psychology in the schools volume 10 ed

8/9/2019 Psychology in the Schools Volume 10 Ed

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THE APPLICATION OF A MODIFIED MASTERY APPROACH

TO THE TEACHING

O F

GRADUATE EDUCATIONAL

PSYCHOLOGY

ANNE F. TERRILL, V I NCENT

BERGER

AND

NORMAN W. MULGRAVE

University

of Pittsburgh

Only within the past

6

to

8

years has higher education begun to break with

the classical-humanist approach t o curriculum design.

Inff exible course scheduling,

in which the s tudent must

fit

the curriculum in order to pass successfully through

it, has given way to a new trend to individualize the learning environment.

It

is

within this framework that the concept of mastery fits as an appropriate tool for

performance assessment. At the very least mastery” has revived the old notion

of absolute grading, and

at

the very most i t has revolutionized such procedures a s

item and test construction and has spawned the birth of an “adaptive mode of

education” Glaser,

1972,

p.

5) .

In order better to understand mastery in its

current usage, it is necessary to discuss traditional methods of performance evalu-

ation. Subsequently, the concept of mastery is examined and its application to

an Educational Psychology course at the University of Pit tsburgh is carefully

detailed.

Traditionally, relative grading grading on the curve) and absolute grading

percent correct) have been the two most popular methods of evaluation. The

underlying assumption of both was that all students cannot learn the material

equally well; few will do poorly, the majority will fall in the middle range, and few

will score well. In a ‘relative’’ system of grading, the purpose of testing is to com-

pare students’ performance. The interpretation of an individual score depends on

the relation of the score to the scores of the rest of the class. For that reason,

a

test that uses relative grading has been called a norm-referenced test. That is,

scores derive meaning by comparison to the norm).

One of the aims of test construction in the “relative” grading system is to

select items that have medium difficulty and good item discrimination; thus by

their very design the items would spread out the distribution to maximize dif-

ferences among students.

If

the resulting distribution of test scores approximated

normality, the test designer could feel confident that his aims were met and he

could compare statistically a t least) students to each other. However, the grades

determined from these scores based on norm-referenced tests frequently are difficult

to interpret. An “A” is interpreted to mean that a s tudent is among the best in

the class, or a t least that he has done superior work in a given semester of a given

year,

as

judged by

a

given test instrument. Most instructors are aware that classes

vary in their achievement levels,

so

that it is possible that this year’s

‘B’’

was

last year’s “A.” More importantly, the student’s specific knowledge and com-

petencies in the course material remain unknown. This problem is compounded

a t the graduate level, where the majority of grades are A’s and B’s.

In absolute grading, the purpose of testing was to compare performance to

preestablished criteria. Frequently, tes ts were constructed without reference to

course objectives or without the construction of a table of specifications for the

test.

Interpretation of grades was unclear. Grades were based on the percentage

of correct items on a tes t in which the items were not necessarily representative



54

ANNE F TERRILL, VINCENT BERGER

AND NORMAN

W MULGRAVE

of the specific course content. Unless the test reflected accurately the domain of

behavior to be tested, again one would have no specific knowledge of the student’s

competence in the course material.

THECONCEPTF MASTERYND A MODELOR

ITS

APPLICATION

It was against this backdrop of test statistics and ambiguity of interpretation

that the concept of mastery emerged.

As

described by Bloom 1970), mastery

specifies the minimal level of acceptability that a student must attain in a course

of study.

It

specifies a cut-off point above which the student is considered com-

petent, a “master” of the material, and below which the student is not considered

competent. There are two basic assumptions of the concept of mastery.

One is

that

all

students in the class can achieve mastery. Bloom 1970) said that “our

basic task is to determine what we mean by mastery of the subject and to search

for the methods and materials which will enable the largest proportion of our

students to attain such mastery [p. 431 ” The second basic assumption of

mastery is that individuals may differ in the rate at which they achieve mastery

Carroll, 1963).

The purpose of a test based on mastery is to measure how much and what

specific aspects of the material the student knows. The student’s score is compared

to a predetermined standard or criterion. For that reason, this type of test has

been called criterion-referenced. Important to the concept of mastery is that

tests be administered frequently t o diagnose the student’s strengths and weaknesses.

Diagnostic testing throughout a course, “formative evaluation,” discussed by

Scriven 1667), has two major functions. One is that it informs the student

of

his

achievement and indicates areas of competence as well as areas that require further

study. Thus, the student is encouraged to use his study time more efficiently.

The second, and more crucial function for adaptive education, is that it aids the

instructor to prescribe new instruction as well as

t o

evaluate his past instruction.

In this sense the curriculum adapts to the student.

Glaser’s basic teaching model Glaser Nitko, 1971) offers a framework

within which .to implement the concept of mastery. This model has four inter-

connected components, each of which is discussed briefly below:

1 Instructional objectives

2. Entering behavior

3 Instructional procedures

4 Performance assessment

The first step

is

the writing of explicit

instructional objectives

see Mager, 1962).

The instructor analyzes the tasks that he expects students to learn into their com-

ponent parts. He lists, hierarchically, all of the behaviors that he expects students

to perform by the end

of

instruction.

A

detailed discussion of component task

analysis can be found in Glaser and Nitko 1971). The second phase of the teaching

model is initial placement testing. The student’s knowledge of the material and

related prerequisites is assessed when he enters the course. The results of this

test of

entering behavior

may lead the instructor to modify his course objectives

and methods of instruction.



THE APPLICATION

OF

A MODIFIED MASTERY APPROACH

55

On the basis of the specified objectives and the student’s initial placement

measures, t he instructor selects appropriate

instructional procedures

The selection

of varied instructional procedures such as programmed learning, multi-media

approaches, group discussion, lecturing and many others, is step three of the teach-

ing model. It should be emphasized that , ideally, instructional procedures may

vary at any time with the type of substantive material or objective that is being

taught.

The fourth pa rt of the model is

performance assessment

in its broadest sense.

This includes assessment throughout the course for the purposes of formative

evaluation as well as assessment a t the end

of

the course to evaluate both the tota l

instruction summative evaluation, Scriven, 1967) and student achievement.

When the instructor constructs a test he selects items that specifically measure

the objectives. The items are not selected because of their discriminating power

or item difficulty, bu t because of their content validity in relation t o the objectives.

The outcome

of

instruction as described above should not yield

a

normal

curve, but a negatively skewed distribution.

As

Bloom

1970)

said, ‘education is

a purposeful activity [p.

451”

and “the normal curve is the distribution most

appropriate to random activity [p.

451 ”

Interpretation of scores is unambiguous. The instructor can specify the be-

haviors th at the student has mastered and those he has not. This information is

especially useful to future instructors and to prospective employers. Further, the

same criterion of mastery can be applied meaningfully to different classes in dif-

ferent years.

APPLYING

HE

CONCEPTF

MASTERY

O TEACHINGDUCATIONALSYCHOLOGY

A

modification of the concept of mastery has been used for

2

years in the

Educational Psychology department.’ Approximately

300

students are enrolled

each trimester in Educational Psychology 201, which is required for all graduate

students in Education. The sections are large 80-1 10) and heterogeneous. Approx-

imately one-third of the students are in elementary education, one-third in secon-

dary education, and one-third distributed in such fields as health, business, speech

and higher education. Three-fourths of the students are working toward a master’s

degree and one-fourth toward the Ph.D. They differ widely in their background

in psychology. The size and the heterogeneity of the classes served as important

motivating factors that led to the development of a different approach to teaching

the course.

Inst ruc tion al Objectives

On the first day of the course the students are given extensive study guides

thab indicate what the instructors consider the most important instructional ob-

jectives t o be learned in the course. These objectives are grouped into

11

categories

that correspond to lecture-discussion topics. The students also are given

a

schedule

of class discussion topics and exams. They are instructed to use the appropriate

category of study guide instructional objectives when they prepare for class dis-

‘These procedures are unique at the University of Pittsburgh; to our knowledge

we

are the

only department to have utilibed the approach.



256

ANNE

F.

TERRILL, VINCENT BERGER AND NORMAN W. MULGRAVE

cussions, when they read the text, and when they are reviewing and studying for

exams. The students are informed that all examination items are based on these

objectives.

It

should be emphasized that the students are given the objectives at the

beginning of the course, with the understanding that instruction will be based on

the objectives. The student is informed of the minimum level of acceptability and

the methods by which he will be evaluated.

No

longer does the student have to

guess what the teacher expects him to learn and hope that he has done so success-

fully. “Guessing” and “hoping” are reduced to a minimum. With the anxiety and

ambiguity of the traditional classroom reduced, both student and instructor can

concentrate on fulfilling the contract proposed in the objectives.

Initial Placement Testing

On the first day of class the students are given

a

multiple-choice test of entering

behavior. This test is based on prerequisite material and on the substantive matter

of the course. It is scored immediately and the results given to the student. I n

addition to feedback concerning the total number of correct and incorrect re-

sponses, each student is given

a

profile of his subscores on each of the study guide’s

11 topic areas. Thus, the student can be somewhat selective in his future studying

and can concentrate on those areas in which he was initially weak.

Approximately 12

t o

18 of the students score sufficiently high on the test

to exempt the course. Mastery

is

defined as

?5y0

of the items correct and entitles

the student to receive an “A” without additional work. Scores between 60 and

74y

entitle the student to exempt the course and receive a

“B.”

The same criteria

are used for the examinations given throughout the course.)

A

third option is

Advanced Standing for the course. After an advanced standing fee is paid, tuition

is refunded, and three advanced standing credits are noted on the transcript. This

indicates that the student has fulfilled the course requirements by examination.

Exemption by test is one means to fulfill the course requirements. It allows

those students whose entering behavior sufficiently approximates the terminal

behavior required in the course the flexibility of taking higher-level courses and

accelerating through their program

of

study.

The remaining students benefit from the diagnostic feedback of the placement

tes t and continue to participate in the varied instructional procedures and frequent

evaluations. It should be noted that the placement test scores are not used in any

way for the determination of grades of these remaining students.

Instructional Procedures

The procedures in the course vary with the subject matter and the objectives

that are being taught. Some topics are taught by lecture, others by both large and

small group discussion. The students are given exercises that involve problem-

solving and application

of

the course material. Eight films as well as other audio-

visual materials and class exercises are used during the trimester t o clarify the

objectives. The students have first-hand experience with problem-solving tasks,

concept formation and verbal learning materials, and testing instruments that

measure such variables as intelligence and creativity.



THE APPLICATION OF A MODIFIED MASTERY APPROACH

57

Performance ssessment

Students have two opportunities to master the material of the first half of the

course and two chances on the material of the second half. Mastery again is defined

as

75y

of the items correct and entitles the student to an

“A”

on the test.

A

score

of

60

correct represents a

“B”

on the test.

The early-midterm and midterm are parallel or equivalent test forms that

cover the same instructional objectives. The early-midterm is given approximately

one-fourth of the way through the course, and the “midterm” is given

at

th e half-

way point.

If

the student achieves mastery on the early midterm he can accept

that score or can try to improve his score on the midterm exam. While students

are encouraged to take both exams, only their higher score is counted.

The early final and final are parallel or equivalent test forms that cover the

remaining half of the instructional objectives detailed in the study guides. The

early final is given three-quarters of the way through the term and the final

at

the

end of the term. Students who achieve mastery on the early final can accept that

score or can try to improve their score on the final exam. The highest score con-

tributes to the grade.

As is the case with the initial placement test, all exams are scored immediately

and the results given to the student. The student is informed of his correct and

incorrect responses. I n addition, the student receives detailed information as to

which course objectives he has mastered and which require further study.

The student’s final grade is computed by combining the higher of each pair of

test scores.

A

total of

75y

of the items correct equals an

A; 60

correct equals a

B.

This multiple testing procedure has four purposes. First, the early midterm

and early final can serve as diagnostic tools for the student.

If

the student does

not reach mastery at the first testing, he knows which material was missed and

requires further study for the second testing. Second, the multiple testings allow

some students to accelerate through the course. A student who achieves mastery

on the early midterm and on the early final can complete the course several weeks

before the term’s end. Third, the testings allow the instructor to monitor student

achievement and to revise objectives and procedures

if

necessary. Fourth, th e

testing procedure attempts to deal with the notion, prominent in Carroll’s (1963)

theory, that the rate of learning varies with different individuals. In addition to

acceleration through the course, consideration is given to those students who may

benefit from extension of the trimester. Students who are judged to fall far below

the mastery cutoff are encouraged to take an “incomplete” and join the next

trimester’s class.

RELATIONSHIPO

“COMPETENCY

BASED”

TEACHER

DUCATIONND CERTIFICATIONROGRAMS

Today one hears about the need for both “competency based” teacher edu-

cation and certification programs as well as the desire for multiple options or paths

to meet these competencies. The competency concept refers to education and

certification as dependent not on the educational equivalent of “phony baloney,”

ie.

the assembling of a certain number of slices called credits, but rather on a

demonstration of competencies that faculties and others agree are requisite to good

psychology in the schools volume 10 ed

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