11

Psychology 307: Cultural Psychology

Lecture 6

2

Announcement

Due to an emergency, Jelena was unable to attend her office hour today. However, she will have an office hour tomorrow, from 11:00-12:00, in room 3413 of the Kenny Building.

3

Cultural Transmission and Socialization

1. What cognitive skills enable cultural transmission among humans?

4

What cognitive skills enable cultural transmission among humans?

● Although there are examples of social learning among nonhuman primates (e.g., the Japanese macaque, chimpanzees), humans appear to be the only species capable of complex cultural transmission.

● Tomasello and his colleagues (1993, 1999, 2003) attribute the complexity of cultural transmission among humans to our unique cognitive skills.

5

● Specifically, Tomasello et al. argue that, in contrast to other species, humans have the ability to understand others’ perspectives. This ability is referred to as “theory of mind.”

● Humans are not born with theory of the mind. Rather, it emerges in infancy and develops across childhood, through interaction with others.

● According to Tomasello’s Theory of Cultural Learning, theory of mind enables humans to engage in unique, species-specific forms of learning. These forms of learning emerge at distinct developmental stages:

6

1. Birth – 9 Months of Age

At 3 to 4 months of age, infants begin to show an interest in objects. However, through to 9 months of age, they do not appear to have theory of mind.

Thus, at this age, infants are restricted to emulation learning.

7

E.g., An infant observes an adult open a jar and learns that “the object can be opened.” With this knowledge, the infant sets out to devise her own strategy for opening the jar.

Emulation learning is the primary means by which nonhuman primates learn about their environments from their conspecifics.

8

2. 9 Months – 4 Years of Age

Between 9 and 12 months of age, infants begin to recognize others as intentional agents (i.e., as

individuals who have independent intentions, goals, and desires).

Thus, it is at this age that theory of mind begins to emerge among humans.

E.g., Tomasello and Haberl (2002) found that 12- and 18-month infants could accurately predict

which of several objects was desired by an adult, even though the adult had not explicitlyidentified the object to the child.

9

Consistent with this change in social cognition, children at this age begin to look where adults look (gaze following) and direct adult attention to objects or events that they are interested in (joint attentional interactions).

Given this change in social cognition, children acquire the ability to engage in a new form of learning—imitative learning.

10

E.g., A 2-year-old child observes an adult open a jar and learns that “the object can be opened if I firmly twist on the lid with my hand.” With this knowledge, the infant turns the lid with her hand and opens the jar.

Thus, imitative learning allows for cultural transmission: Through the observation of models, children learn the goal-directed behavioural strategies or collective practices that are associated with an object. That is, children learn that “this is the way ‘we’ use [the] object; this is the way it ‘should’ be used; this is its ‘function’ for us” (Tomasello & Rakoczy, 2003, p. 127).

11

Research suggests that children are more likely to engage in imitative learning when:

the demonstrator’s behaviour has been rewarded.

the demonstrator is warm and nurturing, is in a position of authority, and is similar to them.

the situation is unfamiliar or ambiguous.

they have been rewarded for imitating others in the past.

the task to be imitated is not too easy or too difficult.

12

3. 4 – 6 Years of Age

At 4 years of age, children begin to recognize others as mental agents (i.e., as individuals who have independent beliefs, which may or may not be correct).

E.g., Wimmer and Perner (1983) found that 4- to 6-year-old children could accurately predict where another child would look for a toy that had been

“secretly” moved as part of a “location change” or “false-belief” task.

13

Consistent with this change in social cognition, children at this age begin to refer to the mental states of other people (e.g., “He thinks that ….”) and engage in deceptive acts with an understanding of the impact that deception has on others’ beliefs.

Given this change in social cognition, children acquire the ability to engage in a new form of learning—instructed learning.

14

E.g., A 5-year-old child receives explicit instructions from his mother with respect to how to behave while dining at a restaurant. The child internalizes the instructions and uses them to regulate his behaviour while dining at a restaurant with his family the following week.

Thus, like imitative learning, instructed learning allows for cultural transmission: Through explicit instruction, children learn how to regulate their behaviour in accordance with collective practices when they confront a specific task. That is, children learn that “this is the way ‘we’ behave when we confront this task.”

15

4. 6 – 7 Years of Age

At 6 years of age, children begin to recognize others as reflective agents (i.e., as individuals who can reflect upon the beliefs of others).

E.g., Kruger and Tomasello (1986) found that 7-year-old children who were asked to resolve moral dilemmas would engage in discussions with their peers in which they would ask their peers to evaluate their solutions (e.g., “Do you think my idea is good? How do you think the class would react to my idea?”).

16

Consistent with this change in social cognition, children at this age begin to refer to the beliefs that others have about them (e.g., “She thinks that I think that ….”) and simulate the point of view of a “hypothetical other” who is able to evaluate their behaviour (e.g., “Another person would think that I ….”).

Given this change in social cognition, children acquire the ability to engage in a new form of learning—collaborative learning.

17

E.g., A 6-year-old child has dropped her ring between two heavy rocks. After substantial planning and discussion, she and her friend devise a method by which to move one of the rocks: They will break a sturdy branch from a tree and use it to hoist the rock forward.

Thus, in contrast to imitative learning and instructed learning, collaborative learning serves a unique function: It allows for “cultural creation” or cultural construction.

18

Cultural Transmission and Socialization

1. What cognitive skills enable cultural transmission among humans?