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Briefly describe what you think Non-verbal and Verbal communication is

YOUR explanation, NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Definition

YOUR explanation, VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Definition

Definition PARALINGUISTICS

Tone of voice -

Emphasis -

Intonation -

REMEMBER

55% of our communication is NON-VERBAL

38% TONE OF VOICE (Paraliguistics)

ONLY 7% through WORDS

Learning

To understand the distinction between non-verbal and verbal

communication

To be able to outline the characteristics of verbal

communication

To be able to outline paralinguistics and non-verbal

communication, and give examples of each.

To describe and evaluate studies of verbal communication and

assess their strengths and weaknesses

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FUNCTIONSPsychology researcherArgyle (1988) CONCLUDED from his research that there

are five functions of non-verbal bodily behaviour in human communication

To express emotions

To express interpersonal attitudes

To accompany speech in managing the cues of interaction between speakers and listeners

Presentation of one‟s personality

Rituals (greetings)

INTERACTIONSof Verbal and Non-verbal communication to regulate the flow of conversation

Repeating – using gestures to strengthen/repeat a verbal message, such as pointing to the object under

of discussion.

Conflicting – Verbal and non-verbal messages can sometimes send conflicting messages. E.g. a person

expressing a statement of truth verbally while simultaneously fidgeting or avoiding eye contact may

convey a mixed message to the listener.

Complementing – accurate interpretation of messages is made easier when non-verbal and verbal

communication complement each other. Non-verbal cues can be used to reinforce the information sent,

such as smiling whilst thanking someone.

Substituting – non-verbal signals can be used as a substitute for a verbal message, such as raising

eyebrows instead of asking a question, or nodding the head as a sign of agreement.

Regulating – non-verbal behaviour also regulates our conversations, e.g. touching someone‟s arm can

signal that you want to interrupt or be the next to talk.

Listen to Jesse McCartney „Body Language‟

What non-verbal communication do you see in the video?

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RESEARCH Methods Introduction

Psychologists always use research methods. They start with an idea e.g. “I think that the

tone of voice does affect how we interpret what someone is saying”, they then turn this

in to an AIM e.g. „to see if tone of voice has any effect when interpreting a verbal

message‟ and a HYPOTHESIS a prediction that there is a relationship between one thing

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE(IV) and another thing DEPENDENT VARIABLE (DV).

Using specific methods they then create the METHOD to conduct this experimental

research. (More on this as we progress through the course). Once they have conducted

the EXPERIMENT, they will have lots of data and need to process this to look at their

results. The results could support, not support or be ambiguous about, their idea. From

these results they draw CONCLUSIONSe.g. „Tone of voice is extremely important in how

people interpret verbal messages.

Let‟s look at a real piece of research on Verbal communication

Argyle, Alkema and Gilmour (1971)

Aim To see if tone of voice (IV) has any effect when interpreting a verbal message (DV)

Method In artificial conditions different groups of PARTICIPANTS listened to either

friendly or hostile messages spoken in either friendly or hostile tones of voice.

Therefore, some participants heard a hostile message spoken in a friendly tone of

voice and others heard a friendly message spoken in a hostile tone of voice

Results When participants were asked to interpret the messages, it was found that the tone

of voice had about five times the effect of the verbal message itself.

Conclusion Tone of voice is extremely important in how people interpret verbal messages

What do you think may be the strengths and weaknesses of this research?

Who and how might this help in everyday life?

In pairs identify 10 different ways in which you communicate to others. Must not say 'body

language' as it too vague, needs to be specific

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Talk with your partner for 2 minutes about something you‟re interested in/enjoy....TWICE

Partners should......

First: Act very interested

Second time: Act as if they‟re NOT interested

• Discuss how you found this exercise and write down your answers:

• How did you feel when the other person WAS interested and was NOT interested?

• Did you think you had a normal conversation during the activity? (explain)

• For how much of the conversation did you look at your partners face? And how much did they look

at you?

Learning

To understand the functions of eye contact

To be able to describe and evaluate a study on eye contact

To be able to outline at least 1 study of eye contact and assess the strengths and weaknesses

People say that we talk with our eyes… Discuss

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Argyle (1968)

Aim To see how interrupting eye contact affects conversation

Method In artificial situation, pairs of PARTICIPANTSwere OBSERVED having

conversations. In half the conversations, one of the participants woe dark glasses so

that the other could not receive any eye contact.

Results When one of the participants wore dark glasses, there were more pauses and

interruptions than when dark glasses were not worn.

Conclusion Eye contact is important in ensuring the smooth flow of conversations

Evaluation

Hess (1963)

Aim To see the effect of pupil dilation on emotion

Method Participants were shown two sets of photographs of eyes. In one set, the pupils of

had been enlarged. In the other set of photos, the pupils had been reduced. They

had to identify which one they found more attractive.

Results

Conclusion

Evaluation

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EXAM Skills Introduction

Answering the questions, read the question very carefully, make sure you know what you are

being asked to do. Use psychological terms, organise your information clearly, write in full

sentences unless instructed otherwise. Look at the mark allocation this gives you a strong clue as

to how much you should write, rule of thumb is 1 mark = 1 minute.

Real exam questions

2 (a) Define the term verbal communication.

............................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................ (2 marks)

Question 2a AO1 = 2marks

AO1 Up to 2 marks for an accurate definition which may be by example.

Possible answer: Verbal communication requires the use of words or vocal sounds to convey

messages (2 marks). Do not allow “to communicate”.

2 (b) Read the following article which appeared in the problem page of a popular teenage

magazine.

He won’t take ‘No’ for an answer

Dear Problem Page,

My ex-boyfriend keeps asking me to go out with him again, but I am not interested.

I keep saying ‘No’, but he doesn’t seem to believe I mean it. What can I do?

Yours sincerely,

Gill Moore

Reply: Perhaps you need to think about how you are saying “No”! Psychologists

have found that tone of voice has more effect than the verbal message. You must

sound convincing when you say “No”.

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What is meant by paralinguistics? Refer to the article in your answer.

............................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................(3 marks)

Question 2b AO1 = 2 marks, AO2 = 1 mark

AO1 Up to 2 marks for a definition, 1 mark for an example.

Possible answer: Paralinguistics are the vocal features that accompany speech (2 marks) such

as tone of voice (1 mark) – maximum 2 marks.

AO2 mark for reference to the article.

Possible answer: The article suggests that the girl should say ‘no’ in a convincing tone of voice

(1 mark).

The way words are said (1 mark).

Not what is said but how it is said (2 marks)

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These seven facial expressions are recognised virtually across all societies

Probably inherited, humans have more muscles for moving our

faces than any other animal, changing very rapidly, some just last

0.2 of a second and are controlled by two hemispheres of the brain

WATCH THIS CLIP – FACIAL CODING – Class discussion

Sackheim (1978)

Aim To look at the relationship between facial expressions and the hemispheres of the

brain.

Method Researcher‟s photographed face showing a variety of different emotions, they cut

the photos down the middle, through the nose and reproduced a mirror image of

each side (known as composites). Participants were asked to judge the intensity

with which each person expressed emotion

Results Left side composite face were judged as expressing a far more intense emotion

than the right side composites. When asked why, they said the person in the

picture looked „warmer‟

Learning

To be able to understand the categories of facial expression

To understand the link between facial expressions and the hemispheres of the brain

An activity for you. In groups of 4, write the following words on separate pieces

of paper, „happy‟, „surprised‟, „angry‟, „afraid‟, „sad‟, „interested‟ and „disgusted‟.

Put in the envelope. One at a time take a piece of paper, act out the facial

expression (no speaking), everyone write down what they think it is, Repeat so

each person should have at least 2 goes.

After each go see how many of you guessed correctly, were some easier than

others, Why?

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Conclusion Left side of the face seems to express emotion much more than the right side.

Since the left hand side of the face is controlled by the right hemisphere of the

brain, and it is this side of the face that is more emotionally expressive, it seems

likely that basic emotions are controlled by the right hemisphere of the brain.

Evaluation Lab experiment somewhat artificial, in the real world facial expressions change

constantly. We also do not look at facial expressions in isolation from other non-

verbal cues, e.g. posture or the way they are dressed.

Practical

implications

If facial expression is inherited, means it happens instinctively and is more likely to

be truthful. Easy to lie with words but less so with facial expressions. Helps us to

understand why people prefer certain picture profiles of themselves than others,

prefer to show our warm side

INFO

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING – Using the exam questions previously write 2 similar questions for Eye

contact and 2 questions for Facial expressions. Exchange with a partner. The partner is to identify if the

questions addresses the topics studied so far and can be answered with firstly a memorised fact (G – D) and

with further expansion (C – A*)

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Body language is a general term used to describe aspects of Non-verbal

communication

Learning

To be able to recognise different types of body language

To be able to describe and evaluate studies of body language

To be able to outline at least 2 studies of body language and assess

their strengths and weaknesses

To understand the practical implications of body language

People who are getting on well together tend to adopt each other‟s posture when they are having a

conversation this is known as the postural echo

Define the following

Posture –

Confederate –

Closed posture –

Open posture -

Another activity for you. In pairs stand facing each other. Now have a

two minute conversation with each other. For half the conversation make

sure your arms are crossed for the other half unfold them and keep them

away from the front of your body.

Did the two types of posture make any difference to the way the

conversation went. How did you feel in each position? Did one seem more

comfortable than the other?

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McGinley, Lefevre and McGinley (1975)

Aim

Method

Results

Conclusion

Evaluation

Practical

implications

ETHICSUse of confederates is an ethical issue in psychology as it is considered unethical to

deceive participants.

Why do you think this could be?

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MORE Research Methods

Idea: Does it affect the way students learn if they are listening to music while doing their

work?

Try writing the following

1. What is the Independent variable?

2. What is the Dependent variable?

3. Write a hypothesis for the above

Identify the IV and DV in the following

A. The cultural norms of a group will have an effect on the use of personal space.

B. The status of a person will have an effect on personal space.

C. Touch can have an effect on people’s attitudes to that person

Condition- An experiment is usually organised so there are two trials, after which the

performances of the participants are compared. These are the conditions of the experiment.

Look again at the 3 pieces of research and try to identify what two conditions you would use and

why.

A.

B.

C.

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Gestures communicate additional information to other people, some are deliberate to emphasis or affect

the behaviour of others. Some are unconscious and we do not realise that we are giving away information

for example nervously tapping our fingers.

ACTIVITY –Think about your day and list all the different gestures you may make from when you get up

to when you go to bed, why you used it and the affect it had on the other person.

Lynn and Mynier (1993)

Aim To see the effect of gestures used by waiters and waitresses on the tipping

behaviour of customers in a restaurant

Method While taking orders from seated customers, waiters and waitresses were instructed

to either stand upright or squat down near the customer (squatting down makes

more eye contact possible)

Results When the waiters and waitresses squatted down, larger tips were received

compared with when they took orders standing upright.

Conclusion The gesture of squatting down near a seated customer to take an order will have a

positive effect on tipping behaviour.

Evaluation RESEARCH METHODS Field experiment – experiment that takes place in everyday

environment.

Write a

hypothesis

Another activity for you. Working with a partner decide on five

common gestures (not too rude) that are used in society to

convey messages.

Demonstrate these gestures to the rest of the class, how many

do they recognise?

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Form of non-verbal communication that conveys

information by physical contact between people, it is a powerful signal that can produce unconscious

emotional reactions, and huge cultural differences in the amount of touch permitted between individuals.

The handshake as a gesture is quite a recent addition to British society. Until the 17th

century people would bow or curtsey instead. The handshake was only used to seal

agreements.

Fisher, Rytting and Heslin (1976)

Aim To see the effect of touch on people‟s attitudes

Method Female students in a library were handed books by the librarian. The librarian was a

CONFEDERATE of the researcher. Half of the students were briefly touched on

the hand by the librarian when the books were handed to them> The other students

were not touched by the librarian.

Results When questioned later, the students who were touched had a much more positive

attitude towards the library and the librarian than those who were not touched. The

interesting thing was that the students were not aware that they had been touched.

Conclusion Touch can have an unconscious and positive effect on attitudes.

Evaluation

Practical

implications

Write a

hypothesis

Check your understanding

1. Distinguish between open posture and closed posture (3 marks)

2. Explain one practical implication of studies of body language (3 Marks)

WATCH VIDEO CLIP – TEARS, LIES AND VIDEOTAPES

INFO

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LEARNING

To understand the factors which affect personal space

To be able to describe and evaluate studies of factors

which affect personal space

To understand the practical implications of personal space

Did you notice any differences in how far apart you stood each time?

How did you feel?

The distance that feels comfortable between you and the other person is known as your

PERSONAL SPACE

This distance will vary depending on the circumstances you are in.

It is the second most important non-verbal communication signal that we use.

What do you think is the first?

WHAT SORT OF THINGS MIGHT AFFECT PERSONAL SPACE? Note your ideas

WATCH VIDEO CLIP – PERSONAL SPACE

PAIRS

ACTIVITY

Stand close to

your neighbour as

feels comfortable

for you.

Try doing this

facing each other.

How close do you

get comfortably?

Now do the same

thing, side by side,

how far apart are

you now?

Now try back to

back and note the

distance apart.

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Sex differences(differences due to being male or female)

Individual differences(factors that make one person not

the same as another such as age and personality)

Willis (1966)

Aim To see if age has an effect on personal space

Method Willis OBSERVEDalmost 800 individuals in different social situations

Results Those he observed tended to stand closer to people their own age and further away from

people who were either very much older or younger than themselves.

Conclusion Age difference affects how close people will stand to one another.

Practical

implications

Argyle and Dean (1965)

Aim To see if sex differences affect personal space

Method One at a time, participants were asked to sit and have a conversation with another person

who was actually a CONFEDERATE of the experimenter. Sometimes the confederate was

the same sex as the PARTICIPANT and at other times the confederate was the opposite

sex. The confederate sat at different distances from the participant and continually looked

in the participant‟s eyes.

Results The participants tended to break eye contact with the confederate of the opposite sex at a

greater distance apart than when the confederate was of the same sex. Argyle and Dean

thought that this was the point at which personal space was being invaded.

Conclusion We prefer to have a greater amount of personal space between ourselves and members of

the opposite sex during normal conversation.

Practical

implications

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Cultural norms(the range of behaviours that members of a particular social group or society can be

expected to show)

Summer (1969)

Aim To see if there are cultural differences in the use of personal space

Method Summer OBSERVEDgroups of white English people and groups of Arab people in

conversation.

Results The comfortable conversation distance in the white English people was between 1 and 1.5

m, whereas the comfortable conversation distance for the Arab people was much less than

that

Conclusion The use of personal space in normal conversation varies with culture

Practical

implications

Why do you think this might be?

Status(a person‟s rank or position within society)

Zahn (1991)

Aim To see if status has an effect on personal space.

Method Zahn OBSERVEDpeople of equal status approaching each other to have a conversation. He

also observed people of unequal status approaching each other.

Results Zahn found that people of lower status did not approach higher-status people with the

same degree of closeness as those of equal status.

Conclusion The use of personal space varies with difference in status when approaching other people.

Practical

implications

INFO – Other research has shown that, when in conversation, people in

Mediterranean cultures usually have a smaller amount of personal space

between them than people from North European and American cultures.

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ACTIVITY What do you think of the studies of factors that affect personal space that have been

described. Draw a table as below and add at least 2 strengths and 2 weaknesses for

each of the studies.

Study Strengths Weaknesses

Argyle and Dean

Willis

Summer

Zahn

INFO – Psychologists have found that our personal space has four zones

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Plan and Answerthe following 6 mark question –

Describe and evaluate one study in which a factor affecting personal space was investigated.

Term Definition

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Study Memorable word HELP No idea

Reasonable but

need to revise

Excellent I

know it

Name: Teacher: