INT. REV. APP. PSYCHOL. (1971), VOL. 20, NO. 1

PSYCHOLOGY I N T H E U N I V E R S I T Y OF THESSALONIKI A N D ELSEWHERE I N GREECE

R O L A N D HARPER Lcwrhulmc Senior Fellow, Department of Food Science, University of Reading, England

I. Personnel

At the time of writing (March 1969} the only occupied Chair of Psychology in Greece is in the School of Philosophy in the University of Thessaloniki. University staff in Greece are government employees (civil servants) and developments depend upon the approval and direct support of the Ministry of Education. Pro- fessor Lambros Houssiadas was appointed to the Chair of Psychology in Thessa- loniki in 1965 and took up his appointment in 1966. Two further Chairs are vacant in Ioannina, a new University with two faculties in north-west Greece. One of these Chairs, which will be in General Psychology, has been advertised, but no appointment has yet been made in view of the lack of a suitable candidate. The other Chair will be mainly concerned with Child Psychology. Several other junior appointments are also vacant in the Psychological Laboratory in Thessa- loniki. These include appointments which have recently been announced by the Ministry of Education. The total number of vacancies here is as follows:

(1). In the Psychological Laboratory : Two chief research assistants (Ph.D.) Three graduate research assistants (B.A.)

Two graduate research assistants (B.A.) These seven appointments include two which were established previously. How-

ever, although all these appointments are now confirmed they still have to be filled, but once this is done they will greatly strengthen the position of Psychology in Thessaloniki in particular and in Greece in general. Although some adequately trained potential applicants exist, the total number of adequately qualified persons immediately available is probably insufficient to meet these demands. Separate consideration will have to be given to the additional financial support necessary for the work of these newly appointed members of st&.

(2). For the Chair of Psychology :

2. Accommodation The Psychological Laboratory existed in principle before the accommodation now available was obtained. This consists of a well-appointed office and two spacious laboratories or teaching rooms in the experimental school. The experimental school is an educational institution where the classes are deliberately limited in size and where psychological experiments are conducted and educational experiments are possible. Two additional rooms are occupied by Professor Andreas Michaelides- Nouaros, who now holds the Chair of Education in the University of Thessaloniki.

40 PSYCHOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF THESSALONIKI

Apart from the experimental classes, the main teaching of Psychology takes place in the building of the School of Philosophy at the principal entrance to the univer- sity campus. This building, which is the oldest on the campus, houses the Professor’s main office and the departmental library. Extensive building operations are in progress on the campus, including a new building for the School of Philosophy, but it will still be some time before this is ready for occupation. The experimental school, in which the other psychological facilities are found, is about fifteen minutes walk from the School of Philosophy.

Several hundred

3. Students and Courses

The University of Thessaloniki now has nearly 25,000 students, a figure greatly in excess of the planned facilities. Students who take Psychology are mostly under- graduates who have chosen this subject along with a number of other alternatives within the School of Philosophy. The available courses in Psychology are not intended to form the basis of a professional training in the subject. Special Schools of Psychology, in which the subject eventually forms the entire undergraduate cumculum, do not exist in Greece. Psychology as a profession has yet to be formalized and the co-ordination between the creation of new appointments and training facilities within Greece necessary to meet these demands has yet to be established. For various reasons there are more women than men amongst the Psychology students, as figures in table 1 indicate.

Two hours Psychology (Introductory)

TABLE 1 UNDERGRADUATE COURSE IN PSYCROLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF THESSALONIKI

38 9

Year

Two hours Practical Two hours Experimental Psychology, alternating every

other year with Developmental Psychology. (These lectures are taken by years 2 and 3 together)

1

16 6

10 2

2

Two hours ExperimentaI Psychology, alternating every other year with Developmental Psychology. (These lectures are taken by years 2 and 3 together)

One hour Tutorial (years 3 and 4 together)

One hour Tutorial (years 3 and 4 together) One hour basic concepts of Social and Clinical

Psychology

Number of students Female Male

Nature of the Courses

3

4

The number of students quoted are figures for 1968-9. Undergraduate examinations in the first year are written, but in subsequent years they are mostly oral.

ROLAND HARPER

4 . Psychology in Greece 41

Although changes are in progress Psychology is still predominantly a teaching subject. It is part of the School of Philosophy, which is equivalent to the Faculty of Arts in certain of the universities in the United Kingdom. Some of the battles of the past, which have been fought and won elsewhere to emancipate Psychology from Philosophy and to establish Psychology as an independent subject based upon empirical observation and experiment rather than on speculation, are still being fought here. Effective differentiation and the establishment of Psychology as an independent subject must necessarily precede attempts to combine and synthe- size with other disciplines. The empirical, positive, and scientific nature of con- temporary psychology has to be stressed repeatedly, not only outside, but also within the University so as to correct the false public image which identifies Psychology with Philosophy on the one hand, or with Psychiatry and Medicine on the other. (Definite steps to clarify the public image of Psychology in the United Kingdom were undertaken in the middle of the 1950s, with individual and personal contributions much earlier than this.)

In Greece, as elsewhere, it is reasonable to claim that Psychology should con- sist of a representative and balanced sample of current international trends. Unfortunately, however, the number of publications in the Greek language which indicate the nature and scope of contemporary psychology is very limited. Although the postgraduate student may be expected to read English or another foreign language, this cannot be expected of all undergraduates. Thus it is not reasonable to expect them to consult original material or major texts in a language other than Greek. However, professors are now required to prepare their lectures in printed form in Greek and copies are made available to the students without charge. Most of the students of Psychology appear to be eager to learn, and in their second and subsequent years of those with an adequate knowledge of the language the more enthusiastic turn to well-known foreign texts to prepare seminar papers and essays. Visits to places of psychological interest including those in Athens form a part oi the educational activities involved and have been carried out both independently and with the financial support of the Ministry of Education.

5. Laboratory and Experimental Work

Laboratory and experimental work is partly determined by the equipment avail- able, although much can be done to develop significant and instructive experi- ments from the simplest of materials. Immediate access to schoolchildren in the experimental school as subjects offers considerable potentialities. As already indicated the physical facilities in the experimental school are good. Apparatus and equipment immediately available is limited. I t includes a number of familiar ‘museum pieces’ timing devices, ergographs, dynamometers, etc. Modern equip- ment includes a student tachistoscope, cameras, projectors, tape recorders, and a calculating machine. Available tests include the WAIS and the WISC as well as various personality tests and a colourvision test. Further equipment will be developed or obtained for undergraduate work as the particular needs of post-

42 PSYCHOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF THESSALONIKI

graduate students arise. The services of a resident technician are not available, but special items of equipment can be made to order by outside contract.

6. S tudy and Research

The Psychological Laboratory in Thessaloniki possesses a good library for study and research. Contemporary texts, including most of the recent ‘Readings’ in special topics are well represented. Fourteen major periodicals are taken, but most of these involve only short runs dating back only to the appointment of Professor Houssiadas. The following journals are now available : Acta Psychologica; British journal of Psychology; British Journal of Educational Psychology; British Journal of Clinical and Social Psychology; Bulletin $Etudes et Recherches Psychologiques; Journal of Applied Psychology; Journal of Abnormal Psychology; Journal de Psychologie; Human Development; Psychological Abstracts; Psycholo- gical Bulletin; Psychological Review; Psychologische Rundschau; and Psychologie Frangaise.

Research workers are still few in number and research is usually carried out by interested individuals. Hitherto, research assistants and technicians have not been a part of the established system. Until the recently created appointments are filled any appreciable amounts of research will have to be done mostly by students (undergraduates) either as paid work of limited duration or as part of their train- ing in experimental psychology. Opportunities for post-graduate training in Greece are still very limited and until now most of those seeking professional train- ing in Psychology have had to study abroad, mostly in northern Europe and North America. In spite of the prospect of an increased number of opportunities for selected students to continue their advanced education and training internally, further developments in facilities and supervision will be necessary to maintain the the standards which can at present be reached only by study abroad. Given the necessary staff and facilities much progress could be made. So far, the potentialities for experimental work have only occasionally been exploited. Professor Houssiadas has a major interest in such experimental studies. In addition to his previous in- vestigation of apparent causality (Houssiadas, 1964) his present interests include :

(1). A development study of visual illusions with children in the experimental school as subjects.

(2). Exploratory studies of thinking in children, with special reference to the co-ordination of perspective. (Also in the experimental school.)

(3). The collection of exploratory data on children’s ideas of what is alive and what is not.

In view of the preceding comments it is not surprising that most of the work canied out so far has been primarily of a bibliographical nature. For obvious reasons historical topics have a special appeal. In 1961 Professor Houssiadas made a, valuable contribution on ‘Some Aristotelian views on sensation and perception in the light of current psychological facts and theories’. Mrs Mary Maniou- Vakali has recently completed a similar analysis of Aristotle’s views on memory as compared with present-day developments.

ROLAND HARPER 43 The titles of other theses already completed or under consideration, including

topics accepted before the present Chair of Psychology was established, are listed below :

A contribution to the study of learning to read (experimental investigation). A contribution to the psychology of adoption. TAT sequence analysis as a predictor of academic achievement in Greece. Mental factors in different age groups and educational training.

It is the practice for the thesis to be evaluated by the faculty as a whole, and not simply by the Professor of Psychology. Although his is the only expert opinion, this is not automatically given special weight.

In the course of the present Visiting Professorship, attention has been given to possible titles and topics for future research in terms both of internal commit- ments and of possible external collaboration. The immediate situation calls mostly for exploratory studies which can be developed further as interests, opportunities, and facilities arise or can be created. Collaboration has just been established between the Psychological Laboratory and the Department of Architecture in the Polytechnic School of the University of Thessaloniki. The writer gave two special lectures to the architecture students dealing respectively with ‘Colour and its effects on man’ and ‘Visual perception and the architect’. The deliberate dis- tortions in the rectilinear construction of some of the celebrated buildings in classical Greece in the fourth and and fifth centuries B.C. provided an admirable common link in the second lecture. On the practical side an explanatory ‘Psycho- physical’ study has been initiated into the functional suitability of various types of interior decoration for bedrooms, living rooms, offices, etc., based upon a series of available models constructed according to certain hypotheses which need not be deveIoped here.

7. Other Developments in Greece

Although this brief review is primarily concerned with psychological developments in the University of Thessaloniki, a few observations should be made about the position in Greece as a whole. Some relevant observations were made in 1964 in the appropriate section of the APA publication International Opportunities for Advanced Training and Research in Psychology. (Ross et al., 1966). This infor- mation is now partially out of date. A centre for Mental Health and Research was established in 1956 as a non-profitmaking private agency operating formerly under royal patronage and supported by various private individuals and organizations, including the Government both locally and nationally. In 1967 this organization operated in four main areas; Athens, Piraeus, Thessaloniki, and Patras. According to the 1967 Annual Report the activities of this centre are varied and, in addition to what would be expected in the clinical area, included collaboration with the Centre for Applied Psychology in Paris in operating a vocational guidance and personnel selection service. Another interesting development is the Athenian Institute of Anthropos. According to the 1967-8 report the staff of the Institute number 14, of which 3 were visiting Americans. The emphasis is mainly on

44 PSYCHOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF THESSALONIKI

clinical and cross-cultural studies and certain types of survey work (see Triandis et al., 1968, and Vassiliou and Vassiliou, 1966). A course of training in Psychology is also available in Athens at Orlinda Childs Pierce College, an American founda- tion with a long tradition in the education of girls. Psychology may be taken as a major subject in a Liberal Arts Degree (B.A.), with good facilities for experimental work.

8. Intern a tio nal Agencies

The APA document on International opportunities, etc. (Ross et al., 1966) refers to the fact that in Greece visiting scholars and professors need the support of international agencies such as UNESCO or OECD and that the number of appointments supported from such areas is rare. Useful help, especially in the form of reports and reprints familiar to psychologists in other countries comes from the United States Office of Naval Research. NATO Visiting Professorships and Lectureships also provide another possible channel through which support may be obtained.

A number of activities along these lines have been organized within the Psychological Laboratory of the University of Thessaloniki. NATO Visiting Lec- turers at various times have included Professors Harry Kay and A. T. Welford and Drs. J. Krendel and A. Sanders. Two major International Advanced Study Meetings have been organized within the Psychological Laboratory, with financial support from NATO, during the last two years : ‘Decision-making and age’ (1967) and ‘Current problems of visual perception’ (1968). The Proceedings of both these Symposia are in process of publication. These activities have helped psychologists from Greece and neighbouring countries to keep in touch with con- temporary developments.

It was stated in the APA document that visiting experts ‘need the services of a Greek interpreter’ and this can be confirmed. Much will depend upon the linguistic knowledge and aptitude of the visiting expert, but according to personal experience Greek seems to offer unusual difficulties as compared with the more familiar European languages. At this point it would be possible to draw com- parisons with other international assignments, as for example in Chile. In both countries the visitor is largely dependent upon his hosts for drawing attention to key problems and providing relevant documentary material about the special conditions in the country concerned. The very limited amount of information available in English about Psychology in Greece makes the visitor who does not speak the language even more dependent upon the goodwill of and information from his hosts. In some respects Spanish, in which most relevant documents in Chile would be written, caused less difficulty to anyone having a reading know- ledge of French or Italian.

9. The Future

In the light of the preceding information some of the problems and achievements of Psychology in Greece can be evaluated and some of the future trends anti- cipated. The traditional image of the subject is gradually being brought up to

ROLAND HARPER 45 date, athough much remains to be done. It was stated in the APA document (which referred to 1964) that there was little or no significant research activity in Greece. The position has certainly improved since then. At that time it was also stated that Greeks should be encouraged to return from abroad and the presence of visiting experts was necessary to initiate research, especially in Applied Psychology. These observations are as valid today as when they were originally made. If the subject of Psychology is to be diversified to meet the requirements of current international trends, in terms both of academic developments and of applications, diversified experience in terms of contracts with psychologists and Psychology abroad is still essential. Obvious progress is being made in the potentialities for training psychologists in Greece, but much remains to be done before the highest international standards can be reached on a comprehensive basis. Comparative figures indicating the approximate numbers of psychologists as a professional group in different countries are instructive. Up-to-date figures for the number of voting members of the Association of Greek Psychologists are not immediately available, but in 1964 they numbered 26. The American Psycho- logical Association numbers its members in tens of thousands, although the actual figures are not available here in Greece. The British Psychological Society, founded in 1901 as an after-dinner discussion group, had over 3,000 members by 1968. In the United States and the United Kingdom efforts are made to co- ordinate estimates of potential demand for psychologists with the necessary train- ing facilities. This remains to be undertaken in Greece and can only be attempted when a much more autonomous position has been attained for the subject.

It is difficult to evaluate objectively what special areas of Psychology should receive special attention in Greece, but some informed impressions are already taking shape. Clearly, the various developments in Clinical and Social Psychology which have been initiated will continue and expand. The educational area poses certain special problems in so far as developments must be closely associated with the particular needs and cultural background of education in Greece. These needs should not simply be treated as extensions or applications of the northern Euro- pean or the North American tradition. Professor Nouaros has previously surveyed some of these problems (Nouaros, 1952). Differences of language also created special difficulties and the adaptation to the Greek situation of selected tests in the cognitive and personality areas will obviously continue. Learning in the school situation is apparently a subject which has not been explored. There is also scope for practical developments and applications in the areas of Occupational Psychology and Ergonomics. In all these areas much will depend upon the aims, intentions, and general motivation of the Greeks themselves. Further information about the similarities and differences between the Greek and other culture patterns will be helpful. Useful pointers have already been established by the Athenian Institute of Anthropos (Triandis et al., 1968). It is also believed that there will be marked differences between the rural population in small scattered groups and the large and increasing urban population. Clearly, there are many potentialities for future research in a number of very different fields of Psychology. What is ultimately done will also depend very much upon the choice, priorities, and actions of a number of government agencies. The development of Psychology needs in-

46 PSYCHOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF THESSALONIKI

fluential support. The support of various international agencies has already been noted and is much appreciated both scientifically and professionally. However, it is evident that within the University of Thessaloniki the formation of a separate Psychological Institute within the School of Philosophy but with its own inde- pendent administration would be a useful step forward in this process of growth.

A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S

I wish to thank all concerned for making available the specific information con- tained in this survey, although the opinions expressed are my own. I also wish to acknowledge the support of the Scientific Affairs Division of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in the form of an award of a NATO Visiting Professorship during the tenure of which the present survey was prepared.

R E F E R E N C E S

HOUSSIADAS, L. (1961). ‘Some Aristotelian views on sensation and perception in the light of current facts and theories’, Proc. Leeds Lit. and Phil. Soc. (Sci. Sect.), 8 (7), 139-84. - (1964). ‘An exploratory study of the perception of causality’, Brit. J . Psychol,

Monogr. Supp. No. 36. Cambridge University Press. MANIOU-VAKALI, MARY (1968). ‘Aristotelian views on memory in the light of

modern experimental psychology’, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Thessaloniki. (In process of publication in Greek).

MICHAELIDES-NOUAROS, A. (1952). ‘Current problems in secondary education in Greece’, Ph.D. Thesis in Education, Indiana University.

ROSS, s., ALEXANDER, I. E., and BASOWITZ, H. (1966). International Opportunities for Advanced Training and Research in Psychology. See pp. 117-24 for section on Greece. American Psychological Association ; Washington, D.C.

TRIANDIS, H. s., VASSILIOU, v. and NASSIAKOU, M. (1968). ‘Three cross-cultural studies of subjective culture’, J . Personal. and Soc. Psychol. Monogr. Supp. 8 (4), 1-42.

VASSILOU, v. and VASSILOU, G . JEFPPI. ‘Clinical psychology in Greece’. In Progress in Clinical Psychology, chap. 12 pp. 241-7. Grune and Stratton, Inc.; New York.

A D D E N D U M

Professor Houssiadas has recently supplied details concerning a number of highly significant developments which have taken place in the Psychological Laboratory of the University of Thessaloniki since March 1969. The accommodation has been substantially increased and the Psychological Laboratory now occupies a spacious office and spacious laboratory facilities amounting in all to about ten times that previously available, in addition to the rooms in the Experimental School. There has been a substantial application for increased funds amounting to a yearly grant of 200,000 drachmas (approximately 82,600) for equipment and research. At the time of writing this had been approved by the Faculty, but the final approvd