Gender refers to

constructed distinctions

between femininity

and masculinity.

Slaby and Frey (1975) found

that there are three distinct

stages that children must go

through in order to develop an

understanding of their gender.

According the

Kohlberg (1966)

children are active

agents and masters of

their own gender-role

socialisation

Gender identity the child recognizes

that he/she is a boy or a girl. (2-3 years)

Gender stability awareness that

gender is fixed, always have been and

always will be a boy or a girl (3-7 years)

Gender consistency

children recognize that

superficial changes in

appearance or activities don't

alter gender.(7-12 years)

Supporting evidence Weinraub

et al (1984) showed that once

children viewed themselves as a

boy or a girl they behaved in ways

that they thought individuals of

that sex should behave.

Cross-cultural research Munroe et al

(1984) the sequence of development of the

gender concept is similar in other cultures

(Kenya, Belize)

Cross cultural biological development is

similar.

Cognitive maturation is more important than

different social experiences in gender

concept development

Martins and Halverson's

(1983) alternative to the

cognitive-developmental

approach proposed by

Kohlberg

In gender schema theory, rigid

early gender identity acquired

at about the age three is the

starting point for gender

development.

The term schema

refers to clusters of

concepts that a child

acquires about the

world.

Bauer (1993) set out to study

the way in which children call

upon gender schemas when

processing information.

Children observed the

experimenter carry out short

sequences of stereotypically

female, male and gender

neutral activities (changing a

nappy, shaving a teddy bear

or treasure hunts)

Results boys more than girls tend to make use of gender

schemas by the age of 25 months.

Boys appear to remember more accurately event sequences

consistent with their own gender , girls showed no difference

Roger and roger (2001) reviewed different explanations of the development of androgyny

Androgyny is believed to be a conscious and deliberate choice made by those who reject traditional ideas of gender.

Conjoint model

Bem (1974) and et al (1975)

Thought a balance of masculine and feminine traits were healthy and desirable in a personality

Bem (1974) optimal health and

wellbeing is achieved when a

person can freely select and enact

whatever personality traits they

want, regardless of their male or

female orientation.

The Bem sex role inventory

(BSRI) was developed by

Bem (1974) to measure an

individuals gender type.

High masculine

score

Low masculine

score

High feminine

score Androgynous Feminine

Low feminine

score Masculine Undifferentiated

Gender dysphoria is considered to

be a disorder .

Its the feeling that there is a

mismatch between anatomy and

gender identity.

Some diagnostic criteria

A sense of inappropriateness

in the gender role of that sex The experience of gender

dysphoria has to be present

for at least 2 years

Insistence that they are of

the opposite sex

Refusal to participate in

activities specific of their

sex

Psychoanalytic approaches,

founded on Freud„s concepts, state

that problems can result from

difficulties establishing gender

identity in toddlerhood.

Incomplete resolution of the

Oedipal and Electra conflicts

during the phallic stage of

personality development from

identification with an

inappropriate role model

Origins of gender dysphoria

are mainly biological and

have been informed by

individual with

hermaphroditism

Chung et al (2002) argued

that per-natal hormonal

influences might remain

dormant until adulthood and

then trigger a change.

Brain sex theory is based

on the difference in men

and women in size of

certain brain structures in

men and women.

Having male chromosome

combinations or the female

chromosome combinations will

result in difference in male and

female pre-natal hormone levels.

These have different impacts

on the brain.

If H-Y antigen is rejected into a

genetically female foetus at six weeks

of pre-natal development the result is a

genetic female with testes. Same with

males but they will have ovaries.

Geschwind and Galaburda

(1987) suggest that the role of

testosterone in slowing the

development of parts of the left

hemisphere might explain why

males are not as good as

females in verbal abilities but

are better at spatial abilities

Male genes promote the

production of testosterone, so

it has an impact on how the

brain develops structurally

and on behavioural.

It accounts for differences in

behaviour across the sexes.

Men are innately more

aggressive and prone to

taking more risks

Women are more gentle and

conservative.

Natural selection certain advantageous

physical and psychological

traits are passed down one

generation to another.

Differences in male

and female behaviour

evolved because they

produced survival or

reproductive

advantages.

Sexual dimorphism

differences in physiology,

anatomy and behaviour

across the sexes.

Trivers (1973) differences

between the sexes, in both

anatomy and behaviour, may be

traced back to differences in the

degree of parental investment.

Parental Investment theory

Compared to fathers, mother parental

investment in their offspring is far greater.

For this reason, females give careful

consideration to the health, fitness and

resources of a potential father.

Female anatomy enables women to be

bearers of offspring (it is designed for

fertilisation.)

Male anatomy is designed for

ensuring fertilisation.

They have less to lose and

can chooses whether to invest

in offspring.

“Biosoical model doesn‟t assume

that any sexual selection

pressures that contribute to

physical dimorphism between

sexes are major influence on

sex-types psychological

attributes such as men's

aggressiveness and competitive

dominance” (Wood and Eagly

2002)

Studies have shown that there are distinct gender differences in

preference for certain activities, such as being drawn to play with

certain types of toys and also eye gaze preferences.

Baby girls gaze more longer and often on faces

Baby boys gaze more longer and often at mechanical mobiles

Theses differences don’t rely entirely on socialization.

Wood and Eagly (2002) it is likely

that extensive socialization is

required to orient boys and girls to

function differently.

Mischel (1966,1970) Two

principles to help understand

how children acquire gender.

Positive and negative

reinforcement Observational learning

Positive reinforcement in

doing something regarded

gender appropriate is likely

to lead to an increase in

that behaviour.

Negative reinforcement boys

may stop their „girlish behaviour‟

to escape disapproval of peers

Children observe role models

(parents, siblings etc.)

So they might internalise the role

models behaviour and later imitate

it themselves.

Bussey and Bandura (1999)

early gender concept is

shaped mainly by external

influences which begin

immediately in the form of

how the child is dressed, the

decoration of their

bedroom, toys and role

models.

Parent and peer reactions to

behaviour such as „gender

inappropriate‟ toy choice are

also influential

Moghaddam et al (1993) says that culture

is the „human-made part of the

environment‟ which can be subjective and

psychological. Cultural factors put the

emphasis on if its nature or

nurture that make men and

women different.

Location and environmental conditions are strongly

associated with expression of gender role.

For people to survive in their ecological niche, they

need to be socialized be have in a particular way.

In cultures where the contribution of

women is high there is a tendency to

find…

Higher status for

females

Birth control

Work training for

females

Cross-cultural research shows us that, while males

and females might have fairly consistent tendencies

to behave in a particular way because of biological

differences, they are also capable of adapting their

behaviour to different circumstances.