Psychological approaches to psychopathology - Behavioural

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The behaviourist approach dominated psychology in the first half of this century, especially in the USA. The goals of behaviourism were to move psychology toward a scientific model, which focused on the observation and measurement of behaviour. Its assumptions were that behaviour is primarily the result of the environment rather then genetics (or instincts) and so the behaviourists reject the view that abnormal behaviour has a biological basis. Like the psychodynamic theorists, behaviourists have a deterministic view of mental disorders: they believe that our actions are largely determined by our experiences in life. However, unlike Freud, they see abnormal behaviour is a learned response (through conditioning) and not as the result of mysterious (and they would argue unknowable) unconscious processes. While much of our behaviour is adaptive, helping us to cope with a changing world, it is also possible to learn behaviours that are abnormal and undesirable. However, such maladaptive learning can be treated by changing the environment so that un-learning could take place.

• ExampleA patient’s fear (phobia) of heights would be explained through the process of classical conditioning. Some time in the past, she would have learned to associate the emotion of fear with the stimulus of being in a high place through a chance association between the two stimuli. As a result, she would avoid heights, and therefore not have the opportunity to relearn the association in a more adaptive way. Treatment would involve desensitising the fear through conditioning techniques.

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Classical Conditioning

Look back

• Attachment– Baby gets food (unconditioned response)– Mother food baby (during conditioning)– Baby attaches to mother (condition response)

Operant Conditioning

Look Back

• Mother feeds baby - baby is happy. Positive reinforcement.

• Positive reinforcement of mother feeding baby.

• Who is Harlow?

Classical conditioning as an explanation of phobias

All behaviour is learned through stimulus-response associations. Watson and Rayner (1920) proposed that children learn phobias through paired associations. It is suggested that through classical conditioning people can learn to associate an unconditioned response with a neutral stimulus. Therefore resulting in a conditioned response that can lead to a phobia.Example:Fear of heights = If a person climbs to the top of a high building (stimulus), looks down and feels nausea and dizziness (response), the association between the two, and the response will cause the phobia.Watch Little Albert

Little Albert (note)• Did it also apply to humans? In a famous (though ethically dubious) experiment Watson and Rayner

(1920) showed that it did.

• Little Albert was a 9-month-old infant who was tested on his reactions to various stimuli. He was shown a white rat, a rabbit, a monkey and various masks. Albert described as "on the whole stolid and unemotional" showed no fear of any of these stimuli. However what did startle him and cause him to be afraid was if a hammer was struck against a steel bar behind his head. The sudden loud noise would cause "little Albert to burst into tears.

• When Little Albert was just over 11 months old the white rat was presented and seconds later the hammer was struck against the steel bar. This was done 7 times over the next 7 weeks and each time Little Albert burst into tears. By now little Albert only had to see the rat and he immediately showed every sign of fear. He would cry (whether or not the hammer was hit against the steel bar) and he would attempt to crawl away.

• Watson and Rayner had shown that classical conditioning could be used to create a phobia. A phobia is an irrational fear, i.e. a fear that is out of proportion to the danger. Over the next few weeks and months Little Albert was observed and 10 days after conditioning his fear of the rat was much less marked. This dying out of a learned response is called extinction. However even after a full month it was still evident.

Operant Conditioning as an explanation of abnormality

• Skinner (1974) explains that behaviour is influenced by the consequences of our actions in terms of positive and negative reinforcement.

• Positive reinforcement = childhood aggression is reinforced then the behaviour is likely to be repeated and may explain how a child learns that aggressive behaviours are appropriate. Also, anxiety or depression might receive reward in the form of attention and concern, also making the behaviour be repeated. This positive reinforcement means that the person will repeat that behaviour in the future as they want the positive attention.

Negative reinforcement = maintains a learnt avoidance of a phobia as removal (moving away from the phobia) of the negative emotions and feelings will reinforce the behaviour. Therefore allowing the individual to learn that avoiding situations will reduce the negative emotions.

Another example is when people suffer with addictions the removal of the withdrawal symptoms by the drug negatively reinforces the abnormal behaviour.

Social Learning Theory as an explanation of abnormality

Bandura suggests that if we observe behaviour, are able to recall the details, have the ability to replicate it and the opportunity to, then if we are motivated by reinforcements… we will imitate and repeat it. Children learn from role models within their lives eg. parents, older siblings and teachers. Antisocial behaviour can be explained by Social Learning Theory, if a child observes an aggressive model who is rewarded. This can lead to imitation therefore the child is likely to imitate antisocial behaviours like aggression. Also some phobias develop due to observing how a model responds to a stimulus. If a child observes a model respond in a negative/maladaptive way to a stimulus then it is likely that the child will also imitate that behaviour as they learn to be frightened of that object.

Evaluation of the behavioural model

Among the strengths of the model are:• It has led to the development of specific behavioural therapies, many of which

have had high success rates• It is widely regarded as lending itself to scientific study and evaluation• Proponents of the model argue that once the symptoms of an illness are

alleviated, the complaint disappears

• Weaknesses include:• The model is reductionist in the sense that it reduces the complexity of human

behaviour to behavioural responses to environmental stimuli• Only the symptoms of illnesses are treated, not the underlying causes• The model provides a limited view of the causes of mental illness and does not

explain the evidence relating to genetic predispositions to mental illness• Environmental causes of abnormal behaviours are only rarely discovered in

patients

Question

‘Behaviourists believe that all behaviour, both normal and abnormal, is learned through processes such as classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning.’ Discuss the behavioural approach to explaining psychological abnormality.

Answer• AO1 = 6 marks Knowledge of behavioural approach to psychopathology Remember

not to credit information given in the quote Answers that only consider therapies, maximum 3 AO1 marks and 3 AO2 marks. The emphasis of the behavioural approach is on the environment and how the behaviour is acquired, through classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning. For marks in the top two bands, the focus must be on explaining psychological abnormality, rather than on behaviour in general. If no attempt to explain abnormality, maximum 3 marks. Examiners should be aware this might result in quite a wide range of responses being awarded 3 marks. AO2 = 6 marks Commentary on behavioural approach to psychopathology The commentary can include strengths; such as it has provided some convincing explanations for some disorders such as phobias and has also led to some very successful therapies (systematic desensitization). The weaknesses are that it ignores the role of biology and there is plenty of evidence to support a genetic transmission of some disorders. An evaluation of therapy could consider whether it is effective and for what disorders. Studies (eg “Little Albert”) can be used as commentary.

Part 2

• Syllabus: Psychological therapies, including psychoanalysis, systematic de-sensitisation and Cognitive Behavioural Therapy

• Behavioural therapies– Aversion– Immersion (flooding) – systematic de-sensitisation

Aversion therapy. What do you think?

Aversion Therapy

• Aversion therapy uses the behavioural approach principles that new behaviour can be 'learnt' in order to overcome addictions, obsessions or, as demonstrated in Kubrick film A Clockwork Orange, violent behaviour.

• Patients undergoing aversion therapy are made to think of the undesirable experience that they enjoy, for example, a violent person might be shown images of violent crime, or an alcoholic might be made to drink, while drugs or electric shocks are administered. In theory, the patient will, over time, come to associate their addiction with the negativity of electric shocks or seizures.

Flooding - what do you think?

Immersion Therapy

• The technique is called 'flooding', and it has a solid base in behavioural therapy. The underlying theory behind flooding is that a phobia is a learned fear, and needs to be unlearned by exposure to the thing that you fear.

• By definition, a phobia is an unreasoning fear to a non-dangerous thing or situation. Somehow this non-dangerous thing has become associated with the panic response usually associated with mortal danger. By forcing the phobic to confront their fear, therapists reason, they will learn that there is nothing dangerous about it.

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Systematic Desensitisation

Mia has a phobia of eating in public. She is about to go to university where she knowsthat she will have to eat her meals in a large dining hall surrounded by other students. Describe how a therapist might use systematic de-sensitisation to help Mia overcome

her phobia of eating in social situations.

First the therapist would teach Mia how to relax, using a technique that would allow deep muscle relaxation. Then together the therapist and Mia would construct an anxiety hierarchy, starting with the least feared situation, such as looking at pictures of people sitting at tables in a café just talking and drinking coffee, working up to the most feared situation, such as Mia eating in a restaurant full of people. The therapist would start by showing Mia pictures and helping her to remain relaxed, then perhaps getting her to sit in a café, but without eating anything, and then continuing up the hierarchy until her phobia is gone.

Systematic DesensitisationFirst the patient is taught a deep muscle relaxation technique and breathing exercises Second they create a fear hierarchy starting at stimuli that create the least anxiety (Fear) and building up in stages to the most fear provoking images. Third, the patient works their way up starting at the least unpleasant and practising their relaxation technique as they go. When they feel comfortable with this (they are no longer afraid) they move on to the next stage in the hierarchy. If the client becomes upset they can return to an earlier stage and regain their relaxed state.

Why would you use the therapy.Systematic desensitisation would be used when a person has a phobia as fear is incompatible with relaxation.A02SD is of limited use being used mostly to treat specific anxiety disorders such as phobias. Irrational fears of spiders, buttons etc are seen as relatively trivial disorders in comparison to schizophrenia or bipolar disorder where it has little or no effect in treating the disorder.SD is based on the idea that abnormal behaviour is learned. The biological approach would disagree and say we are born with a behaviour and therefore it must be treated medically.

And again - The Question

‘Behaviourists believe that all behaviour, both normal and abnormal, is learned through processes such as classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning.’ Discuss the behavioural approach to explaining psychological abnormality.

The Answer• Answers that only consider therapies, maximum 3 AO1 marks and 3 AO2 marks. • The emphasis of the behavioural approach is on the environment and how the

behaviour is acquired, through classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning.

• For marks in the top two bands, the focus must be on explaining psychological abnormality, rather than on behaviour in general. If no attempt to explain abnormality, maximum 3 marks. Examiners should be aware this might result in quite a wide range of responses being awarded 3 marks. AO2 = 6 marks

• Commentary on behavioural approach to psychopathology The commentary can include strengths; such as it has provided some convincing explanations for some disorders such as phobias and has also led to some very successful therapies (systematic desensitization).

• The weaknesses are that it ignores the role of biology and there is plenty of evidence to support a genetic transmission of some disorders. An evaluation of therapy could consider whether it is effective and for what disorders. Studies (eg “Little Albert”) can be used as commentary.

What I need to know?

• Behaviourism states that all behaviour (including abnormal) is learnt from the environment (NURTURE) Therefore?

• Classical Conditioning (little Albert)• Operant conditioning. (Negative and positive) eating? • Phobias• Therapy

– Aversion– Immersion (flooding) – systematic de-sensitisation