Psychology G544 Revision Notes

Psychology G544 Section A Revision Notes

Hypothesis

Experimental hypothesis – predicts the effect of the IV on the DV.Operationalised hypothesis – shows how variables are going to be tested, by describing them.Null hypothesis – states that there will be no effect of the IV on the DV.One tailed hypothesis – predicts the direction in which results are expected to occur (directional) ie, revision improves exam performance.Two tailed hypothesis – states there is some kind of difference between two events (non-directional) ie, revision will affect exam performance.

Experiments

Independent variable – the variable that you manipulate (cause)Dependent variable – the variable that you measure (effect)

Experimental designDesign Repeated measures Independent measures Matched pairsExplanation

Performance of participants in one condition compared with performance of the same participants in another condition

Performance of participants in one condition compared with performance of different participants in another condition

Participants in each condition matched to eac other on variables, such as age, sex, IQ, etc (so it’s like they are the same person in different conditions)

Strengths Avoids participant variables/individual differences, as the same participants are used

No order effects, as different participants used in each condition

Overcomes problems of individual differences and, as they are matched on traits and also overcomes problem of order effects, because different participants are used

Weaknesses

There could be order effects – person may gain practice, become bored or tired

Problem of participant variables/individual differences because different participants are being used and everyone’s different, so there could be differences in performance of participants.

Can be costly and time-consuming because there needs to be some technique of matching the participants.

Type of experimentExperiment

Laboratory Field Quasi (natural)

Explanation

Conducted in highly controlled conditions and usually in laboratory settings

Conducted in the participants’ own environment

The independent variable is naturally-occurring, and therefore not manipulated

Strengths There are high levels of control (objective), so extraneous variables are avoided, and the IV can be isolated to measure the effect on the DV, and therefore we can infer cause and effect

Highly reliable because of the high levels of control and these high levels of control produce a standardised procedure, making it easy to repeat to look for consistent or similar findings.

High in ecological validity, because it is conducted in the participant’s natural environment, so therefore they will act normally, and the results will be representative of everyday life and can be generalised to other settings.

The participants may not know they are being studied, so will be less likely to respond to demand characteristics, which makes the study more valid (because you’re measuring what you’re supposed to measure).

The IV is not manipulated, so there is less control, making the situation more ecologically valid, so it is more generalisable to other situations/people.

Weaknesses

Low in ecological validity because laboratory experiments do not relate to everyday life, as the situation is full of control. Therefore, it may be hard to generalise results to other situations, which are not as

The researcher cannot isolate the IV to measure the effect on the DV as they cannot fully control the situation. Therefore, we cannot really infer cause and effect as we cannot be sure that the IV is effecting

The researcher has to wait for the conditions to happen naturally, because they are not allowed to manipulate the IV. Therefore, they could be waiting a long time or they may not have that many participants, so the

controlled, as the participant could behave differently in a controlled situation.

High levels of control could produce an artificial situation, and therefore the participants could show demand characteristics or respond to social-desirability bias if they guess the aim from the controls.

Task could be low in mundane realism, and not representative of a task completed in everyday life.

the DV and that it is not another variable, such as an extraneous variable.

Not very reliable, because there is not a lot of control and no complete standardised procedure. Therefore, it is harder to replicate in exactly the same way, so it will be hard to find the same findings again.

There could be ethical issues to do with consent and withdrawal, because the participant often does not know they are being studied, and it would lower the validity if they did know they were being studied.

sample isn’t representative of the target population.

Self-Report

Self-report method

Questionnaire Interview Psychometric test

Explanation

Questions where the participant gives a written response or responds on the computer

Questions asked face-to-face or over the phone

Questionnaire that measures a psychological variable ie, what type of person someone is or how they learn best

Strengths Data can be collected from a large number of people quickly and cheaply.

People may be more willing to give away personal information on paper than they would face-to-face, especially if the questionnaire is anonymous.

Questionnaires are reliable, as the same questionnaire can be given out again (standardised).

Structured interviews can easily be repeated as there is a pre-determined set of questions, and therefore it is reliable and standardised.

Detailed information can be gained if it is unstructured because the researcher can dig deeper.

Provides lots of quantitative data, which is easy to analyse and compare with other participants.

Data can be collected from a large number of people quickly and cheaply because it is easy to give out.

Weaknesses

People may just tick any box, without reading the question properly, because they cannot be bothered.

Sample filling in questionnaires could be biased because only literate people with time would fill them in.

There could be interviewer-bias or social-desirability bias because the participant may respond in a way they think the interviewer wants them to, and therefore the data is not completely accurate.

Designer bias because the designer interprets the data and they could interpret it differently to another person.

Labelling somebody as a particular person could encourage them to behave in that way and cause harm (ethics).

Rating/likert scale;On a scale of 1-5 (1 being very happy and 5 being very sad), how happy are you with your life?1 2 3 4 5

+ Quantitative numerical data collected, which is easy to analyse and easy to compare with other results as no interpretation of the researcher is needed- Participants’ choices limited, so no in-depth information gathered, so researchers do not know why the participants rated themselves at a particular level

Fixed choice response; (closed question)Are you male or female? (Please circle)Male Female+ - Same strengths and weaknesses as above

Open ended question;What do you think of the current issues facing England today?+ In-depth qualitative data can be gathered as the participants can give reasons for their answer and explain themselves. This gives the participant freedom to write what they want and to gain their opinion- Researchers may interpret a participants’ answer in the wrong way or differently from how another researcher may interpret it. It is also harder to compare responses from open-ended questions because it is not quantitative data

Interviews;You can have different types of interviews, including structured, where you pre-plan the questions you will ask, and only ask those questions to obtain responses, unstructured, where you do not plan the interview at all and let it flow freely or semi-structured, where you partially plan the questions but then let it flow naturally.

These different types of interview all have their advantages and disadvantages. With structured interviews, you only obtain the information you have set out to obtain, but with unstructured, you can get lots of information which may not be completely relevant to what you are trying to find out.

Observation

Type of observation

Naturalistic Controlled Participant

Explanation

Participants’ behaviour recorded in their own environment

Participants’ behaviour recorded in a situation created by the researcher

Researcher pretends to be a participant to observe them

Strengths High ecological validity, because they are in their own natural environment, and so won’t respond to demand characteristics or social-desirability bias due to high levels of control (as it isn’t highly controlled)

Levels of control quite high, as the situation is manually created by the researcher, so therefore extraneous variables are controlled, so the observation is reliable, and can be repeated again in the same way (standardised procedure)

Adds to richness of data, especially if they become a trusted member of the group, and is therefore high in validity.

There could be access to data which is unobtainable by other methods, so more in-depth information is discovered.

Weaknesses

If participants realise they are being watched, they may respond to demand characteristics, making it less valid.

As it is in the participants’ own environment, the environment is not controlled, and therefore will be harder to replicate.

No manipulation of the IV (as it is not an experiment), so we cannot infer cause and effect.

Participant is likely to know they are being observed because the situation is controlled, which could create demand characteristics or social-desirability bias, lowering the validity.

The researcher could alter the group in some way when they join, lowering the validity.

Observer-bias, because the observer is only recording what they want to see, or they could become emotionally involved with the group, and report observations in a subjective way.

As well as participant observation, there is non-participant observation, which is where the researcher is not part of the group, and observes them from outside of the group.There are two more different types of observation, which include;Covert observation – where the researcher doesn’t inform the participants that they are being observed and doesn’t gain permission to study them.Overt observation – where the researcher informs the participants that they are being observed and gains permission to study them.

Event sampling – recording behaviours every time a particular behaviour occurs.+ No behaviour is missed, so a full set of data is gathered- Difficult to record behaviour if many behaviours are displayed at once

Time sampling – recording behaviours at particular time intervals ie, every minute.+ Less intensive as there aren’t many behaviours displayed at one time- Behaviour that occurs outside of the time intervals cannot be recorded and are therefore missed

Correlation

Correlation Hypothesis

Alternate hypothesis (two-tailed [non-directional]) – There will be a significant correlation between the …Null – There will be no significant correlation between the …One-tailed (directional) – There will be a significant positive/negative correlation between the …

REMEMBER … correlations are NOT experiments, therefore you cannot say there will be a significant difference between … You cannot infer cause and effect, as one variable does not cause the other, and you do not isolate the IV to measure the effect of the DV. In effect, you have two variables which you measure, which may or may not have some sort of relationship.

Positive Correlation Negative Correlation No Correlation

Sampling

Type of sampling method

Volunteer Opportunity Random

Explanation Made up of people who have volunteered to take part. Researcher publicises the study and waits for people to put their name forward.

Made up of participants who happen to be in the right place at the right time. Researcher approaches the people and asks them to take part.

Made up of a random group of participants, usually by picking names out of a hat

Strengths No problems with ethics because the participants have put themselves forward

Very easy to obtain, as it is quick and efficient to ask people

Very representative because it is a random sample and is likely to cover the target population, as it includes lots of different people

Weaknesses Unlikely to be representative of the target population because they have volunteered and could be motivated in some

Not very representative because you simply take the first participants you see. Therefore, some people could miss out on the opportunity or you may only

Difficult to obtain this type of sample because of the large population of people.

way (ie, money) select people who are similar in some way (ie, psychology students that were out of their lesson early)

In the b) question of Section A (13+6 marker), remember to include the following;1. Sampling method you are going to use

o How many participants?o Where will you find them?o How will you approach them?o What age range, what sex? Will you have equal numbers of each sex? Why? (more

generalisable)o Why are you using the particular sampling method you are using?

2. What will you do when you have your participants?o Will you brief them and ask for consent or will this affect the results?o Will you ask them to meet you somewhere at a particular time or will you ask them to

come with you now?o Will you take them to a room? What will the room be like? Or will you test them in the

place you are currently at?o Will you test them separately or in a group?o Will you split them into groups or if it is an experiment, will you test the same

participants in different conditions (repeated measures) or will you test different participants in different conditions (independent measures OR matched pairs)?

o Will you carry out a pilot test?3. How are you going to test the participants?

o Self-report method of questionnaire/interview (make sure you tell the examiner some questions)

o If it is an experiment, what is the IV and what is the DV?o What controls will you use to avoid extraneous variables? Will you use any controls?

Why?o If it is a self-report, how will you give the questions to them? In what order and why?o If it is an observation, what behaviour will you record?o Will you split the behaviours up into categories and tally them?

4. How will you collect the data?5. Will you debrief the participants or tell them the full aim at the end? [ETHICS]

Remember to think WHAT? WHEN? HOW? WHY?Make sure you MINI-EVALUATE and explain your reasons for why you have chosen to do what you are doing.

Statistical Tests (Non-parametric tests)

Nominal data – involves data being in categories or frequencies (for example, frequency of how many said yes)Ordinal data – involves numbers that can be put in order but do not have any mathematical properties, like rating scales. It is like a ranking order (individual scores and not necessarily equal units)Interval data – involves using a scale that has equal intervals between the units (for example, minutes or seconds)

Independent Measures Design

Repeated Measures Design

Correlation

Nominal Data (categories)

Chi-squared Sign test N/A

Ordinal Data (numbers)

Mann Whitney Wilcoxon Spearman’s Rho

Usually, in the paper, you will get a question asking you what statistical test you would use for the practical project you have designed and why. Make sure you tell the examiner the exact statistical test you would use, and tell them you would use it because your project uses either nominal or ordinal data and because it is either independent measures, repeated measures or a correlation study. This is all that you can say, and you do not need to tell them how you use the test!

NICK IS COOLNOMINAL INDEPENDENT MEASURES CHI-SQUARED

NICK RIDES SCOOTERNOMINAL REPEATED MEASURES SIGN TEST

OLLIE IS MADORDINAL REPEATED MEASURES MANN WHITNEY

OLLIE RUNS WILDORDINAL REPEATED MEASURES WILCOXON

OLLIE CAN SWIMORDINAL COLLERATION SPEARMAN’S RHO

Psychology G544 Section B Revision Notes

In this section of the paper, you will have to answer one question out of the two, and it is either focused on an approach/perspective, issue or debate. Usually, you will get at least one approach/perspective question, but be prepared to get any type of question. The exam papers are set out in a structured way, with the a) question asking you to describe the approach/issue/debate or to give the assumptions (if it is an approach/perspective). The b) question usually asks you to mention and describe two synoptic examples of the approach/issue/debate, which you should contextualise to the question. Make sure you show the examiner that you have knowledge of studies from both the AS and A2 parts of Psychology, as it will increase your mark. The best way to do this is to choose one study from AS illustrating the topic and then one from A2. The c) question will usually ask you for strengths and weaknesses of the issue. Don’t forget to give synoptic examples to back up your points. D) asks you to compare the approach/issue/debate with another approach/issue/debate in psychology. Sometimes they give you the topic to compare it with, but sometimes they don’t. Ensure that you choose a topic you are confident talking about if you have the choice, and also make sure you again use synoptic examples. The last question e) is very open, and could ask you how the topic helps everyday life or how it influences something. You will need to look at exam papers to get the gist of these questions, as they can be tricky to tackle at first.

Approaches

Physiological/Biological Approach

Assumptions;1. All behaviour has a genetic basis, and is therefore influenced by our DNA, genes and biological

molecules.

Strengths WeaknessesVery scientific and objective, and often uses laboratory experiments, with high levels of control. The independent variable is isolated and manipulated to measure the effect on the dependent variable, so cause and effect can be inferred.

Very reductionist, as the approach simplifies complex human behaviour down to one simple factor. It ignores the interaction of elements, such as the environment, causing human behaviour, and simply explains behaviour as a result of our biology. For example, Brunner’s study into a family in the Netherlands who had slight mental retardation and who showed violent behaviour, simply looked at a urine sample and found they had a deficit of an enzyme which caused a rare disorder, but they ignore other factors, such as the environment and how their upbringing could have affected their behaviour.

As it uses laboratory experiments and high levels of control, there is often a standardised procedure with highly scientific equipment, so the approach is very reliable, as we can check for consistency by repeating it.For example, Maguire’s study into the effect of the number of years of knowing the knowledge on the size of the hippocampi of the brain. The study used highly scientific equipment of MRI scanners which looked at the structure of the brain, so they were able to come to this conclusion.

Very deterministic, as it is scientific and therefore says that everyone is determined by their biology, and that no other factor can play a part in their behaviour.

Supports the nature side of the nature/nurture debate, and provides good strong evidence for ‘psychology is a science’, as scientific methods are used.

Research tends to be low in ecological validity, as the situation and task is too controlled (low mundane realism) and therefore does not reflect everyday life, so it is difficult to generalise the findings. There could also be demand characteristics or social-desirability bias because

of the high levels of control, making it less valid.For example, the study conducted by Sperry, who looks at the brains of split-brain patients. He makes the patients look at things with one eye covered, so information is only going to one hemisphere of the brain. This is not representative of everyday life, as we use both eyes so information goes to both sides of the brain. However, he wanted to be simplistic to find out more information on the roles of each hemisphere and what a person can do in different situations (ie, being able to pick out an object)

Cognitive Approach

Assumptions;1. The human brain is like a computer; it receives, interprets and responds to information.2. Peoples’ problems often arise due to faulty or irrational thinking, which can be traced and often

remedied using cognitive therapy.

Strengths WeaknessesTends to use laboratory experiments, which are highly controlled and objective, so the independent variable can be isolated and manipulated to measure the effect on the dependent variable, as there are no extraneous variables, which means cause and effect can be established.For example, Loftus’ experiment into weapon focus uses a laboratory experiment with a standardised procedure, and an experimental group (gun) and control group (cheque) are the IV and the DV is measured by a questionnaire and by eye fixation data, so cause and effect can be inferred.

As laboratory experiments are often used, research is low in ecological validity, because the situation is too controlled, and therefore doesn’t relate to everyday life, so we need to be careful when generalising the results.For example, Dement and Kleitman’s research into REM sleep and brain activity on dream content, where the participants had to sleep in a laboratory, and were continuously woken up by a doorbell throughout the night, and had electrodes attached to their scalp and eye lids. This is not representative of how a person normally sleeps, so we cannot be sure they got a normal night’s sleep and that they dreamt how they would usually. It is not normal for a person to be woken up at regular intervals either and may have been hard for them to sleep with electrodes attached to them.

Great application to real-life, and research has had a big influence on everyday life in the real world. For example, Fisher’s cognitive interview showed that the cognitive interview elicits much more information than normal interview techniques.

Can be low in validity, because participants may guess the aim and respond to demand characteristics or social-desirability bias, because of the levels of control, and therefore we cannot be sure we are measuring what we are supposed to be measuring, if the participants are not showing their true unbiased behaviour in the situation. For example, in Loftus and Palmer’s experiment, the participants could have guessed the aim and changed their speed estimate to suit the independent variable of the verb.

Very effective as a therapy, supporting the assumption that people’s problems are due to faulty or irrational thinking that can be remedied.For example, Meichenbaum’s stress inoculation therapy uses cognitive therapy to change the person’s thinking patterns to overcome their stress, and to tackle the situation.

Reductionist and deterministic. The approach simplifies complex human behaviour to a person’s thoughts, ignoring other factors such as a person’s social situation (friends) and their biology. It also assumes that a person’s problems can be solved by changing the way a person thinks, when in fact the problem could be much deeper and involve an interaction of factors to overcome it.

Developmental Approach

Assumptions;1. All behaviour in adulthood is affected by experiences in childhood.2. Changes occur over a person’s lifetime as a result of inherited factors or lifetime experiences

(both nature and nurture).

Strengths Weaknesses

Often studies behaviour over a long period of time, and therefore uses a longitudinal study. The development of a person or a group of people can be studied, without the issue of individual differences, because the same person is being followed. This provides in-depth rich qualitative data of one person over a period of time.For example, Farrington looks at offending behaviour of boys from the age of 8 to 48 and comes to conclusions about offending, such as the chances of a person reconvicting if they start offending at a younger age than someone else.

It is difficult to replicate longitudinal studies, as it is expensive and extremely time-consuming. Therefore, they are not reliable, because they cannot be repeated in the same way to check for consistent results.It would be hard to replicate Farrington’s study because he looks at people for 40 years of their life, so it would be very time consuming and also very unreliable, because there is absolutely no way it could be repeated in the same way as the original study.

Research in this area provides us with an understanding of how humans develop and change over the whole of their lifetime, and can influence everyday life, such as education.For example, Samuel and Bryant’s study into the age at which children can conserve has changed education in terms of how teachers teach children and what methods they use to teach them.

In order to make valid comparisons, people need to be studied for a long period of time. However, this is not always possible because there are high attrition rates, as people may drop out or die.For example, Yochelson and Samenow looked at the criminal thinking patterns of criminals, and of the 255 criminals, only 30 completed the programme. This shows how longitudinal studies can be a problem because of these high attrition rates.

Some studies under the developmental approach have very limited samples, from which researchers want to generalise results from. The approach looks for general patterns of development based on non-representative samples.For example, Freud tries to generalise the findings from the case study of Little Hans’ and he assumes that all children go through the psychosexual stages.

They can also be ethnocentric, as they only look at children from one area/culture, and try to generalise the findings to other cultures, when the traditions and values are different in other place. For example, some children work instead of getting an education at a young age.For example, Samuel and Bryant generalise their findings to other cultures about conservation, when the research was only based on children from one town in the UK and therefore ignores cultural differences in regards to how children may learn differently in different parts of the World.Very deterministic, as it assumes that all children go through the same stages.For example, Freud with psychosexual stages.Samuel and Bryant with stages of conservation.Piaget assumed younger children do not have the ability to think in the same way as older children.

Social Approach

Assumptions;1. Behaviour is influenced by the people around us and the society they have created (the

situation).2. All behaviour occurs in a social context, even when nobody else is present.

Strengths WeaknessesThe approach often uses real life situations to study the social context of situations. Therefore, the social approach is often high in ecological validity, as the results relate to everyday life, and can be generalised to other situations.For example, Piliavin’s study was a field experiment, which had high ecological validity as it was set in the participants natural environment on the New York subway. Therefore, the participants wouldn’t have

There is a huge problem with ethics in these types of studies, as the participants usually do not know they are being studied, so they cannot give their consent. They also are not given the right to withdraw because they do not know they are being studied in the first place. In some social approach studies, the participants are subjected to psychological harm and physiological harmFor example, in Milgram’s experiment, the participants

known they were being studied, and couldn’t have responded to demand characteristics or social-desirability bias in terms of helping behaviour.

are told they have the right to withdraw but the experimenter technically doesn’t allow them to. The participant could experience harm in some way, because some of them shocked people at a rate that would kill a person many times and may not have thought they would be able to do this.

This approach tends to look at very relevant and useful situations, and look at how a person’s behaviour can be influenced. This has helped to improve many issues.For example, Waxler-Morrison’s study on social networks influencing breast cancer survival shows how important social networks are in enhancing a woman’s life and enabling them to cope better.

As field experiments are often used, the participant is in their own environment, but there is a lack of control in the study, so extraneous variables cannot be controlled. Therefore, the studies are not that reliable because they cannot be repeated in exactly the same way. There is no completely controlled standardised procedure.

It uses a wide range of methods, from field experiments to laboratory experiments to look at the effects of social situations on behaviour. Field experiments are good because they are high in ecological validity, and hence people can be studied in their natural environment without demand characteristics and social-desirability bias so the results are applicable to real life situations.For example, Piliavin uses a field experiment.However, Milgram uses a laboratory experiment to look at the effect of authoritive figures on a person.

Very reductionist and deterministic. It simplifies complex human behaviour by only looking at situational factors such as the environment. It ignores factors such as the physiological side of things, and also ignores cognitive factors, because someone could have a cognitive problem or physiological problem (ie, downsyndrome) which causes them to act differently in social situations. It is deterministic because it assumes that people will act in accordance to the situation, and change their behaviour.

Individual Differences Approach

Assumptions;1. Behaviour which deviates from the norm is seen to be abnormal.2. To understand the complexity of human behaviour, it is necessary to study the differences

between people, from looking at the unique characteristics of the individual, rather than by looking at the similarities between people.

Strengths WeaknessesMany useful applications to real life and allows us to understand human behaviour as we can find causes for some disorders.For example, Rosenhan’s study led to the improvement of people’s lives who had mental health disorders, as they changed the way that they diagnosed and treated them, as they found out that ‘labelling’ could have serious effects with their health, as the label stayed with them forever, even if they didn’t relapse.

As case studies are used, there are very few participants, and therefore we cannot really generalise the findings to other people/groups, especially as it is to do with individual differences – people experience different symptoms, etc. Therefore, we can question if it is useful to real life, because the symptoms are so wide-ranging.For example, Freud’s case study on Little Hans is individual, and his problems reflect his experiences. His phobia of a horse which reflected his phobia of his dad is unique, and it is unlikely someone else would have this exact problem because they would have different experiences and a different upbringing, so we can’t generalise the results to other people.

A much more holistic approach than any other approach that we study (ignoring the humanistic approach), as it is not reductionist in any way. It looks at factors as a whole, and uses a variety of methods to come to a conclusion, as well as using qualitative and quantitative data. It does not simplify any complex disorder down to its phenomenon.For example, in Thigpen and Cleckley’s study, they are not reductionist in any way, and look at her experiences from the past, her cognitive side (from the interviews), and her mental side, and do not assume anything [not deterministic].

Tend to use case study method to gain a more holistic approach, which sticks to looking at one person at a time. However, the researchers in the case study can become too emotionally attached with the individual, which could bias the findings and cause other problems, to do with the ethics of the study.For example, was Eve’s case of MPD real or was she just a good actor??

There is use of both quantitative and qualitative data. Quantitative data is obtained from psychometric tests, where differences between personalities and other traits can be found

The approach tends to rely on dispositional explanations rather than situational ones. It explains individual differences as resulting from a person’s own characteristics and ignores the

between people. This provides data which is easy to analyse and compare, and is objective.

situation a person is in.For example, the behaviour of the pseudopatients in Rosenhan’s study was misinterpreted as being part of the illness (constant writing, and trying to get out hospital) when in fact it was a result of the hospital environment and the fact that they weren’t real patients. This shows that they assume people experience similar symptoms and that it is down to the illness, and not the environment.

Perspectives

Behaviourist Perspective

Assumptions;1. All behaviour is the result of learning (conditioning) from the environment.2. Conditioning involves associative learning – association between stimuli and responses which

did not exist before learning took place.3. Psychologists should only study directly observable and measurable behaviour.

OPERANT CONDITIONING – uses reinforcement and punishment to strengthen or weaken behaviours (SKINNER)CLASSICAL CONDITIONING – uses association to learn behaviours (PAVLOV)

Strengths WeaknessesThe approach studies behaviour in a very scientific way, as it usually uses laboratory experiments in very controlled conditions, so extraneous variables are avoided, so the IV can be isolated to measure the effect on the DV, and therefore cause and effect can be inferred.For example, there is a direct link between aggressive and non-aggressive/no role models on a child’s behaviour, as shown by Bandura.

As laboratory experiments tend to be used, the studies are very low in ecological validity, so we have to be careful when applying the findings to everyday life. This issue could cause demand characteristics or social-desirability bias.

Huge practical application to real-life, because there is support for classical and operant conditioning, which is a mechanism for learning in the classroom. Provides support for teachers when bringing in teaching methods, and also helps parents to shape their child. It is a strong and highly influential perspective in psychology as it thoroughly explains behaviour.For example, Skinners’ study shows how rats can press a lever (reinforcement) and they will get food.Bandura’s experiment shows how role models are highly influential on young children, which can help parents with their children in terms of video games, DVDs, having a good role model in the family, etc.Farrington, support that upbringing (environment) can cause a person to turn to crime – if the role model of a person is a criminal, etc.

Huge problem with ethics, because children or animals are generally used, who cannot really give their full consent.For example, Little Albert was only a baby, so he could not give his consent and the experiment could have caused him psychological harm because he was taught by associative learning (CLASSICAL CONDITIONING) to not like objects which were once his favourite.

Many therapies have come out of it, such as behavioural therapies, which has helped to get rid of some behaviours.

It only focuses on observable behaviour, and is therefore reductionist. It doesn’t look at other explanations for why behaviour may be there.For example, with schizophrenia, it is often not observable because it occurs in the persons mind. Therefore, this is a weakness of the approach because it is reductionist, which could cause them to miss out very important factors.Very deterministic, as it assumes behaviour will be learnt by classical or operant conditioning. It assumes that everyone will learn in this way, and that behaviour cannot take place in any other format.

Psychodynamic Perspective

Assumptions;1. The mind is split into 3 –the preconscious, unconscious and conscious. The unconscious forms a

large part of our mental life, and can influence our thinking and physical well-being.2. Childhood experiences have an effect on our behaviour in later life, as they are very important

in shaping our adult personality.

Strengths WeaknessesOften uses the case study method, with one participant, and studies them over a long period of time, so in-depth rich qualitative data can be gathered into the experiences of one person.For example, Freud looked at the case of Little Hans who had a phobia of horses and consequently of his father. He explained this in terms of the Oedipus complex.

As case studies are used, the samples are extremely small and so the results or information obtained cannot be generalised to other samples, because it is not representative. Case studies are also very individual and cannot be replicated on other people, because of individual differences, and hence are not very reliable.For example, Thigpen and Cleckley’s study on Eve is not generalisable to other people because it is an individual case, and also it cannot be repeated because it is longitudinal and is therefore not very representative of the target population, as people have different experiences in their childhood.The perspective is very subjective, and cannot be tested objectively, as the psychologists make their own interpretations. This makes them very bias as well. There are no scientific findings or methods used to back up the data, so it is not very reliable at all.

Issues

The issues that you need to know about include; ethics, ecological validity, reliability, validity, longitudinal and snapshot, and also quantitative and qualitative data. You should be able to describe each of these issues, give strengths and weaknesses of them, and you should also have synoptic examples to illustrate the issues.

Ethics

Ethical issues include; Deception;This ethical issue means deceiving the participants in terms of not telling them the full aims of the study and then using their results when you still haven’t told them the full aim.

Consent;Informed consent should always be obtained from participants before starting the study. They should be given information about what they will be asked to do during the study and they should confirm verbally or in writing that they understand the study and are willing to take part.

In terms of children, parental consent should be obtained and the children should be asked for assent (to say whether they are happy to continue)

For example, Piliavin did not obtain any consent from his participants because it was a field experiment, and if he did ask for consent, it would have taken a long time and would also have affected the results, because the participants would have responded to demand characteristics and social-desirability bias to make themselves seem like a better person in regards to their helping (bystander) behaviour.

Confidentiality;Participants should not be named or identified in the write-up of the study, or when showing the results in a graph. The participants should also not talk about their performance with anyone. This is to respect their privacy and the individuals should be told that their results and information will remain confidential.

Psychological/Physical Harm;It is essential that research avoids presenting participants with tasks that might induce unpleasant emotions or states of mind such as anxiety, fear, stress, unhappiness, etc as well as avoiding physical harm.

To avoid this type of harm, researchers could inform the participants of what they might come across in the study that could cause them harm when they obtain consent, and in a way this offers them the right to withdraw.

In Milgram’s study, the participants could have experienced psychological harm because they were administering deathly electric shocks to the ‘students’, which caused them to become stressed, anxious and upset, which was determined by the observation of the participants, as they were sweating a lot.

Debriefing;At the end of the study, the participants should be told the real aims, and they should be given the opportunity to ask the researchers questions. The participants should be allowed to ask for the results of the study and they should be informed that any discussion or publication of the study will ensure anonymity of the participants.

Right to withdraw;The researcher must tell the participants that they have the right to withdraw from the study when they give their informed consent, and that they also have the right not to answer any question.

Strengths and weaknesses of conducting psychological research which raises ethical issues (June 2010)Strengths WeaknessesSometimes the issue of deception can enhance the ecological validity and (internal) validity of the study, because it is less likely that there will be demand characteristics and social-desirability bias, because the participants do not know the full aim and so cannot react in any particular way.

The participants of the study are being objected to psychological harm and are being deceived because they are not being told the full aim. Therefore, they could agree to take part in a study because they have been told a ‘fake’ aim, when in fact they wouldn’t have agreed if they were told the real aim of the study.

Findings are more useful because participants are being studied in their natural environment in a normal situation and do not know they are being studied, so they act completely normally.

Participants do not know they are being studied, so information which is private could be published by the researchers.

The issue of ethical issues could give psychological research a bad reputation, so in future people may be less likely to give their permission to take part or they may be more aware that they could be being studied, and act differently, affecting the ecological validity of the study.

Ecological Validity

Ecological validity refers to the extent that the situation or task in the study truly reflects behaviour in real life settings. Using an environment which is natural or normal to the participant is likely to be higher in ecological validity, and is more likely to obtain results that represent everyday life, and in that way, are more generalisable to the target population and to other settings. However, if a study is set up in laboratory settings or where this is high control, it is not in the participants’ natural settings and does not reflect everyday life, so the ecological validity is low. Where the task that the participant is asked to do is not reflective of a normal task a person would do, for example, sleeping in a laboratory, it would be said to be low in mundane realism.

Strengths and limitations of conducting psychological research where ecological validity is low (January 2010)Strengths WeaknessesWhere ecological validity is low, there are likely to be controlled conditions, where the IV is isolated and manipulated to measure the effect on the DV, so cause and effect can be inferred.Loftus and Palmers’ experiment into the effect of changing a verb in a question on the participants speed estimate of how fast the car was going when it ‘******’ another car isolated the IV so they could infer cause and effect between the verb and speed estimate.

Research is likely to be reductionist, as the situation is very controlled, and only looks at one factor. It simplifies complex human behaviour by isolating the IV. It does not look at a combination of factors.

As the situation is controlled, there is more likely It is harder for us to generalise/apply the results

to be a standardised procedure, and in this way, it is said to be more reliable, because the study can be repeated in exactly the same way to look for consistencies in results.Bruce conducted an experiment into recognising faces, which used a laboratory experiment with standardised images and composite images. This was a standardised procedure as all participants saw the images and had to match the composites to the original. Therefore, it can be repeated in the same way to check for reliability.

where there is low ecological validity, because there is likely to be demand characteristics or social-desirability bias, where the participants change their behaviour to what they think the researchers want to see.Dement and Kleitman’s experiment into eye movement and dreaming was very low in ecological validity, because it studied participants whilst they slept in a lab, and they were asked not to drink any alcohol or caffeine on the day. They had electrodes attached to their scalp and eye lids, and were woken up continuously throughout their sleep, so they would not have gained a normal nights’ sleep, which could have affected the results, since the dream content and REM could have been affected. Also, the participant may drink caffeine or alcohol on a normal day, and hence this would lower the ecological validity.

Highly scientific equipment is likely to be used where the ecological validity is low, because scientific equipment is not something we come across every day. This allows objective measurements to be made, where quantitative data can be collected, which is easy to analyse and then compare.For example, Dement and Kleitmans sleep laboratory used electrodes connected to the scalp and eye lids. Not representative of how a person normally sleeps, as you don’t sleep with equipment attached to yourself.

There will be a lack of qualitative data, since highly scientific equipment only produces objective data. Therefore, we cannot gather opinions or reasons for the quantitative data, so there is no in-depth rich data which gives us more of an insight into why a behaviour is occurring.

Reliability

Reliability refers to how consistent the findings are. If we were to repeat the study, would we find exactly the same or similar findings? The only way we can accurately repeat a study is if we have high levels of control or a standardised procedure, because we need to be able to repeat the study in exactly the same way. We need to manipulate the independent variable to measure the effect on the dependent variable, and therefore the most reliable method is the laboratory experiment. A field experiment does not infer high reliability because not all variables are controlled, as field experiments are the participants’ natural setting. Therefore, we are not able to repeat the study in exactly the same way, because the environment could have changed slightly between studies.

Strengths and limitations of psychological research with low reliabilityStrengths WeaknessesLow reliability means that the levels of control are not high, so the situation is more natural, and therefore it has higher ecological validity. This means the environment is representative of everyday life, so the results can be applied to everyday life and to other natural settings.

Low reliability infers that the situation is not highly controlled, and therefore extraneous variables have not been avoided, so we cannot isolate the IV to measure the effect on the DV, so it is harder to infer cause and effect.

As there is less control, there is likely to be less chance of demand characteristics or social-desirability bias because the situation is not artificial and it is less likely that the participant will change their behaviour to suit the aim.

We can question the internal validity of this type of psychological research, because if there is low reliability, there are not many controls, and so we cannot be sure we are measuring what we are supposed to measure, because there may be extraneous variables.

Validity

Validity is a wide topic area as it covers many different aspects. The term validity basically means are you measuring what you are supposed to measure? If there are extraneous variables, then you cannot be sure you’re measuring what you’re supposed to be measuring because extraneous variables could be affecting the measurement and you cannot infer cause and effect because you have not isolated the

independent variable, so you can’t be sure it is just the independent variable that is having the effect on the dependent variable. There are many different types of validity, which include internal, external, concurrent, face, ecological, population and content validity.

Internal Does the study measure what it’s supposed to within the study itself?External Does the study measure what it claims to outside the study?Concurrent

Comparing the measure with an already existing established measure of the same variable to check for concurrent validity (and hence reliability because you are checking the measure works and measures what it is supposed to [validity])

Face Are you measuring what you want to measure? Does it do what it says it does?Ecological Does the study (situation and task) reflect everyday life?Population

The extent to which the results of a study can be generalised to the target population

Content Does the measure cover all the variables it is supposed to cover?

These different terms are very confusing – be aware that you don’t need to be able to define all of these different types of validity. If you are going to get a question on validity, it will ask you about ecological validity or validity itself. It is just good to know about the different types because it shows you are more aware of the issue. Try to learn some of the terms to impress the examiners (ie, concurrent validity is used in Baron-Cohen’s study into autistic/asperger’s/tourettes people because he uses the Happes Strange Stories Task to check the measure of the Eyes Task.

Strengths and limitations of psychological research that is highly validStrengths WeaknessesResearch that is highly valid is often highly reliable, because if you’re measuring what you’re supposed to measure, then you are isolating the IV to measure the effect on the DV, so there are no extraneous variables and it can be repeated in exactly the same way.

Longitudinal and Snapshot

Longitudinal – a study carried out over a long period of time, and usually looks at the development of a person and their behaviour (classified as longitudinal if it aims to look at the effect of variables over time)

Snapshot – a study conducted on one occasion. It looks at a person’s behaviour in one moment of time, and this type of study usually looks at many different individuals, and then cross compares data to come to a conclusionRefers to the length of time of each participant’s involvement, rather than how long it takes for the researchers to collect the data.

Strengths and limitations of psychological research using longitudinal studiesStrengths WeaknessesLongitudinal studies are carried out over a long period of time, so researchers can look at the development of individuals, and come to conclusions about particular stages everyone passes through or patterns.

These types of studies are very expensive and time-consuming, and also need a high level of commitment from participants. Some participants may drop out because they are ill or they may not want to be part of the study.

Lots of qualitative data can be collected, which gives reasons for behaviours, and is rich and in-

Qualitative data is subjective, and therefore down to the interpretation of the researcher. It is hard to

depth. analyse and also hard to compare with other data.

Strengths and limitations of psychological research using snapshot studiesStrengths WeaknessesSnapshot studies are quick and easy to conduct, as they do not go on for a long period of time. Therefore, participants do not need to be committed, and lots of data can be collected on one occasion, which means conclusions can be drawn straight away.

Ethnocentric, as research usually only looks at one culture and then tries to apply it to lots of different cultures.

Tend to collect quantitative data, and test participants objectively using scientific methods. This type of data is very easy to analyse and compare, as it is numerical data, and therefore it is easy to come to conclusions.

There is a lack of detailed in-depth rich qualitative data, which means there are no opinions (subjective) data gathered, and also there are no reasons for peoples choices or for the participants behaviour.

Quantitative and Qualitative Data

Quantitative data – numerical data expressed as quantities or numbers that can be analysed statistically in order to provide comparisons between groups of participants

Qualitative data – descriptive data which is not numerical and is a rich source of information on behaviours and attitudes on what people think or feel and gives reasons for behaviours

Strengths and limitations of psychological research using quantitative dataStrengths WeaknessesNumerical data, so easy to analyse and therefore very easy to compare and draw conclusions between people. Hence, it is useful as good comparisons can be made.

Lack of in-depth rich meaningful data, so there is no data giving opinions or reasons for choices, so does not give the opportunity for participants to explain behaviour.

Reliable data as it is quantitative and so can be obtained in exactly the same way (by repeating the study as usually quantitative data is obtained in highly controlled conditions).

Reductionist, because there is no qualitative data to back up findings. Only looks at easily quantifiable data and ignores other aspects, especially reasons.

Strengths and limitations of psychological research using qualitative dataStrengths WeaknessesIn-depth rich meaningful data, which provides reasons for particular behaviours and also allows the participants to explain their opinions.

Subjective data so it is down to the researchers interpretation, which could make it bias.

More holistic than just using quantitative data, because it actually explains things in more detail, and provides reasons and explanations for behaviours.

Qualitative data is very hard to analyse and therefore compare because of individual differences. This means it is hard to draw meaningful conclusions from this type of data.

Debates

There are many new debates in psychology that you have to know for this exam, and there are often two sides to the debate. Make sure you look at both sides before coming to any conclusion. These debates include;

1. Determinism V Free will2. Reductionism V Holism3. Nature V Nurture4. Ethnocentrism5. Psychology as a Science6. Individual V Situational explanations7. Usefulness of psychological research

For this type of question, you need to know about the debate, and be able to describe it, you need to know the strengths and weaknesses of each side of the debate in psychology and also be able to link in synoptic examples that explain and support the debates.

Determinism V Free will

Determinism - the view that all behaviours are determined by factors beyond our control, and are in a way determined before we actually do them.

o Hard determinismo Soft determinism

Free will – the view that our behaviours are the products of our own choice and will.

Strengths and limitations of psychological research that is deterministicStrengths WeaknessesDeterministic views are often scientific views, and so there are high levels ofcontrol, which avoids extraneous variables so the IV can be isolated to measure the effect on the DV and therefore cause and effect can be established.

Reductionist, as it is heavily scientific and therefore only looks at one aspect of complex human behaviour and ignores other factors. This affects the usefulness of research because it simplifies human behaviour.Ethnocentric to some extent, because it assumes findings can be applied to all cultures, when only the Western ways have been studied. Western ways are different from other cultures, so research cannot be applied to other cultures.As deterministic views are based on scientific information, research would be low in ecological validity, so we have to be careful when applying the findings to everyday life because high controls can cause participants to show demand characteristics or social-desirability bias.

Reductionism V Holism

Reductionism – the process of breaking down complex human behaviour into their constituent parts.o It over-simplifies complex human behaviour down to simple factors

Holism – an approach that takes into account a wide range of factors to explain complex human behaviour.

o It does not break it down into smaller sub-sections, and looks at behaviour as a whole

Strengths and limitations of psychological research that is reductionistStrengths WeaknessesConsistent with scientific approach, and therefore uses laboratory experiment with high levels of control so it avoids extraneous variables. The IV can be isolated to measure the effect on the DV, and cause and effect can be inferred.

Low ecological validity, because on a daily basis variables are not isolated to measure the effect of them and therefore it does not reflect everyday life. Affects generalisability to target population because we can’t generalise the results to people living a normal life in a normal World if the study was carried out in an artificially controlled situation.

Usually quantitative data is collected from highly scientific equipment, which are easy to analyse and compare, and are not down to any interpretation by the researcher.

Lack of qualitative data so there are no reasons or explanations to quantitative data, so it lacks in-depth descriptive data.

Nature V Nurture

Nature – describes behaviours that are innate (born into us or genetically determined by genes and DNA)

Nurture – describes behaviours that are acquired as a result of experience or because of environmental influences

Strengths and limitations of the nurture side of the nature/nurture debateStrengths Weaknesses

Deterministic because it offers no scope for free will. It assumes that behaviour is learnt from the environment and that the environment will change our behaviour.

Ethnocentrism

The belief that one’s own ethnic group or culture is superior to another ethnic group or culture. It is the inability to think outside one’s own cultural experience and a tendency to assume that what happens in our own culture is common to other cultures.

o Sometimes psychologists draw conclusions from studies focused on one culture or group and assume it can be generalised to other groups or cultures.

o This is common when research is based on the Western way.

Psychology as a Science

Psychology is generally seen as being a Science, because if it wasn’t a Science, it wouldn’t be seen as a valid or reliable subject.

Strengths and limitations of the ‘psychology as a science’ debateStrengths WeaknessesHighly controlled, so that the independent variable can be isolated meaning there are no extraneous variables which allows us to measure the IVs effect on the dependent variable. This means it is also highly valid because we are measuring what we are supposed to be measuring – cause (IV) and effect (DV).

High control means the situation will be artificial and therefore would not reflect a person’s normal environment, hence it would be low in ecological validity, and we would have to be careful about applying results because there could be demand characteristics or social-desirability bias.

Reliable, as standardised procedures are commonly used, with high levels of control, which therefore makes them more replicable.

Reductionist and deterministic as it assumes that everyone will go through the same patterns, etc and that a particular behaviour is a cause of something else, and also it doesn’t look at things as a whole, and simplifies complex human behaviour down to very small factors.

Objective, as it does not take into account any subjective opinions of people, and only looks at fact.Produces quantitative data, which is easy to analyse and compare with other quantitative data, providing straight forward conclusions.

No qualitative data is collected when using scientific methods and therefore we do not obtain reasons for peoples’ behaviour or obtain opinions.

Individual and Situational Explanations

Individual – looks at the characteristics of a person (ie, their personality) and assumes that the individual characteristics of a person is consistent across situations.Ie, Thomas et al. 10% of babies born with difficult temprements – an emphasis on nature, and this characteristic is consistent across situations.

Situational – looks at the situation a person is in and assumes that the behaviour of a person depends on the situation the person is in.Ie, Reicher looked at the way we identify within a group, and how the guards failed to develop a strong group identity but the prisoners were the complete opposite.

Usefulness of Psychological Research

This is part of the specification but you will be able to evaluate the usefulness of psychological research by looking at all the other factors this booklet has looked at; how the ethics, ecological validity, type of study (longitudinal or snapshot) and quantitative and qualitative data affect the usefulness. We have also looked at the debates; determinism and free will, reductionism and holism, nature-nurture, ethnocentrism, psychology as a science and individual and situational explanations, and you will be able to bring this into whether psychological research is useful or not.