environmentally Induced Diseases

The age-old practice of waste disposal in Kuttanad has evolved

with the river systems and the physical pattern of settlement. Many

houses in Kuttanad have a private latrine, a space covered on three sides

by palm leaves. The outlet is directed to the water.

The use of pesticides for agriculture is another curse of this place.

The increased use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides made the water


and environment polluted. The flow of water with mud from hilly areas of

Kerala to places below sea level makes this place a delta of all wastes.

The weeds and mosquitoes also play a pivotal role in the health of the

people. All these lead to several environment borne diseases for the

people living here.

Table 5.15

Nature of Environmentally Induced Diseases

Sl. No. Disease Number Percent

1. Typhoid 10 3.33

2. Tuberculosis 20 6.67

3. Hepatitis 10 3.33

4. Japanese Encephalitis 28 9.33

5. Fungal Infection 38 12.67

6. Arthritis 63 21.00

7. Viral Fevers 80 26.67

8. Asthma 51 17.00

Total 300 100

Source: Survey data

Fig 5.9

Nature of Environmentally Induced Diseases

3.33 6.673.33

9.33

12.67

21

26.67

17

Typhoid Tuberculosis

Hepatitis Japanese Encephalitis

Fungal Infection Arthritis

Viral Fevers Asthma


The above data shows that all the respondents are affected by one or

more of the diseases. All the interviewed people have the opinion that in

Kuttanad there are some environmentally induced diseases.

Viral Fever is the most common disease and it affected almost 27

percent of the sample surveyed. Arthritis is another serious disease in this

region. Asthma occupies third position, 17 percent of the people are victims of

these diseases, 9 percent of the people are affected by Japanese Encephalitis

and almost 7 percent are suffering from Tuberculosis Typhoid and Hepatitis

has occurred to almost three percent of the sample surveyed.

5.3.15 Expenditure Incurred for Environmentally Induced Diseases

People in Kuttanad are suffering from many environmentally induced

diseases mainly water born diseases. They have to incur a sizeable amount

from their family budget for this purpose. Since most of them are farmers they

have to depend government hospitals for the treatment. Even then some

amount is expended for these diseases.

Majority of the people are of the opinion that the authorities are not

doing anything against the menace. Nearly 90percent of the people are not

satisfied with the nature of treatment they get from Government hospitals.


Table 5.16

Expenditure Incurred for Environmentally Induced Diseases

Sl. No. Expenditure in Rupees Number Percent

1. Below 500 8 3

2. 500-1000 59 21

3. 1000-2000 76 27

4. 2000 and above 138 49

Total 281 100

Source: Survey data

Fig 5.10

Expenditure Incurred for Environmentally Induced Diseases

321

27

49

Below 500 500-1000 1000-2000 2000 and above

Majority of the families are ie. 49 percent are incurring more than

2000 rupees per year for these diseases. Only 3 percent have below 500

rupees for these diseases.


5.4 Impact of Environmental Pollution among the people of

Kuttanad

The people of Kuttanad are facing many problems due to

environmental pollution. Important among them are skin diseases, diarrhoea,

water pollution, drinking water pollution, flooding, waste disposal,

transportation problem, problems created by development and reduction of

fertility of land.

Multi dimensional scaling is used to measure the impact of

environmental pollution. Baleson and Greyer (1982) reported extensive

relevant application of 13 techniques for measuring public responses.

Almost 70 percent of the researchers surveyed had used multi dimensional

scaling (MDS). MDS has three stages of analysis;

5.4.1. Young’s s-stress formula for measuring the possible change

in the result due to additional observation;

5.4.2. RSQ Model for adequacy measurement of data used;

5.4.3. Stimulus co-ordinates for measuring the extent of impact of

variable.

5.4.1 Young’s S-stress Formula

For measuring the impact of the pollution nine variables are used

and opinion of people is obtained to measure the impact. S-stress formula

is used to measure the changes in the result, if additional data are included

in the analysis. Iteration stopped because S-Stress improvement is less than


.001000. Stress value is .04985. It shows that the possible change in the

result due to additional observation is very negligible as the stress value is

less than .05. So the data used is free from sampling fluctuation.

5.4..2 RSQ Model for Adequacy Measurement of Data used

RSQ values are the proportion of variance of the scaled data

(disparities) in the partition (row, Matrix or entire data) which is accounted

for by their corresponding distances. Stress values are Young’s S-Stress

formula values.

For Matrix Stress = .04986- is less than.05

RSQ = .98782-R2 is greater than .95

It shows that the data used for analysis is adequate as RSQ value is

.9878, which is greater than .95.

5.4..3 Stimulus co-ordinates for measuring the extent of impact of

variable

The nine variables are used for stimulus co-ordinates in two dimensions.

Dimension I is measured on ‘X’ axis and dimension II is measured on ‘Y’ axis.

The total over area in the graph is divided into four parts.

Positive value for both dimensions.

Most Important Factor

Positive value on ‘X’ axis and Negative value on ‘Y’ axis

- Important factor


Positive value on ‘Y’ axis and Negative value on ‘X’ axis

- Needed factor

Negative values on both axes

- Unimportant factor

Graph 5.1

Impact of environmental pollution

In the first stage two dimensions are calculated for the nine

variables.

Dim

en

sio

n 2

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

-

0.5

-

1.0

A2

A1

A3

A4 A5

A6

A7 A9

A 10

Dimension 1


Table 5.17

Nine Variables used to study the Impact

Dimension 1 Stimulus

Number Stimulus Name Dimension II

-.4253 A1 Skin Disease 1.2826

-.3509 A2 Diarrhoea 1.2619

-.5430 A3 Water Pollution .8715

-.5330 A4 Drinking Water Pollution -2.2926

-.2346 A5 Flooding -.7383

1.9563 A6 Waste Disposal .6260

-.3339 A7 Transportation Problem 1.2428

.2755 A9 Problems created by

Development Activities .5580

A10 Reduction of Fertility Of Land -.4440

Source: Survey data

In the second stage Euclidean Distance Model graph is used to

classify the factors in to four divisions. The findings of the graph are

presented in the following table.

Most Important Factor

Number Name

A3 Water Pollution


Important Factors

Number Name

A1 Skin Disease

A2 Diarrhoea Diseases

A7 Transportation Problem

Needed Factors

Number Name

A6 Waste Disposal

A10 Reduction of Fertility of Land

Un Important Factors

Number Name

A4 Drinking Water Pollution

A5 Flooding

A9 Problems created by Developmental

Activities

Source: Survey data

The Euclidean Distance Model shows that water pollution is the

main problem in Kuttanad, Skin Diseases, Diarrhoea and Transportation

problems are also have much impact on the life of the people of Kuttanad.

People are concerned about the waste disposal and reduction of fertility of


land. But they are least bothered about drinking water, flooding and

problems created by developmental activities.

In the third stage variables are ranked on the basis of public opinion

received. The result is shown in the following table.

Table 5.18

Ranking of Variables on the basis of Public opinion

Variables Mean Rank

1. Skin Diseases

2. Water Pollution

3. Drinking Water Pollution

4. Flood

5. Diarrhoea Diseases

6. Waste Disposal

7. Transportation Problems

8. Problems created by Development

9. Reduction of Fertility of Land

1.73

2.02

2.47

2.85

2.95

3.94

3.97

5.28

5.38

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Source: Survey data

The public opinion showed a different result. Skin disease and water

pollution ranked top as in the second stage. But drinking water pollution

and flood stand in the third and fourth positions. But these variables are

considered unimportant in the second stage. People are much concerned

about these factors. Problems created by development and reduction of

fertility of land ranked lowest in the order.


An analysis of socio-economic profile of the sample units revealed

that majority of the people are agriculturists and earning low income from

the occupation. Though there is abundance of water in the region, people

are in need of drinking water. Majority of the farmers are reducing the

number of cultivation due to various reasons. Crop loss and yield loss due

to flooding and salt water intrusion are recurred problems in many parts of

Kuttanad. These periodic calamities wipeout whatever gains are made from

the cultivation during good years and often leave the small and marginal

farmers in debt. People living in this area are suffering from various

environmentally induced diseases. Despite obvious connection between

environmental factors and health, little is being done to check the

increasing contamination of drinking water sources.

Even though considerable homogeneity is observed regarding the

ecological and agricultural, problems facing Kuttanad, heterogeneity also is

exposed with respect to some aspects. An attempt was made out to derive

some insights into the relationships between people and the environment,

how people reflect the environment, where they live and work, in their

consciousness. For people, living in an in environment like Kuttanad,

where water shape the lives of the people, water, agriculture, surroundings,

neighbourhood, poverty or problems of living, transport, roads,

employment, housing, sanitation and so on, forms as part of their

environment .

Chapter VI

Awareness and Response of the

Public on Environmental

Problems

Contents

6.1 Introduction ......................................................................... 182

SECTION I

Part-A

6.2 Need for Public Awareness .................................................. 183

Part. B

6.3 Public Awareness and Government Policies towards

Sustainable Development ..................................................... 198

SECTION II

6.4 Public Response Regarding the Environmental Pollution

and Sustainable Development .............................................. 207

SECTION III

6.5 Perceptual Environment ......................................................... 218

AWARENESS AND RESPONSE OF THE PUBLIC ON

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

6.1 Introduction

This section makes an analysis of public awareness and response to

environmental problems of the society with an objective of inquiring the

reasons and effects of it. The awareness helps to develop and modify the

behaviour of people in consonance with the environment. This, in turn,

creates and enhances the awareness of people towards their own

responsibilities for protecting, preserving and managing the environment.

The successful implementation of any programme is ultimately dependent

on the will of human to support, carry out and to continue such a

developmental programme. The humanbeing will be willing to participate

in such programmes or plans, only if they are well aware of the problems

and their status. Hence, awareness of bio-diversity for the population is

pre-requisite.

This chapter is divided into three sections: Section I gives the

awareness of the people of Kuttanad regarding the environmental pollution

and sustainable development, Section II analyses public responses on

environmental pollution and Section III explains the perception of people

on various environmental issues.

Awareness and Response of the Public on Environmental Problems 183

SECTION I

PART-A

6.2 Need for Public Awareness

As the earths’ natural resources are rapidly dwindling and our

environment is being increasingly degraded by human activities it is

evident that something needs to be done. We often feel that managing all

this is something that the Government should do. But if we go on

endangering our environment, there is no way in which Government can

perform all these clean up functions. It is the prevention of environmental

degradation that must become a part of all our lives. Just as for any disease,

prevention is better than cure; protecting our environment is economically

more viable than cleaning it up once it is damaged All measures-legal or

administrative are bound to fail to achieve the desired results in the absence

of public awareness of environment protection. Mass mobilisation to

educate people and make them conscious of the calamitous after effects of

environmental degradation-is a pressing necessity. Individually people can

play a major role in environmental management. We can reduce wastage of

natural resources and can act as watchdog that inform Government about

sources that lead to pollution and degradation of the environment.

This can be made possible through public awareness. Mass media

such as newspapers, radio and television strongly influence public opinion.

However, some one has to bring this to the public. If each of us feels


strongly about the environment, the press and media will add to our efforts.

Politicians in a democracy always respond positively to a strong publicly

supported movement. Thus, if people join any Non-Governmental

Organisations that supports conservation, it may influence politicians to

make green policies. In Kuttanad, the voluntary sector is quite relevant in

terms of local mass base, development perception, field experience and

human resources. They experienced that good results can be attained

through collective action and mutual support. Attachment of service system

to the local knowledge centres, to give information on all aspects of

agricultural and non- farm livelihoods, has resulted in the empowerment of

rural men and women in Kuttanad.

There are a host of environmental problems caused by human actions.

If we are to recognise that each of us is individually responsible for the quality

of the environment we live in, our personal actions can either worsen or

improve our environmental quality. Several people may feel that

environmental problems can be solved with quick technological solutions.

While a majority of individuals want a cleaner environment, not many of them

want to make major changes in their life style that would contribute to a

cleaner environment. To a large extent, the decisions and actions of

individuals determine the quality of life for every one. This necessitates that

individuals should, not only, be aware of various environmental issues and the


consequences of their actions on the environment, but also ,a firm resolve to

develop environmentally ethical life styles.

6.2.1 Awareness of people of Kuttanad regarding the Environmental

pollution

In this section an attempt is done to measure the awareness of the

people of Kuttanad about the environmental pollution problems and the

effects of such problems. For this purpose certain variables are used. They

are explained under the following heads;

6.2.1.1 Awareness about Environmental Pollution ; Gender-wise Analysis;

6.2.1.2 Awareness about Environmental Pollution ; Age-wise Analysis;

6.2.1.3 Awareness about Environmental Pollution; Education-wise

Analysis;

6.2.1.4 Awareness regarding use of Chemical Fertilizers;

6.2.1.5 Awareness regarding use of Organic Fertilizers;

6.2.1.6 Awareness regarding use of Chemical Pesticides;

6.2.1.7 Awareness regarding use of Organic Pesticides.

6.2.1.1 Awareness about Environmental Pollution; Gender-wise Analysis

(G.W.A)

Women constitute almost half of the total population in Kerala. But

their representation in voluntary organizations, for the development of


Kuttanad or public opinion, is comparatively low. This is clear from Table No

6.1, as the response from women is very low as compared to men.

Table 6.1

Awareness about Environmental Pollution of Kuttanad Sex- wise

Analysis

Sex Number Mean Standard Error

Male 255 36.7388 .30242

Female 45 37.0769 .49202

Total 300

Source: Survey data

The above table shows that both men and their counter parts are

equally aware about the environmental pollution of the region. The

difference in mean score is below one between the two sex. But women

stand in a better position than men, their mean score is 37.0769 which is

greater than that of men. The graph also shows it clearly that the awareness

of women is greater than that of men.

The hypotheses formulated about the awareness of people is tested

with Students ‘t’-test. The hypotheses that there is no difference in the

awareness of pollution between men and women is accepted, as the ‘P’

value is 0.666.

t. df sig.value

(2 tailed)

-.432 283 0.666


Graph No. 6.1

Awareness about Environmental Pollution of Kuttanad Sex- wise

Analysis

Mean

35.8

36

36.2

36.4

36.6

36.8

37

37.2

37.4

37.6

37.8

1 2

95%

CI A

ware

ness

Mean

6.2.1.2. Awareness about Environmental Pollution; Age-wise Analysis

Age of the citizen is an important factor having a direct bearing on

participation and awareness on environment. People get information from

various sources, such as news papers, radio and television, which make

them aware about the effects of pollution. In the younger age people may

not be much abided to environment protection but, as and when, age

advances they will become more conscious about the surroundings they

live in and exhibit a more mature line of thinking and acting on aimed

thoughts through their experience.

Male Female

Sex


Table 6.2

Environmental Pollution of Kuttanad; Age-wise Analysis

Age Number Mean Standard Error

Below 25 19 36.00 .44093

25 to 50 135 36.6074 .49599

Above 50 146 37.1479 .27787

Total 300 36.8566 .27215

ANOVA

Awareness Score Sum of

Squares df

Mean

squares F.sig.value

Between Groups 27.035 27 13.518 .637 .530

Within Groups 6010.087 282 21.237

Total 6037.122 300

Source: Survey data

The above table indicates that there is wide spread knowledge about

environmental pollution among all age groups. People, having the age

above fifty, stand top in awareness ie, their mean score is the highest.

Those below 25 have the least information about the pollution compared to

other groups.

But as per ANOVA table there is no significant difference between

different age groups, as the significant value is 0.530.


Graph No. 6. 2

Environmental Pollution of Kuttanad; Age-wise Analysis

34.5

35

35.5

36

36.5

37

37.5

38

Below 25 25 to 50 Above 50

Age

95%

CI A

ware

ness

6.2.1.3.Awareness about Environmental Pollution; Education- wise

Analysis.

Education plays an important role in giving awareness regarding

environment and its pollution. Educated people are more concerned about

the nature and its pollution.

Table 6.3

Awareness about Environmental Pollution; Education wise -Analysis

Awareness Score Number Mean Standard Error

Primary 63 36.65 .422

Secondary 146 37.13 .3710

College 81 36.70 .4720

Professional 10 39.75 .75

Total 300 36.98 .24


ANOVA

Awareness Score Sum of

Squares df

Mean

squares F

Sig

value

Between Groups 77.56 3 25.85 1.581 0.194

Within Groups 4596.38 281 16.35

Total 4673.94 284

Source: Survey data

It is evident from the table that, with advancement in education,

awareness level also increases. People having primary education stand

lowest with an average of 36.65 whereas people with professional

qualification stand highest with an average of 39.75

Graph No. 6.3

Awareness about Environmental Pollution; Education wise -Analysis

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

Primary Secondary College Professional

Education

95

% C

I A

wa

ren

es

s S

co

re


The ANOVA test conducted, to study variation between groups

showed that there is no significant variation between groups regarding the

awareness level.

6.2.1.4 Awareness regarding use of Chemical Fertilizer

The main ingredient of agriculture in Kuttanad is fertilizers because

of the washing away of soil and its fertility by flood. Chemical Fertilizers

used by agriculturalists cause some pollution. An attempt is done among

the sample group regarding the awareness of pollution caused by chemical

fertilizers.

Table 6.4

Awareness regarding use of Chemical Fertilizers

Awareness

Score

Use of Chemical Fertilizer

Low High Total

Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent

Low 18 32 33 20 51 23

Average 32 56 115 68 147 65

High 7 12 21 12 28 12

Total 57 100 169 100 226 100

Ch. Square

3.6734

Significance

5.99

‘P-’ Value

0.1593

Source: Survey data


Out of the total respondents surveyed 65 percent have average

awareness regarding the pollution created by chemical fertilizers. Twenty

three percent has only low awareness on the subject and 12 percent has

high awareness regarding the pollution.

Regarding the usage of fertilizers, out of the people with average

awareness 68 percent are using fertilizers in large scale. Among the high

awareness group 12 percent are using the fertilizers to a greater extent and

among the low awareness group only 20 percent are highly using the

fertilizers. Even though people are aware about the evil effect they are

using the same to a high degree.

Graph No. 6.4

Awareness regarding use of Chemical Fertilizers

12

56

32

12

68

20

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Low Average High

Awareness Score

Perc

en

tag

e

Low

High


The hypotheses, there is no relationship between awareness and

usage of chemical fertilizers is tested by using chi-square. The hypotheses

is accepted, as the ‘P’ value is 0.1593. So it is concluded that there is no

relationship between awareness and usage of chemical fertilizers.

6.2.1.5. Awareness regarding use of Organic Fertilizers

The use of organic fertilizers can reduce the acute problems of

pollution to a certain extent. An enquiry was undertaken to know how far

people are aware of this fact. The following table depicts the result.

Table 6.5

Awareness regarding use of Organic Fertilizers

Awareness

Score

Use of Organic Fertilizers

Low High Total


Low 11 20 11 44 22 28

Average 39 72 12 48 51 65

High 4 08 2 08 6 7

Total 54 100 25 100 79 100

Exact Chi- Square Values

4.98

Significance Value

5.99

‘P’- Value

.082

Source: Survey data


Out of the sample surveyed 65 percent have average awareness

regarding the effect of organic fertilizers. Among them only 48 percent are

high users of the same. Twenty eight percent have only low awareness

regarding the matter but 44 percent of them are high users of organic

manures. The balance seven percent have high awareness but only 08

percent of them are high users of it.

Graph No. 6.5

Awareness regarding use of Organic Fertilizers

8

72

20 8

4844

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Low Average High

Awareness Score

Perc

en

tag

e

Low

High

A hypotheses was formulated, as people are ignorant about the use

of organic fertilizers. It is tested with exact chi-square and it is accepted, as

the ‘P’ Value is .082, which is greater than .05. So it is evident that people

are not well aware about the use of organic fertilizers.


6.2.1.6. Awareness regarding use of Chemical Pesticides

The use of Chemical Pesticides causes serious problems to the

health of the people through pollution. People are aware about the harmful

effects of these pesticides.

Table 6.6

Awareness Regarding use of Chemical Pesticides

Awareness

Score

Use of Chemical Pesticides

Low High Total


Low 25 25 21 22 46 24

Average 57 56 70 75 127 65

High 19 19 3 03 22 11

Total 101 100 94 100 195 100

Exact Chi. Square Values

13.08

Significance Value

5.99

‘P’ Value

.001

Source: Survey data

Out of the total sample surveys, 65 percent have only average

awareness regarding chemical pesticides. Among them 75 percent are high

users of the same. Twenty four percent have only low awareness regarding

the matter, 22 percent of them are high users of Chemical pesticides. The

balance eleven percent has high awareness of the matter, only 03 percent of

them are high users of it.


Graph No. 6.6

Awareness regarding use of Chemical Pesticides

19

56

25

3

75

22

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Low Average High

Awareness Score

Perc

en

tag

e

Low

High

A hypotheses was set, as people are ignorant about the evil effect of

chemical pesticides. It is tested with exact chi-square and is rejected as the ‘P’

Value is .001, which is less than 0.05. So it is concluded that people are well

aware about the evil effects of chemical pesticides.

6.2.1.7. Awareness regarding use of Organic Pesticides

Organic Pesticides are used by certain farmers as on experiment

basis in Kuttanad and found very successful. But there is lack of

information regarding its use among the agriculturists of this region.


Table 6.7

Awareness regarding use of Organic Pesticides

Awareness

Score

Use of Organic Pesticides

Low High Total


Low 9 19 4 36 13 22

Average 33 69 7 64 40 68

High 6 12 0 0 6 10

Total 48 100 11 100 59 100

Source: Survey data

From the table it is clear that 68 percent of the surveyed have only

average awareness on organic pesticides and 69 percent are average users

of it. Twenty two percent have low awareness and 19 percent of them are

low users of these pesticides. Ten percent has high awareness but 12

percent are low users of Organic Pesticides. So it is clear that these

pesticides are not much popular among the agriculturists of Kuttanad.

Graph No. 6.7

Awareness regarding use of Organic Pesticides

12

69

190

64

36

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Low Average High

Awareness Score

Pe

rce

nta

ge

Low

High


PART. B

6.3 Public Awareness and Government Policies towards Sustainable

Development

Sustainable agriculture development is often at the centre of

discussions due to the obvious environmental problems associated with

farming activities. It is now recognized that sustainable agriculture

production not only involves identification and application of improved

technologies but also includes ecological and socio-economic concerns.

According to Food and Agricultural Organisation, (FAO) sustainable

agriculture is the management and conservation of the resource base and the

orientation of technological and institutional changes in such a manner as to

ensure the attainment and continued satisfaction of human needs for present and

future generations. Such sustainable development is environmentally non-

degrading, technically appropriate, economically viable and socially acceptable.

Sustainability of an agro-eco-system is its ability to withstand a

disturbance and restore its normal productivity. The disturbance may be

sensed by a stress or perturbation. A stress is defined as a regular, some

times continuous, relatively small and predictable disturbance. A

perturbation is an irregular, frequent, relatively large and unpredictable

disturbance such as is caused by a drought or flood or a new pest. Lesser

the time taken to restore normal production higher is the sustainability.


Based on survey and discussions with officials five sustainability

indicators are developed for the study. They are;

1. Provide safe drinking water;

2. Introduce soil health management;

3. Avoid amassing of waste;

4. Keep the Thannermukkom Bund open at least six months to allow

entry of salt water;

5 Increase the water flow.

These measures contribute to the sustainable development of

Kuttanad and also enable to face the troubles from flood and other natural

calamities. An attempt is made in this section to know how far these factors

contribute to the sustainability of Kuttanad.

6.3.1 Awareness regarding sustainability: Education-wise analysis

Sustainability is a concept, which is not much familiar among

common man especially in a remote area like Kuttanad. But education

helps to create awareness about this concept.


Table 6.8

Awareness regarding sustainability; Education-wise Analysis

Level of

Education Number Mean

Standard

Deviation

Standard

Error

Primary 49 65.89 47.33 6.76

Secondary 121 92.76 77.61 7.05

College 73 71.93 61.07 7.14

Professional 8 73.62 66.85 23.63

Total 251 80.84 68.25 4.03

ANOVA

Awareness Score Sum of Squares Df Mean squares F

Between Groups 34343.17 3 11447.72 2.50

Within Groups 1130291.072 247 4576.077

Total 1164634.24 250

Sig.value-.060

Source: Survey data


Graph No. 6.8

Awareness regarding sustainability; Education-wise Analysis

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Primary Secondary College Professional

Education

95%

CI su

sta

inab

ilit

y

Table No 6.8 shows the education - wise analysis of awareness of

the concept of sustainability. It shows that people with secondary education

have the highest awareness and as with advancement of education the level

of awareness came down. The third category with collegiate education has

an average of 71.93, which is less than that of people with secondary

qualification. The ANOVA test conducted shows that there is no

significant difference between different categories as regards awareness.

6.3.2 Awareness regarding sustainability; Age-wise Analysis

The concept of sustainability is tested among different age groups to

know their awareness.


Table 6.9

Awareness regarding sustainability Age wise Analysis

Age Number Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error

Below 25 57 92.22 74.83 9.91

25 – 50 156 77.06 64.33 5.15

Above 50 25 64.20 44.65 8.93

Total 238 79.34 65.57 4.25

ANOVA

Awareness Score Sum of Squares df Mean squares F

Between Groups 16006.35 2 8003.17 1.875

Within Groups 1003023.39 235 4268.18

Total 1019029.74 237

Sig.value-.156

Source: Survey data

Graph 6.9

Awareness regarding sustainability Age wise Analysis

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Below 25 25 – 50 Above 50

Awareness Score

95

% C

I s

us

tain

ab

ilit

y


Table No. 6.9 shows the age-wise analysis of awareness of the concept

of sustainability. It shows that category I with the age below 25 has better

understanding about the concept with in average score of 92.22. With

advancement in age, the awareness shows a decreasing trend. The second group

has an average of 77.06 and third group has any 64.20 as their average. It is

clear that younger generation is having better knowledge of the concept of

sustainability. But the ANOVA test conducted shows that there is no significant

difference between groups as regards the awareness of the concept.

6.3.3 Regulatory measures of Government for Sustainable Development

Every Government from time to time is making special package for the

development of Kuttanad. Unfortunately, these measures do not find suitable

impact on the development of Kuttanad. The area where the Government

should thrust importance is safe drinking water, soil health management,

amassing of waste, Thannermukkom Bund and level of water flow. These

variables are tested among the public and the following result were obtained.

Table 6.10

Regulatory measures for the sustainable Development of Kuttanad

Number Mean

1. Safe Drinking water 33 82

2. Soil Health Management 92 63

3. Amassing of waste 67 69

4. Thannermukkom Bund 18 75

5. Increase water flow 22 160

Total 232

Source: Survey data


Graph 6.10

Regulatory measures for the sustainable Development of Kuttanad

The Table No 6.10 shows the area where Government should give

importance for the sustainable development of Kuttanad. Increase in water

flow is the most essential area for the development of Kuttanad. Safe

drinking water and opening of Thanneermukkam Bund are coming next in

the order of importance. All these are related to the water body of

Kuttanad. The soil health management and amassing of waste are also

important as it is suggested by majority of people. Soil health management

includes avoiding the uses of fertilizers and turn to bio – farming. Graph

No. 6.6 also shows the same result.

200.0

0

150.0

0

100.0

0

50.00

95%

CI

susta

inabil

ity

1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00

Govt. Policy


6.3.4 Role of institutions in the sustainable Development of Kuttanad.

A number of non-profit organizations are working in Kuttanad for

the welfare of the people in the region. Among them five organizations are

taken considering their area of operation. They are Kuttanad Integrated

Development Society, Kuttanad Vikasana Samathy, World Vision,

Kuttanad Integrated Rural Development Programme and Gandhi Smaraka

Grama Seva Kendra. These organizations are conducting Seminars,

agitations, publishing certain magazines and helping the farmers for

cultivation and marketing of their harvest.

Table 6.11

Role of Institutions in the sustainable Development

Sl. No. Name Number Average

1. Kuttanad Integrated Development Society 14 90.07

2. Kuttanad Vikasana Samathy 85 99.93

3. World Vision 8 91.25

4. Kuttanad Integrated Rural Development

Programme

16 63.04

5. Gandhi Smaraka Grama Seva Kendra 29 92.10

Source: Survey data


Fig 6.1

Role of Institutions in the sustainable Development

0102030405060708090

Nu

mb

er

Kut

tana

d In

tegr

ated

Dev

elop

men

t Soc

iety

Kut

tana

d V

ikas

ana

Sam

athy

Wor

ld V

isio

n

Kut

tana

d In

tegr

ated

Rur

al D

evel

opm

ent

Pro

gram

me

Gan

dhi S

mar

aka

Gra

ma

Sev

a K

endr

a

1 2 3 4 5

Institutions

From Table No.6.11 is clear that Kuttanad Vikasana Samathy is

playing a crucial role in the development of Kuttanad. Gandhi Smaraka

Grama Seva Kendra comes next in the order. These organizations are doing

many things for the welfare of the people of Kuttanad. The farmers of

Kuttanad need their help for the smooth running of their agriculture.


SECTION II

6.4 Public Response Regarding the Environmental Pollution and

Sustainable Development

To overcome India’s present environmental problems, it is suggested

to create awareness, organise people around macro-environmental issues and

help them to solve problems by using new technology and scientific

knowledge. The growing concern about environmental issues can be

attributed to the UN sponsored historic meeting on environment held at

Stockholm in 1972. Since then, the concern for global survival had been

debated and discussed at various stages. Unfortunately, there is lack of

efforts to educate and organize people about environmental issues regionally

and locally.

In Kerala there is wide spread information about environment and

sustainable development. Government and non-governmental organisations

are engaged in various activities for public awareness through Medias.

Kuttanad occupies an important place in the culture of Kerala, as it

is the “Rice Bowl” of the state. Most of the people in this region are

farmers and they had little information about the environment and

sustainable development. Now things changed and because of the

interference of various authorities, people are well aware about the


pollution and its evil effects. The response of the people of Kuttanad are

discussed under six heads;

6.4.1. Developmental activities that are considered necessary in Kuttanad;

6.4.2. Measures to increase agricultural production;

6.4.3. Administrative steps to be taken to ensure smooth agriculture;

6.4.4. Regulatory guidelines for maintaining ecological balance and

environmental standards;

6.4.5. Participation in agitations and movements to solve the

environmental problems;

6.4.6. Membership in various voluntary environmental organizations.

6.4. 1 Developmental Activities that are considered necessary in Kuttanad.

Kuttanad requires certain developmental activities for the smooth

living of the people. Government has taken so many steps to implement

various projects for the development of this region. Even then this area is

lacking some important steps for the development. People are of the

opinion that proper drainage system and flood barriers are necessary to

prevent the impediments of agricultural production.


Table 6.12

Opinion of people regarding Developmental Activities in Kuttanad

Sl. No. Opinion Number

1. Construction of flood barriers 229

2. Drainage system 194

3. Raising Paddy bunds 113

4. Construction of check dam 50

Source: Survey data

Fig 6.2

Opinion of people regarding Development Activities in Kuttanad

1 Construction of flood barriers

2 Drainage system

3 Raising Paddy bunds

4 Construction of check dam

The above table shows the version of people of Kuttanad relating to

the developmental activities of Kuttanad. According to 229 respondents

construction of flood barriers can prevent flood and thereby development

can be achieved. For 194-surveyed drainage system is the best method as

flood is a natural process. So construction of flood barriers, drainage


system and raising paddy bunds can make Kuttanad a self-sufficient

agricultural land.

6.4.2 Measures to Increase Agricultural Production

The agricultural practice in Kuttanad requires special consideration

because of so many factors attributed to that region only. The farmers and

others living in Kuttanad are able to give valuable suggestions for the new

methods to increase the agricultural production in this area.

Table 6.13

Opinion of people regarding measures to increase agricultural

production.


1. Arrest salinity 113

2. Raise the boundary Bunds above the mean sea

level

159

3. Setting up of turbans 66

4. Encouraging bio - farming 115

5. Discourage use of chemical fertilizers 84

6. Produce new seeds suitable for the soil

conditions and that can survive flood

151

Source: Survey data


Fig 6.3

Opinion of people regarding measures to increase agricultural

production

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

Arr

est

salin

ity

Rai

se th

e

boun

dary

Bun

ds

abov

e th

e

mea

n se

a

Set

ting

up o

f

turb

ans

Enc

oura

ging

bio

- fo

rmin

g

Dis

cour

age

use

of

chem

ical

fert

ilize

rs

Pro

duce

new

see

ds

suita

ble

for

the

soil

cond

ition

s

1 2 3 4 5 6

Opinion

Nu

mb

er

From the table it can be seen that raising the boundary bunds above

the sea level that can survive flood, produce new seeds suitable for the soil

conditions and encourage bio - farming and arrest salinity are the important

measures to increase agricultural production in Kuttanad. The flood and

resultant salinity are the main cause of decrease in agriculture production.

Majority of the surveyed samples ie, 159 and 113 have this opinion. Only

66 respondents are of the opinion that setting up of turbans can increase the

agricultural production.


6.4.3 Administrative steps to be taken to ensure smooth Agriculture.

The Government authorities and Krishi Bhavan play a vital role in

the development of Kuttanad. This region needs special packages from

Government and non-governmental organizations.

Table 6.14

Opinion of people regarding the Administrative Steps

Sl. No. Agency Mean

1. Role of Krishi Bhavan 1.58

2. Subsidies 1.88

3. Crop Insurance 3.07

4. Labour Pension 3.46

5. Collection of produce by Government or Societies 3.17

6. Agriculture Mechanization 3.95

7. Interaction with farmers and single window system

by government

4.89

8. Support from voluntary organization 6.14

Source: Survey data


Fig 6.4

Opinion of people regarding the Administrative Steps

1 Role of Krishi Bhavan

2 Subsidies

3 Crop Insurance

4 Labour Pension

5 Collection of produce by Government or Societies

6 Agriculture Mechanization

7 Interaction with farmers and single window system by government

8 Support from voluntary organization

From the above table, it is clear that majority of the sample surveyed

ie, mean 6.14 suggested that support from voluntary organisations plays a

vital role in the development of Kuttanad. In addition, interaction with

farmers by government ie, mean 4.89 and agriculture mechanization ie,

mean 3.95 also do better for smoothening the agriculture of this region.

Collection of produce by government or by societies can be another method

for the upliftment of farmers of this region.


6.4.4 Regulatory guidelines for maintaining Ecological balance and

Environmental standards

The actions from the part of Government in the form of rules and

regulations can bring development of Kuttanad. Considering the living

conditions of people in this region Government should take necessary steps

for ensuring a better life here.

Table 6.15

Opinion of people regarding regulatory guidelines


1. Check water pollution 87

2. Increase water flow 223

3. Extend AC Canal up to Pallathuruthy 135

4. Deepen the shallow portion of the Vembanad lake 126

5. Widen the sea face of the Thottappally Spillway 251

Source: Survey data

Fig 6.5

Opinion of people regarding regulatory guidelines

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Nu

mb

er

Ch

eck

wat

er

po

lluti

on

Incr

ease

wat

er f

low

Ext

end

AC

Can

al

up

to

Pal

lath

uru

thy

Dee

pen

th

e

shal

low

po

rtio

n o

f

the

Vem

ban

ad la

ke

Wid

en t

he

sea

face

of

the

Th

ott

app

ally

Sp

illw

ay

Opinion

Number


The above table shows that majority of the sample surveyed ie, 251

have the opinion that the sea face of the Thottappally Spillway should be

widened. Increase in water flow comes next in order. Deepening the

shallow portion of the Vembanad Lake is the opinion of 126 samples and

extending AC Canal up to Pllathuruthy is also suggested by 135 samples.

So Government should take necessary action for all these, as it will do a lot

for preventing the troubles of flood in this region.

6.4.5 Participation in the Agitation and Movements to solve the

Environmental Problems

The law by itself is inadequate to bring about the desired changes in

society without public participation in the process. Here, an attempt is done

to see the public participation for solving the environmental problems.

Table 6.16

Public participation in the Agitation and Movements

Awareness Score Public Participation

Total Yes Percent No Percent

Low 39 18 34 40 73

Average 142 66 49 58 191

High 34 16 2 2 36

Total 215 100 85 100 300

Exact chi-square value Sig. value P value

4.68 5.69 .004

Source: Survey data


It is clear from the above table that among the 215 who participated

in agitation and movements 66 per cent is having average awareness

regarding the environmental problems, where as only 16 percent has high

awareness regarding the pollution problem. Among the people who have

not participated in the agitation or movement 58 percent have average

awareness regarding the matter.

The hypotheses, environmental movements and human involvement

in environmental matters has significant impact on developmental thinking

of the people is rejected as the significant value is 0.004, which is less than

.05. Hence, it is concluded that there is no significant impact of

environmental movements and human involvement on developmental

thinking of the people.

6.4.6 Membership in various voluntary Environmental

Organisations

Various Voluntary Organisations such as Kuttanad Vikasana

Smithy, Gandhi Seva Sang etc. are functioning in Kuttanad. These

organisations are rendering valuable services for the development of

Kuttanad. An inquiry was undertaken about the awareness or membership

in these organisations.


Table 6.17

Awareness or Membership in various Voluntary Environmental

Organisation

Awareness

Score

Membership in Voluntary Environmental

Organisations Total

Number Yes No

Number Percent Number Percent

Low 38 21 47 38 85

Average 118 67 68 55 186

High 21 12 8 7 29

Total 177 100 123 100 300

Source: Survey data

It is evident from the table that majority ie, 59 percent of the sample

surveyed are members of any voluntary organisation. Unfortunately, among

them 21 percent have low awareness regarding the working pattern of the

organizations, sixty seven per cent have average knowledge of the

organisations. Whereas among non-members 7 per cent have high awareness

and 55 percent have average awareness about the organisations.

The awareness of people about environmental pollution is analyzed

gender-wise, age-wise and education-wise. All these showed that there is

no significant difference among different groups. There is no relationship

between awareness and usage of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Even

though, people are aware about the organic manures and pesticides, they

are the low users of the same. The response of the people on pollution,


agitation and movements is very low. The hypotheses regarding the

awareness and response of the people is accepted as the analysis revealed

poor awareness and response of the people on environmental matters and

sustainable development.

SECTION III

6.5 Perceptual Environment

The residents of Kuttanad are interviewed to have an opinion on

different issues of the place. They are well versed in the welfare and

problems of the region. Hence, to have an insight into the actual living

conditions people’s opinion is sought. Various issues such as sustainable

development, pollution, proposed projects of the Government, working of

various Vikasana Samathies, environmental laws, movement by the people,

ecological disasters and main stream polices are discussed to have an

opinion on the above issues. The opinion is classified into five categories

such as strongly agree, agree, no opinion, disagree and strongly disagree.

6.5.1 Agriculture leads to sustainable development

Sustainable Development of a region is caused by several factors

but usually to a region like Kuttanad, it is attached to agriculture. It is the

most important factor that leads to the development. For achieving

sustainable development, a sustainable economy should be built. For

building a sustainable economy proper resource development and

utilisation should be planned.


Table 6.18

Agriculture leads Sustainable Development

Sl. No. Opinion Frequency Percentage

1. Strongly Agree 195 65

2. Agree 100 33

3. Disagree 5 2

Total 300 100

Source: Survey data

Fig 6.6

Agriculture leads Sustainable Development

1 Strongly Agree

2 Agree

3 Disagree

From the above table it is clear that majority of the people ie, 65

percent, strongly agree to the statement, that agriculture leads to

sustainable development .Thirty three percent agree and only two percent

disagree to the statement. According to them, agriculture is a minor factor

and industrialisation is the major factor leading to sustainable development.


Agriculture is the main occupation of Kuttanad. The soil and climate of the

region are suitable for rice cultivation. So development of the region is

possible only through agriculture.

6.5.2 Pollution Cause Hurdle to Sustainable Development

Environmental degradation and the consequent decline in

production will adversely affect the global growth prospects and

sustainability becomes a significant environmental issue. Water pollution

caused by the living conditions and use of chemical fertilizers and

pesticides, is the major hurdle of Kuttanad.

Table 6.19

Pollution Cause Hurdle to Sustainable Development



2. Agree 142 47

3. No Opinion 3 1

Total 300 100

Source: Survey data


Fig 6.7

Pollution Cause Hurdle to Sustainable Development

1 Strongly Agree

2 Agree

3 No Opinion

Pollution is the major problem in Kuttanad that affects the

development of the region. From the table it is clear that almost cent

percent of the people are supporting the statement. 52 percent strongly

agree and 47 percent agree to the statement.

The main cause of pollution in Kuttanad is use of chemical

fertilizers and pesticides. The water bodies of Kuttanad are well connected

with paddy fields. So water gets polluted by the use of these chemicals.

Another reason is the sanitation habit of people of Kuttanad. They are least

bothered about the sanitary conditions. Contribution of agriculture in

dumping agricultural chemicals, contribution of hospitals and industries in

the upstream part of the rivers by dumping toxic wastes directly in to river,

the increasing number of hotles and resorts that line the Vembanad Lake,


the untreated sewage from pilgrimage places on the riverbanks, houseboats

, motorboats, households and coir rettig also have added to the intensity of

water pollution. All these make the water polluted in this region.

6.5.3 Is sustainable Development a serious Issue before the People of

Kuttanad?

The sustainable development must be achieved without impairing

the resource base and its intrinsic qualities for a long time. It is a long-term

phenomenon. People of Kuttanad are facing many problems such as flood,

pollution, environment borne disease etc. Hence, an enquiry is conducted

to test the awareness regarding the sustainable development.

Table 6.20

Sustainable Development Serious Issue



2. Agree 160 53

3. No Opinion 11 4

4. Disagree 24 8

Total 300 100

Source: Survey data


Fig 6.8

Sustainable Development Serious Issue

1 Strongly Agree

2 Agree

3 No Opinion

4 Disagree

From the table, it is clear that 35 percent of the sample surveyed strongly

agree that sustainable development is needed. Majority ie, 53 percent agrees to

the statement and only 8 percent disagrees to such a statement.

Kuttanad needs a sustainable development in the long run. The

speciality of the region calls for a different projects from both Government

and Non-Governmental Organisations.

6.5.4 Proposed Project of the Government leads to Sustainable

Development

Central and State Governments have their own package for the

development of Kuttanad. Recently Central Government appointed

Swaminathan Commission to study the problems of Kuttanad and the

Commission submitted its report to the Government. There are many schemes


of State Government and Non-Governmental Organisation for the

development of Kuttanad. An opinion survey is conducted whether these

projects will lead to the sustainable development. The result is presented in the

following table.

Table 6.21

Proposed Projects of the Government leads to Sustainable Development



2. Agree 155 52

3. No Opinion 26 9

4. Disagree 61 19

5. Strongly Disagree 29 10

Total 300 100

Source: Survey data

Fig 6.9

Proposed Projects of the Government lead to Sustainable Development

1 Strongly Agree

2 Agree

3 No Opinion

4 Disagree

5 Strongly Disagree


From the table it is clear that majority ie, 62 percent agree that the

projects undertaken by the Government are beneficial for the people of

Kuttanad, whereas 19 percent disagree and 10 percent strongly disagree to

such a statement. They have an opinion that the farmers of Kuttanad are

not benefited by the projects. The intermediaries are taking advantages of

the projects.

The project undertaken by the Government and Non-Governmental

organisations is bringing a lot of development in Kuttanad in the form of

roads, bridges, communication facilities, new method of production ,

mechanisation in harvesting and the like.

6.5.5 Working of Vikasana Samathies lead to Development of

Kuttanad

The role of various Vikasana Samathies is asked and these

Samathies proved to be an inevitable part in the life of the people of

Kuttanad. There are various societies and Non-Governmental organisations

for generating public awareness, attracting Government’s attention and

helping the farmers of Kuttanad.


Table 6.22

Working of Vikasana Samathies Lead to Development of Kuttanad

Sl.

No. Opinion Frequency Percentage


2. Agree 192 64

3. No Opinion 45 15

4. Disagree 24 8


Total 300 100

Source: Survey data

Fig 6.10

Working of Vikasana Samathies Lead to Development of Kuttanad

0

50

100

150

200

250

Strongly

Agree

Agree No

Opinion

Disagree Strongly

Disagree

1 2 3 4 5

The table above shows that 7 percent agree that Vikasana Samathies

are playing a vital role in the life of farmers of Kuttanad. 64 percent agree

to such a statement where as 14 percent are against such a statement.


6.5.6 Environmental Laws are sufficient to Prevent Pollution of the

Region

There are certain environmental laws, which are framed by

Government for the protection of the people and nature. Recently,

Government banned smoking in public places and banned the use of

plastics. Such policies are initiated by the policy makers for the welfare of

the general public.Neither law nor judiciary can only bring sustainable

development, unless public opinion is created against environmental

pollution by making people aware of its benefits.

Table 6.23

Environmental laws



2. Agree 144 48

3. No Opinion 24 8

4. Disagree 66 22


Total 300 100

Source: Survey data


Fig 6.11

Environmental laws

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

Strongly Agree Agree No Opinion Disagree Strongly

Disagree

1 2 3 4 5

The table above shows the opinion of the people about the

environmental laws for the prevention of pollution. About 66 percent of the

people surveyed are of the opinion that existing laws are sufficient for the

prevention of pollution. But 26 percent disagree to such a statement.

The people of Kuttanad are of the view that it is not possible to make

special laws of Kuttanad. The Government cannot ban the use of fertilizers or

pesticides. The only thing that can be done is creating awareness about bio-

farming. Awareness regarding proper sanitation should also be given to the

people of Kuttanad, especially in the interior areas.


6.5.7 Movement by the people is essential for the development of

Kuttanad

Development of a region is possible only by the efforts of the people

living in that area. The active participation by the people to make anti -

pollution activities is a must for the development. Many people in Kuttanad

are working for this goal with various Vikasana Samthies. Recently, public

participation is extended to individual as well as to group or co-operative

level involving non-governmental organization, local bodies and

panchayats, in a true decentralized manner.

Table 6.24

Movement by the people



2. Agree 121 40

3. No Opinion 7 3

Total 300 100

Source: Survey data

Fig 6.12

Movement by the people

0

40

80

120

160

200

Strongly Agree Agree No Opinion

1 2 3


Majority of the people ie, 97 percent is of the opinion that public

participation is essential to prevent pollution of the region. Larger public

participation can solve much of the environmental management problems.

6.5.8. People of Kuttanad are Environmentally Literate

An effort was made out to derive some insight into the relationship

between people and the environment. It is observed that there is

considerable influence of environment on the behaviour of people. The

residents of Kuttanad are well aware about its environment. Vigorous

campaign will need to be conducted for environmental literacy through

school, college, mass media and popular science forums. To effect an

improvement in the future a multi-disciplinary approach is needed.

Table 6.25

People of Kuttanad are Environmentally Literate



2. Agree 204 68

Total 300 100

Source: Survey data


Fig 6.13

People of Kuttanad are Environmentally Literate

1 StronglyAgree

2 Agree

About cent percent of the people surveyed have the opinion that

they are aware about the environment. 32 percent have strongly agreed to

the statement. People of Kuttanad are well accustomed with the life in this

place.

6.5.9. Ecological Disasters-Hindrance Sustainable Development of

Kuttanad

Kuttanad is facing severe problems of natural hazards such as flood,

storm and so on. Heavy rain and resultant flood ruin the cultivation to a

great extent. Here, an opinion is sought to measure how far these affect the

social life and development of the region.


Table 6.26

Ecological Disasters Hindrance Sustainable Development



2. Agree 195 65

3. No Opinion 37 12

4. Disagree 27 9


Total 300 100

Source: Survey data

Fig 6.14

Ecological Disasters Hindrance Sustainable Development

1 Strongly Agree

2 Agree

3 No Opinion

4 Disagree

5 Strongly Disagree

Ecological disasters are a serious problem for 74 percent of the

people surveyed. According to them the smooth life in Kuttanad is


distorted by such disasters. There are people who disagree, ie 9 percent to

such a statement and 5 percent strongly disagree to such a statement. These

people are of the opinion that such calamities are natural for Kuttanad and

people have to get accustomed to such a phenomenon.

6.5.10. Main Stream Policies are insufficient for the Development of

Kuttanad

The Government has initiated so many programmes and projects for

the development of Kuttanad. These policies led to the development of

Kuttanad. Here, an attempt is made to assess the opinion of people

regarding the implementation of various projects of the Government.

Table 6.27

Insufficient Main Stream Policies



2. Agree 172 57

3. No Opinion 31 10

4. Disagree 26 9


Total 300 100

Source: Survey data


Fig 6.15

Insufficient Main Stream Policies

1 Strongly Agree

2 Agree

3 No Opinion

4 Disagree

5 StronglyDisagree

From the above table it is clear that, 17 percent of the respondents

strongly agree that the Government have failed in the implementation of

various projects. 57 percent agree to such a statement where as 9 percent

disagree and 7 percent strongly disagree to such a statement. There are various

projects for the development of Kuttanad. But their implementations are

pending because of various factors. People are concerned about its

implementation.

From the above analysis it is clear that people are aware of

environmental pollution but they are doing nothing to avoid or prevent it.

Regarding the sustainable development also the awareness level of the

people is high. They have suggested certain measures to increase


agricultural production and sustainable development of the region. The

perception of the people on different environmental issues also showed that

they are much concerned about the agriculture and thereby the sustainable

development of the region. They believe that only sustainable agricultural

system can provide or promote the sustainability of Kuttanad.

Chapter VII

Summary of Findings,

Conclusions and Suggestions

Contents

Section A

7.1 Summary of Chapters ...................................................... 238

7.2 Findings of the study ....................................................... 240

Section B

7.3 Conclusions of the Study ................................................. 255

Section C

7.4 Suggestions ...................................................................... 260

7.5 Scope for Further Research ............................................. 266

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND

SUGGESTIONS

The geological entity known as Kuttanad is virtually the man-made

granary of Kerala. Kuttanad is an ill - defined area with certain common

physical features and cultivation practices. Kuttanad, the name of the place,

should not be confused with the administrative thaluk ‘Kuttanad’, created

recently due to the changes in the administrative boundaries which have

been made from time to time. The image of Kuttanad, as low lying water

logged region, which is transformed into a vast sheet of water of varying

depth, during the monsoon season is a clear cut one. Kuttanad, a marshy

delta region in southern Kerala, is a replica of earth’s topography. Kuttanad

has a unique heritage of humanity with natural beauty and enterprising

people, is a wonder land in God’s own country.

Sustainability of production and productivity is highly important in

Kuttanad. Kuttanad soil, rich in organic matter is highly acidic and hence

management of this soil is very important for maintaining its productive

health. Innovative approaches are important to make agriculture sustainable

in economic level. The Padasekharam approach in Kuttanad provides a

good example of co-operative management of farming in clusters with

collective co-ordination of major common activities like dewatering, bund

construction and so on.

Summary of Findings, Conclusions and Suggestions 237

However, lack of proper water management is at the root of several

ecological distresses in Kuttanad. Multiple human interventions causing

obstruction to the natural and free flow of the river back water system and

consequent disruption to the seasonal mixing of saline and fresh water and

pollution of river and lake waters have drastically affected the dynamics of

the people in the region. Another important contributor to the ecological

decay is the inadequate management of salinity intrusion into Kuttanad.

Kuttanad agriculture is also threatened by the salinity intrusion from

Kayamkulam Lake in the South. A host of human activities in the lake and

its surroundings such as unregulated fishing, dredging for white Kakka

(Clam), destruction of aquatic life, hunting of Wetland birds cause

ecological decay. A serious ecological threat is the biological and chemical

pollution of Kuttanad water bodies. All these are making Kuttanad a very

unpleasant place of human habitation with common threat of many serious

water borne diseases like dengue fever, malaria, typhoid, cholera,

dysentery, jaundice etc.

Hence, it is highly relevant to conduct a study on the environmental

pollution and sustainable development of Kuttanad. It is only through

public participation the problems can be minimized. Such a study, it is

hoped, will throw light on the causes of pollution and barriers to

sustainable development of Kuttanad. This will be highly beneficial to all

those concerned with corrective measures to rectify the ecological disasters


prevailing in this area and designing future course of action for attaining

the desired sustainable development of Kuttanad. The present study is an

attempt with this end in view.

In the preceding chapters an attempt has been made to study public

awareness and response to the environmental problems and sustainable

development of Kuttanad. This chapter is devoted to summarise the

findings of those chapters, draw conclusions and make suggestions on the

basis of the findings of the study. This chapter is divided into three

sections. Section A provides a summary of the entire study and its findings.

Section B deals with conclusions drawn from the study and Section C

contains the suggestions based on the findings and conclusions of the

study.

SECTION A.

7.1 Summary of Chapters

The first chapter is introductory in nature. It unravels the subject and

significance of the study, the objectives of the study, the hypotheses

framed for initiating the study, the methodology adopted for conducting the

study, the survey design of the study and limitations of the study

A brief review of the earlier studies in the area of public awareness

and response to the environmental problems and sustainable development

is presented in the second chapter. This chapter is divided in to three parts.


The first part gives a review of earlier studies at an international level. The

second part is devoted for the national level studies and in the third part,

Kerala level studies are presented.

In the third chapter an overview of the land, people and

environmental specificities of Kuttanad is presented. It makes a brief

review of history, topography, geological and geographical characteristics

of Kuttanad. The ecological setting of Kuttanad and occupational

distribution of population are explained in the first part of the chapter.

Various types of environmental problems and its impact on human health

and wellbeing is presented in the second part of the chapter. The major

problems of the region are also identified in the last part of the chapter.

Chapter four examines the developmental projects of Kuttanad. It

highlights various programmes and projects offered by government and

non-governmental organizations. A brief review of Dr. Swaminathan

Commission is also presented in this chapter. Environmental laws and

pollution control form the last part of this chapter.

Chapter five gives an empirical analysis of the environmental

system of Kuttanad. In this chapter, the socio- economic background of

the residents of Kuttanad is examined. An attempt is also made to identify

the settlement variables and environmental problems faced by the people of


Kuttanad. The impact of environmental pollution on the people of

Kuttanad is analysed in the last part of the chapter.

Chapter six inquires the awareness and response of the public on

environmental problems of Kuttanad. This chapter is divided in to three

sections. Section I explains the awareness of the people of Kuttanad

regarding the environmental problems and sustainable development.

Section II deals with public response regarding the environmental

problems and sustainable development. Section III gives an account of the

perception of the people regarding various environmental issues.

Chapter seven, the present one, gives a summary of the findings of

the study, draws conclusions and suggestions on the basis of the findings of

the study.

7.2 Findings of the study

The following are the major findings of the study.

7.2.1 Overview of Land, People and Environmental specificities of

Kuttanad

Kuttanad is a mix of homogeneity and heterogeneity. There is

considerable homogeneity between different parts of Kuttanad with regard

to the environmental influence, agricultural practices, interaction between

people and their life styles. Heterogeneity can be observed with respect to

incidence of flood submergence, degree of salinity and variation in

configuration of agriculture.


From the agricultural point of view, Kuttanad, is divided in to six

agronomic zones, such as Kayal Lands, Upper Kuttanad, Lower Kuttanad,

North Kuttanad, Purakkad Kari and Vaikom Kari, each sharing 17.5

percent, 19.5 percent, 30 percent, 12 percent, 6.5 percent and 14.3 percent

of the area, respectively. More than 75 percent of the paddy cultivation in

the Alappuzha District falls in Kuttanad. Rice is grown during puncha

season (Nov-March) and virippu season (May-Sept). A significant change

has been taken place in the land- utilisation pattern in this area.

The literacy level of Kuttanad is 93 percent, people irrespective of

literacy level, depended upon paddy cultivation.

The agricultural labourers of Kuttanad are proud owners of a rare

legacy, the invincible power of human labour in transforming the major part

of Vembanad Lake into golden paddy fields.

The Vembanad lake is reduced to less than 1/3rd

of its original expanse

due to the large scale reclamation and encroachment, which reduced its

capacity to absorb flood water by 78 percent. With the construction of

Thanneermukkom barrier, the Vambanad lake is blocked and divided in to

two and its water-depth has been reduced. Thannermukkom barrier was

envisaged for arresting salinity intrusion, but it created new problems of water

pollution and weed growth. Prolonged period of its closure, to facilitate


puncha rice crop, has created ecological problems and adversely affected the

fishing community.

Along with rice cultivation, there is also the cultivation of

commercial crops such as coconut, areca nut and plantain. Besides, non-

agricultural occupations are also practiced here. Inland fishing is a major

occupation in Kuttanad.

In Kuttaad paddy cultivation is always under natural, social and

market pressures. The main cost of paddy cultivation are price of seed,

rent, charge of plumbing, manures, pesticides, machinery charges

harvesting and transportation charges.

The main agricultural problems of Kuttanad are problem of salinity,

impact of fauna and flora, water pollution, flood, air pollution, pollution

due to solid wastes, thermal pollution and soil pollution. Breach of bunds

due to force of flood flow also leads to crop loss in Kuttaad.

The major environmental and other problems of Kuttanad are

uncertainty of agricultural output, transportation, dewatering, power

requirements, poor infrastructure, the ecological imbalance, inclement

weather, non-availability of quality seeds, labour problems, instability of

crops, lack of finance, marketing of produce and high cost of production.


Unscientific and inefficient management of floods, construction of

leading channel, far smaller in size, improper spillway operation are all

reflected as cause for ecological distress of Kuttanad.

Throwing of waste materials, bio-wastes and un-wanted things to

rivers from towns, hospitals, industries, households, pilgrimage places,

hotels and resorts, dumping of agricultural chemicals and coir-retting have

contributed much to the pollution problem of Kuttanad.

7.2.2 The Developmental Projects of Kuttanad.

An Intensive Agricultural District Programme paved the way for

substantial progress in Kuttanad.

Specific projects of Kuttanad include spillway at Thottapally,

regulator at Thannermukkom and twenty-four kilometer long link road

between Alappuzha and Changanacherry.

Thottapally spillway was commissioned to drain off floodwater

from Vembanad Lake to the sea.

Thanneermukkam bund was constructed to check the intrusion of

saline water from the sea through the Vembanad Lake, for the paddy

intensification in low-lying areas of Kuttanad.

The Alappuzha – Changanacherry road constructed above the flood

level, sets as the barrier to free movement of floodwaters from the upper

Kuttanad to lower Kuttanad.


Alappuzha-Changanacherry road is designed with a parallel running

Alappuzha-Changanacherry canal to protect from the damaging impact of

the flood-level, but is lying heavily infested with water hyacinth, disturbed

with side encroachments and unscientifically built side roads.

The major and smaller roads and the railways constructed across the

direction of water flow, the bridges and culverts over the rivers and canals,

narrowed the flood flow space and enhanced the water way blockages by

silting and dysfunctioning of drainage systems.

The salinity problem affects the Kayal land of Kuttanad towards

February. Thanneermukkom barrier was envisaged for the prevention of

saline water and helps this area to raise a second crop during summer.

To control saline intrusion in Thrikkunnappuzha and similar region,

a few temporary salinity barriers are also erected on annual basis.

Prevention of saline water intrusion helps the Kari land to raise a

second crop during summer.

The Karapadam lands are affected by the intrusion of saline water

during summer and Thannermukkom bund helped to prevent this intrusion.

The regulator at Thanneermukkom was designed to prevent salinity

intrusion in the dry season and to retain the fresh water from rivers flowing

into the lake.


For protecting the crops against flood during crop period several

outer bunds have been made on the sides of padasekharams and is put to

repair and strengthen, from time to time, so as to prevent their breaching

during flooding.

The leading channel and the Thottappally spillway divert part of

flood water to westwards and reach Arabian Sea instead of flowing through

Kuttanad into the Vembanad Lake.

The combined effect of the spillway and the regulator was expected

to increase the area under double crop paddy by enabling the sowing of the

first crop to an advanced date in areas subject to north east monsoon flood

and the raising of a second crop by preventing the intrusion of salinity

upon water in the summer.

The second phase of Kuttanad Development Scheme consists of

construction of permanent bunds, improvements in the approach channel

leading to the Thottapally spillway, protective works of the bunds on fields

affected by the operation of the spillway gates and work connected with the

diversion of Idukki tail race waters from Muvattupuzha River.

The length of the present leading channel of the Thottapally

spillway is 5200 meters. It is designed to change the capacity of the

spillway. But experiences have shown that the spillway does not function

at its designed capacity. The anticipated flow of water during flood through


the spillway is 19500 cubic meters per second, but at present the actual

flow is only 600 cubic meter per second. This causes heavy flood every

year. Flood is caused and lasts long when the incoming water is not

absorbed into the lake or to the sea.

The rampant, unsystematic and unplanned development activities

have threatened the ecological balance of this region. When compared to

the remaining portion of the Alappuzha district, the development of the

region is to be considered separately due to the identity of its agro-climatic

zone and variations in the problems of this region.

7.2.3 Environmental Laws and Pollution Control

Authorities engaged in pollution control are State Pollution Control

Boards, Central Pollution Control Board, State Government and Central

Government.

The functions of State Pollution Control Board are advice the

government in matters of water and air pollution, research and

development and regulatory functions.

The Central Pollution Control Board has the same powers and

regulatory functions as a State Board.

The State Government has the administrative power over the State

Board, powers to make rules, power of revision against consent order


granted by the board, power about area of jurisdiction and special powers

to direct State Board.

The Central Government has similar powers over the Central Board

and the union territories as the powers of the State Government on State

Board.

7.2.4 The Environmental system of Kuttanad-An Empirical Study

The environmental system of Kuttanad consists of physical, man-

made, socio-economic, settlement variable and psychological. The socio-

economic environment gives a clear picture of the life style of the people.

The variables such as age, sex, income, and education are very important in

the psychological approach towards the development of the region.

Majority of the people surveyed ie, 97 percent are above 25 years of

age. This shows that people above 25 are more interested in responding to

environmental problems.

Of the total units surveyed the vast majority ie, 85 percent are male.

This shows that social problems are more important to men rather than

women.

Majority of the sample units ie, 56 percent, are Hindus.

About 48 percent of the sample surveyed got secondary education

and 28 percent have collegiate education.


An analysis of income level of the sample reveals that in aggregate

49 percent have income below Rs 25000. This shows that majority of the

people have low income in the region.

About 93 percent of the surveyed are permanent residents of

Kuttanad. People are living here on a permanent basis rather than floating

population.

Public tap is the most common source of drinking water for 55

percent of the sample units.

Agriculture is the main occupation of the people living in Kuttanad,

eighty four percent of the people surveyed are agriculturists.

Majority of the sample units ie, 75 percent have below three acres of

owned land.

Majority of the farmers ie, 73 percent have not reduced their area of

cultivation.

Majority of the farmers ie, 60 percent are continuing rice

cultivation, whereas forty percent have switched over to some other crops.

Out of the farmers who reduced the area under cultivation, 55

percent reduced between 25 and 50 percent of their total land holdings.


Out of the sample units who have switched over to other crops, 59

percent sought fish farming. So this is the alternative occupation for the

farmers.

Lack of profitability of rice cultivation is the main reason for change

over to other crops.

Majority of the farmers, ie, 72 percent of the surveyed agriculturalists,

reduced the number of cultivation of land.

The main reason for the reduction in cultivation frequency is lack of

profitability of rice cultivation. Sixty five percent of the sample have such

an opinion.

Labour problems, marketing of produce and flood and its

consequences are the other reasons for reducing the frequency of

cultivation. The storage option of the crop is uneconomic since storage of

grains demands its transportation from fields to centralized warehouses and

drying of grains to storable moisture level.

Drinking water problem, annual floods, water-borne diseases and

disturbances to fish cultivation are the major environmental problems faced

by the people of Kuttanad.

Skin diseases, Arthritis and fungal infection are the major

environmentally induced diseases in this region.


Majority of the families ie, 49 percent are spending more than Rs.

2000/- per year for the diseases.

7.2.5 Impact of Environmental Pollution among the People of

Kuttanad

An analysis of impact of environmental pollution on the people of

Kuttanad shows that water pollution is the main problem in Kuttanad. Skin

diseases, diarrhoea, and transportation problems are also have much impact

on the life of the people of Kuttanad. People are concerned about the waste

disposal and reduction of fertility of land. The health security of local

inhabitants is very closely linked with the ecological security of this region.

7.2.6 Awareness of the public on Environmental Problems

Both men and their counter parts are equally aware of the

environmental pollution of the region.

There is wide-spread knowledge about environmental pollution

among the people of all age groups.

With the advancement of education, awareness level also increased.

People having primary education stand lowest with an average of 36.65

whereas people with professional qualification stand highest with an

average of 39.75.


Out of the total respondents surveyed, 65 percent have average

awareness regarding pollution created by chemical fertilizers and 23

percent has only little awareness on the subject.

Out of the sample surveyed 65 percent have average awareness

regarding the use of organic fertilizers. Among them only 48 percent are

high users of the same.

Majority of the respondents ie, 65 percent have only average

awareness regarding the evil effects of chemical pesticides. Among them

75 percent are high users of the same.

Out of the total sample surveyed, 68 percent have only average

awareness regarding the use of organic pesticides and 69 percent are

moderate users of it.

7.2.7 Public Response Regarding the Environmental Pollution

According to majority of people ie, 229 the construction of flood

barriers can prevent flood and thereby development can be achieved. For

some others ie, 194 there should be proper drainage facilities for the

development of the region.

Raising the boundary bunds above the mean sea level, desilting the

water ways, produce new seeds suitable for the soil conditions and that can

survive flood, encourage bio-farming and arrest salinity are the important

measures to increase agricultural production in Kuttanad.


Majority of the sample surveyed suggested that support from

voluntary organisations play a vital role in the development of Kuttanad. In

addition, interaction with farmers by government and agriculture

mechanization also do better for smoothening the agriculture of this region.

Majority of the sample ie, 251, have the opinion that sea face of the

Thottapally spillway should be widened. Deepening the shallow portion of

the Vembanad Lake and extending AC canal up to Pallathuruthy are also

suggested by the respondents.

Even though, majority of the people participated in agitation and

movements for the development of Kuttanad, they have only average

awareness regarding the environmental problems.

Regarding membership in voluntary organisation, majority ie,

59percent are members of the said organisations but 21 percent of them

have low awareness regarding the working pattern of the organisations.

7.2.8 Public Response towards sustainable Development

People with secondary education have the highest awareness and as

with advancement of education the level of awareness on sustainable

development decreases.

People below 25 have better understanding about the concept of

sustainable development. With the advancement in age, the awareness

shows a decreasing trend.


Increase in water flow is the most essential factor for the development

of Kuttanad. Safe drinking water and opening of Thannermukkom Bund are

coming next in the order of importance. Soil health management and

amassing of waste are also important as it is suggested by majority of the

people.

Kuttanad Vikasana Samathy is playing a crucial role in the

development of Kuttanad.Gandhi Smaraka Grama Seva Kendra comes next

in the order.

7.2.9 Perception of people on various Developmental Issues.

Majority of the people, ie 98 percent believe that agriculture leads to

sustainable development of Kuttanad.

Almost cent percent of sample surveyed perceived that pollution is

the major problem in Kuttanad.

Out of the sample surveyed, only 35 percent strongly agreed to the

statement that sustainable development is a serious issue before the people

of Kuttanad.

Majority of the sample surveyed ie, 62 percent agreed that proposed

projects of the Government lead to sustainable development.

The opinion about the role of Vikasana Samathies shows that only 7

percent strongly agree that samathies are playing a vital role in the life of

the farmers of Kuttanad and 64 percent agree to such a statement.


About 66 percent of the people surveyed are of the opinion that

existing environmental laws are sufficient for the prevention of pollution.

Majority of the people, ie, 97 percent is of the opinion that public

participation is essential to prevent pollution of a region.

Cent percent of the people surveyed has the opinion that they are

aware of the environment.

Ecological disasters are a serious problem for 74 percent of the

people surveyed.

About 17 percent of the respondents strongly agree that Government

have failed in the implementation of projects and 57 percent agree to such a

statement.


SECTION B

7.3 Conclusions of the Study

The following are the major conclusions, arrived at, based on the

findings of the study.

Majority of the people living in this region are agriculturists and

earning low income from the occupation.

The land holdings for agriculture are below three acres and small-

scale agricultural operations are carried on by the people.

Majority of the farmers have not reduced their area of cultivation

and continued with rice cultivation. The padasekharam approach in

Kuttanad is an example of co-operative management of farming in clusters

with collective co-ordination of major common activities like dewatering,

bund protection, sowing, and harvest and so on.

There is a wide spread practice of reducing the number of

cultivation in Kuttanad. The use of combined harvesters has helped the

harvesting process but the procurement has not kept pace with the harvest.

Large quantities of paddy lie in the open as the procurement have not

commenced their operation effectively.

Farmers say millers often refuse to take the paddy alleging that it

does not confirm to the quality stipulations and with the onset of summer


rains the moisture content of the grains will go further up. Movement of

harvested paddy from the interior regions has also been affected due to the

shortage of head load labourers. The problem has worsened as the water

way is filled with hyacinth, making the movement of boats into the

padasekharams impossible. No steps have been taken so far by the

government for setting up warehouses in the nearby areas.

Along with rice cultivation, there is also the cultivation of

commercial crops such as coconut, areca nut and plantain. Besides, non-

agricultural occupations are also practiced, such as, fish farming and duck

rearing.

The main reason for reduction in the number of cultivation and

switching over to some other crops is lack of profit from rice cultivation.

Labour problems, marketing of produce and flood and their

consequences are some of the other reasons for reducing the frequency of

cultivation. The earlier resistance against introduction of machinery is

decreasing .Though there is acute shortage of labour during weeding and

harvesting operations, labourers are afraid of the decreasing number of

employed man days per year

The region is an unpleasant place of human habitation with common

threat of many serious water-borne diseases like Dengue fever,


Elephantiasis, Malaria, Typhoid, Cholera, Dysentery, Gastroenteritis,

Jaundice, and Chikungunya and so on.

Skin diseases, arthritis and fungal infection are the major

environmentally induced diseases in this region.

Water pollution is the most important environmental problem of

Kuttanad.

Skin diseases, diarrhoea diseases and transportation are major

environmental issues of the people.

Waste disposal and reduction of fertility of land need consideration

by the authorities.

There is a widespread knowledge about environmental pollution

among the people of Kuttanad.

Even though people are aware of the evil effects of chemical

fertilizers, they are the high users of the same.

Majority of the people is aware of the evil effect of chemical

pesticides. Still they are using it for cultivation.

Majority of the people has average awareness regarding organic

manures and pesticides and they are using it on low scale. This is a serious

issue requiring attention of the policy makers.


Construction of flood barriers can prevent flood and thereby the

development of Kuttanad can be achieved.

Raising the boundary bunds above the mean sea level, encourage

bio-farming and arrest salinity are the important measures to increase

agricultural production in Kuttanad. Moreover, the sea face of the

Thottapally spill way should be widened.

Non-governmental organisations have a great role in the development

of Kuttanad.

The public response to sustainable development of Kuttanad

focused attention on increase in water flow, safe drinking water and

opening of Thanneermukkom Bund.

People are of the opinion that it is agriculture through which the

sustainable development of Kuttanad can be achieved.

The environment and water pollution are the serious problems of

Kuttanad and the proposed projects of the Government lead to the

reduction of the same.

The existing environmental laws are sufficient to prevent the

pollution and public participation is essential to prevent the same.

Majority of the people has the opinion that Government have failed

in the implementation of various projects for the development of Kuttanad.


Back Water tourism is a fast growing economic activity with

potential for generating income and employment. Water tourism is adding

more pollution either as solid waste or as fuel contamination. Kuttanad

tourism development is hampered by the poor environmental conditions,

poor hygiene, presence of water borne diseases and lack of good health

facilities in the region. The growth of resort tourism has led to increase

land conversion and encroachment into the Vembanad Lake.

Ecological restoration and sustenance will improve not just the

quality of environment but also strengthen livelihoods and facilitate greater

economic development. The findings and conclusions of the present study

have relevance in restoring the unique Kuttanad as a ‘Paradise on earth’.

People’s participation, their skill and will with adequate financial

resources, backed by timely support from central and state Government

schemes, are vitalized, to promote her heritage, beauty, potential, strength

and development efforts, for the welfare of Kuttanad.


SECTION C

7.4 Suggestions

Based on the findings of the study and the conclusions drawn from

it, the following suggestions are offered as feasible to achieve the

development of Kuttanad.

The Government should declare Kuttanad as a Special Agricultural

Zone (SAZ) to achieve holistic attention to conservation, cultivation,

consumption and commerce. This will improve the productivity and

profitability of rice cultivation, which are vital for the development of the

region. The rice cultivation in Kuttanad is facing a crisis of reduction in

productivity and profitability. Both Central and State Governments should

seriously consider this crisis and form policies accordingly.

The main environmental issue before the people of Kuttanad is

water pollution out of the chemicals and pesticides used for agriculture. To

reduce the pollution, bio-farming should be encouraged and the use of

chemical fertilizers is to be discouraged. Orientation programmes should

be conducted by non-governmental organizations working in Kuttanad to

spread the disastrous effects of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. The

study revealed that, eventhough people are aware of the evil effects, they

are using chemicals to a large extent. This should be curbed by


encouraging bio-farming. This will reduce the cost of cultivation and

protect the health of the people living in the region.

Soil health management should be promoted to yield the

productivity of land and improve the fertility of soil. This is a specialized

area which needs continuous research and development. Rice research

centers should develop various models of soil management. The fertility of

the soil is washed away by continuous flood and intrusion of saline water.

This is a serious problem in this region. So research centers should develop

special manures for this region.

There should be a programme for water salinity management and

flood control strategy in Vembanad Lake, which will help to harness the

needs of both paddy and fish cultivation. The government should

implement various programmes suggested by M.S.Swaminathan

Commission, focused on Vembanad Lake and water salinity management

and flood control.

Any further steps of reclamation or encroachment upon water bodies

should be prevented and strict monitoring should be introduced on this

regard.

The special legacy of Kuttanad known as ‘Padasekharam’ must be

encouraged to strengthen the co-operative system of farming. It will be a

farm management revolution through the provision of essential centralized


services like farm equipment threshing, drying and storage facilities, agri-

clinics, agri-business centers and computer aided knowledge centers to

support decentralized small scale production.

Keep open the Thanneermukkom Bund before the arrival of the

monsoon or follow a practice of frequent opening for very short periods,

without hurting the interests of both rice farming and fish farm

communities.

Authorities should introduce credit and insurance system, which will

help to minimize risks from floods and other natural calamities and ensure

income and work security. Farmers are reducing the number of cultivation

and shifting the cultivation from rice to some other crops because of the

uncertainty prevailing in the rice cultivation in this region. The credit and

insurance system will help to reduce the uncertainty of rice cultivation and

increase the number of farmers doing the cultivation.

The farmers of Kuttanad are facing severe marketing problem of

their produce. To improve marketing infrastructure in order to help in

avoiding distress sales and to add value to the produce through agro-

processing, agro-processing centers should be opened in Kuttanad. The

agricultural societies, civil supply corporation and non-governmental

organizations can play a vital role in marketing the produce. Immediate

procurement by an efficient system, involving private rice millers and


government, may help to avoid uneconomic storage of grains.

Establishment of more rice mills and subsidiary industries using by-

products of local production, may also generate more employment

opportunities in Kuttanad.

Krishi Bhavan Officers and demonstrators must visit the farmers, at

least, once in a week during the paddy cultivation to clear the doubts and

suggest improvements. They must procure and supply high yielding

varieties of seeds to farmers at affordable prices and in times. Authorities

should conduct soil testing and implement schemes for seasonal paddy

cultivation. The scientist and panchayath linkage and periodical

interactions have to be promoted.

Agricultural Labourer’s pension should be given at the scheduled

time. The living conditions of the people who are not able to do agriculture

because of old age and other disabilities are very pathetic. The pension is

the only source of income for them. Therefore, authorities should disburse

it in time.

The researches and training infrastructure should be encouraged.

Training of the youth in operation and maintenance of the machinery may

add value to their skill and time as the young men and women are not keen

to take up agriculture employment. The research works at Mancompu Rice


Research Center must be carried on a wider scale to reach the benefits to

all over Kerala.

The agriculture department should take initiative for raising the

paddy bunds of all major paddy fields to about three meters above the

mean sea level with a minimum width of ten meters. A tarred road should

also be provided in the bund just as in Holland, where in such bunds, roads

and railway lines are built. If all the paddy boundaries are raised, flood will

not harm the paddy and fish cultivation. It will add conveniences for

tourism and travel to the local people.

The societies and agriculture department have to take up the

responsibilities of extending harvesting machines and threshing machines

to all the cultivators.

Availability of drinking water should be increased for the well being

of the people of Kuttanad, by reviving ponds and wells and through

desalination, that is, converting salt water into pure water. This is a good

method for solving drinking water problem in Kuttanad, where there is

‘water every where but not a drop to drink’. Rain water harvest is another

method for solving the problem.

Restore free flow of water by removing the waterweeds from the

entire water bodies in a systematic manner, maintain the quality and

facilitate navigation and drainage of water ways.


Do away with Land Utilization Act and put the land for better use.

Provision may be given to utilize paddy fields for vegetable farming, aqua

culture and so on. Fish production must be encouraged by all means by

encouraging one fish - one paddy approach.

Undertake developmental activities with a long range plan to

achieve sustainable development. To achieve sustainable development with

a participatory strategy, environmental awareness among the people is

essential.

Ensure community participation in the development processes at all

stages - planning, implementing and monitoring of the programmes.

Introduce innovative methods of waste management and avoid the

amassing of wasts.

Back water tourism should be encouraged in Kuttanad, where there

is ample scope for the same. The tourism department should introduce eco-

friendly tour packages for this region. Tourism development has to ensure

that it benefits the livelihood of local communities and there is an equal

spread effect of economic gains. The eco-tourism should help in restoring

the wet land and its unique eco-system services to improve the livelihood

of the fishing, farming or tourism sector community.

Crop integration or diversification with group farming, strengthen

the technology development to improve the productivity, ensure market


linkages for fair price, easy and cheap access to credit, value addition to

primary produce, and the like, would be welcomed to strengthen the

livelihoods and to bring back the glory of being the rice bowl to Kuttanad.

7.5 Scope for Further Research

The present study brings out the public awareness and response to

environmental problems and sustainable development of Kuttanad. Related

to this region and area, some important aspects require a study in depth.

The following areas are suggested for future research studies:

The Soil Health Management and Flood Control Systems of

Alappuzha District.

The role of Non Governmental Organizations in the development of

Kuttanad.

A comparative study of rice cultivation of Kuttanad and Palakkad,

the rice bowls of Kerala.

A case study on the Developmental Projects of Kuttanad.

A study on the problems and prospects of back water tourism in

Kuttanad.

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INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

1. Name …………………………………

2. Age

a. Below25

b. 25 to 50

c. Above 50

3. Religion

a. Hindu

b Christian

c. Muslim

d. others

4. Sex

a. Male

b. Female

5. Educational Qualification

a. Illiterate

b. Primary

c. Secondary

d. College

e. Professional

6. Family Income(total) :

7. Family Members

No SEX MARRIED AGE DEPENDED EDU.QUA INCOME

8. How long have you been a resident of Kuttanad?

a. Less than 5 years

b. 5-10 years

c. 10-15 years

d. Above 15 years

9. Source of Drinking Water

a. Public Tap

b. Well

c. Pond

d. Canal Water

10. Are you a traditional Agriculturist?

a. Yes

b. No

11. How many acres of paddy field you posses?

a. Below 1 acre

b. 1-3 acres

c. Above 3

12. Nature of Ownership

a. owned

b. Lease

c. Share Cropping

13. Compared to previous years, have you reduced the area under

cropping ?

a. Reduced

b. Not reduced

14. If, reduced , how many acres?

a. Below25%

b. 25-50%

c. Above 50%

d. Full

15. Have you switched over to some other crop?

a. Switched

b. Not switched

16. If, switched, state the crop

a. Coconut

b. Fish Farming

c. Vegetables

d. Plantation

17. Reason for Switching (Rank)

a . Lack of profitability

b. Labour problems

c. Marketing of products

d. Flood and other natural calamities

18. Are the changes made related to environmental changes?

a. Yes

b. No

19. If yes, due to what? (Rank)

a. Flood havoc

b. Salinity intrusion

c. Breaches of Bunds

d. Water pollution

e. Irrigation and dewatering obstruction

20.What are the fundamental reasons behind it ? (Rank)

a. Wrong development activities

b. Modern agricultural practices

c. The wrong perceptions

21. Have you reduced the frequency of Cultivation ?

a.Yes b.No

22. If yes, state the reasons(Rank)


b. Labour problems



23. Do you follow mixed farming ?

a. Yes

b. No

24. If yes, state the mode of operation

a…………………..

b. ………………….

c. ………………….

25. Have you ever converted your wet land into dry land?

a. Yes

b. No

26. If, Yes, how much acreage?

a. Below25%

b. 25-50%

c. Above 50%

d. Full

27. State the reasons(Rank)


b. Labour problems



28. Which of the following impacts of environmental problems is related

in the day to day life?(Rank)

a. Skin diseases

b. Diarhoeal diseases

c. Water pollution

d . Drinking water pollution

e. Flooding

f. Waste disposal

g. Transportation problem

h. Problems created by development activities

29. Have you or your family members ever been affected by any?

environmental degradation related diseases

NO AGE NAME OF DISEASES

30. Give the amount you and your family have spent in the last financial

year for treatment

a. Below 500

b. 500-1000

c. 1000-2000

d. 2000 and above

31. Do you or anybody in your family has been undergoing permanent

treatment for environment borne disease?

a. Yes

b. No

32. If yes, what is the disease?

a. Typhoid

b. Tuberculosis

c. Hepatitis

d. Japanese encephalitis

e. Fungal infection

f. Arthritis

g. Viral Fevers

h. Asthama

33. The extent of using fertilizers(%) Chemical

0 25 50 75 100

Organic

0 25 50 75 100

Pesticides-Chemical

0 25 50 75 100

Pesticides- Organic

0 25 50 75 100

34. Give an estimate of amount spent for Fertilizers/acre(per acre)

(Chemical)

a. Below 500

b. 500-1000

c. 1000-2000

d. Above 2000

Organic

a. Below 500

b. 500-1000

c. 1000-2000

d. Above 2000

Pesticides

a. Below 500

b. 500-1000

c. 1000-2000

d. Above 2000

Pesticides (organic)

a. Below 500

b. 500-1000

c. 1000-2000

d. Above 2000

35. What are the development activities that are considered necessary in

Kuttanad?

a. Construction of flood barriers

b. Drainage system

c. Raising paddy bunds

d. Construction of check dam

36. What are the measures to increase agricultural production?

a. Arrest salinity

b. Raise the boundary bunds above

the Mean Sea Level

c. Setting up of Turbans

d. Encourage bio-farming

e. Discourage use of chemical fertilizers

f. Produce new seeds suitable for

the soil conditions of soil and that can survive flood

37. What are the administrative steps to be taken to ensure smooth

agriculture ? (Rank)

a. Role of Krishi Bhavan

b. Subsidies

c. Crop insurance

d. Labour pension

e. Collection of produce by Govt. or societies

f. Agriculture mechanization

g. Interaction with farmers and single window system by Govt

h. Support from voluntary organizations

38. Regulatory guidelines for maintaining ecological balance and

environmental standards

a. Check water pollution

b. Increase water flow

c. Extend AC canal upto Pllathuruthy

d. Deepen the shallow portion of the

Vebanad lake

e. Widen the sea face of the

Tottappally spillway

39. Give your opinion about the orientation towards fish culture, agro-

based industries etc increase agricultural productivity

a. Advisable

b. Not advisable

40. Do you have any solution to solve the environmental problem?

a. Yes

b. No

41. If yes, give details (Rank)

a. Provide safe drinking water

b. Give awareness regarding proper

sanitation habits

c. Reduce the use of pesticides

d. Impose ban on sand mining

e. Avoid amassing of wastes

f. Keep the Thanneer Mukkam bund open atleast six months to

allow entry of salt water

g. Remove the latrines on the

embankment

i. To increase water flow

j. Conversion to bio farming

42. Have you participated in the agitation

and movements to solve the

environmental problems?

a. Yes

b. No

43. How do you become aware of environmental problems?

a. From own experience

b. Newspapers

c. Radio

c. Television

d. Voluntary organizations

44. Are you a member of any of the various voluntary environmental

organization?

a. Yes

b. No

45. If yes,

state the name of the organization

a. Kuttanad Integrated Development Society

b. Kuttanad Integrated Rural Development Programme

c. World Vision, Chiristian Agency for Rural Development

d. Kuttanad Vikasana Samathy

e. Gandhi Smaraka Grama Seva Kendra

46. What is their mode of operation?

a. Publication

b. Conducting Seminars

c. Enhancement of Communication

d. Development of organic farming

e. Mixed farming

f. Arrangement of loans and subsidies

g. Marketing of Products

47. What are the integrated approaches taken by the Govt. to promote the

economic and sustainable development?

a. Suitable living habits and housing

b. Improved agricultural base

c. Broad based cottage industries

d. Transportation facilities

e. Medical and family planning

f. Communication system

g.. Education

48. Give your opinion about diversion to tourism

a. Necessary

B. Un-necessary

AWARENESS SCALE QUESTIONS

1 Does agriculture lead to sustainable development?

A. Strongly Agree B. Agree C. No Opinion D. Disagree

E. Strongly Disagree

2. Does pollution cause hurdle for sustainable development of

Kuttanad ?



3. Sustainable development is a major issue before the people of

Kuttand.



4. The proposed projects of Government benefit the people of

Kuttanad



5. The activities of Vikasana Samathies lead to clean Kuttanad.



6. Are environmental laws sufficient for sustainable development?

A. Strongly Agree B. A gree C. No Opinion D. Disagree


7. Do you think that movement by the people is very essential to

protect the environment?



8.1 Movement by the people is essential for the development of

Kuttanad.



8.2 Are you aware of the various steps taken towards making people

environmentally literate?

A. Yes. B. No

9. State your opinion about the survival of kuttanad evolving a self

defense mechanism



10. Do you think that the main stream policies, strategies and

programmes of Govt relied up on are turned to be irrelevant,

ineffective and at times counter productive to sustainable agriculture

in Kuttanad?



APPENDIX – I

MAP OF KERALA

KUTTANAD

KUTTANAD REGION

APPENDIX - II

Paddy Fields Set for Sowing

Paddy Fields after Sowing

Paddy Crop

Paddy Crop Ready for Harvesting

Harvesting by Machine

Collection after Harvesting

Threshing by Machine

Drying in the Sunlight

Grain Ready for Procurement

Loading the Grain

Flood Havoc

Flood Havoc

Spread of African Payal

Kuttanad Padasekharam - The Vast Sheet of Water

Vembanad Lake

Thottappally Spillway

Thaneermukkom Bund

AC Road and AC Canal

Temporary Bund Construction

Kuttanad Back Waters

public awareness and response to environmental problems...

Documents