Continuing Professional Development

Version 1.0

A-level Psychology

Getting Started: Specification A AS and A2

Ideas for structuring and

delivering A2

Permission to reproduce all copyright materials have been applied for. In some cases, efforts to contact copyright holders have been unsuccessful and AQA will be happy to rectify any omissions of acknowledgements in future documents if required.

2

Contents Page Ideas for structuring and delivering A2 A2 Scheme of Work PSYA4 4 Delivering Psychopathology PSYA4 Section A 11 Sample Marked Essay: Schizophrenia 17 Delivering Psychology in Action Section B 21 Sample Marked Exam Answers: Media and Addiction 24 Delivering Psychological Research and Scientific Method Section C 32 Developing Research Skills 34 Sample Research Methods Question 37 Group Activity: distinguishing AO1, AO2 and AO3 39 Key Points for Delivering PSYA3 (powerpoint slides) 40 Scheme of Work PSYA3 42 Detailed Scheme of Work Relationships 44 Activities: Relationships 47 Sample Marked Exam Answer: Relationships 52

3

A2 Scheme of Work: PSYA4 followed by PSYA3 This scheme of work is most appropriate for students who will need lots of practice to develop research methods and data analysis skills. It includes continuous development of research skills throughout the first term and weekly 20-30 min research methods practice activities (in blue). Assumptions Year 12 students will return for the last 5 weeks of the summer term. Students will be assessed on PSYA 4 in January The school year has 34 weeks, including summer term after AS examination There are 3 sessions per week of 1.5 hrs each References in the SOW to AQA resource bank materials /activities are in green Detailed SOW for summer term and for Relationships option PSYA3

4

Su

mm

er te

rm (Y

ear 1

2)

R

esea

rch

Met

hods

and

Psy

chol

ogy

in A

ctio

n W

eek

Ses

sion

1

Ses

sion

2

Ses

sion

3

1 Th

e na

ture

of s

cien

ce.

Dis

tingu

ishi

ng fe

atur

es o

f sci

ence

re

plic

abilit

y, o

bjec

tivity

, rel

iabi

lity,

val

idity

C

ompa

rison

with

com

mon

sens

e an

d ps

eudo

sc

ienc

e Sc

ient

ific

proc

ess

1 –

O

verv

iew

of r

esea

rch

cycl

e /s

cien

tific

met

hod

and

the

role

of p

arad

igm

s

Sub

ject

mat

ter o

f psy

chol

ogy

and

issu

es

rela

ting

to th

e sc

ient

ific

stud

y of

beh

avio

ur

New

par

adig

ms

as

alte

rnat

ives

to s

cien

ce

Scie

ntifi

c pr

oces

s 2

H

ypot

hesi

s te

stin

g an

d th

eory

bui

ldin

g

Gen

erat

ion

of la

ws

prin

cipl

es

Wha

t mak

es a

goo

d th

eory

Va

lidat

ing

new

kno

wle

dge

P

eer r

evie

w

Act

ivity

to c

ompa

re jo

urna

l arti

cle

with

po

pula

r mag

azin

e ar

ticle

on

Psy

ch in

act

ion

topi

c P

olic

y an

d pr

actic

es

Intr

oduc

ing

Psyc

holo

gy in

Act

ion

topi

c

Par

a so

cial

rela

tions

hips

A

ttrac

tion

of c

eleb

rity

soci

al a

nd e

volu

tiona

ry

expl

anat

ions

M

odel

s of

par

a so

cial

rela

tions

hips

M

easu

ring

cele

brity

and

sta

lkin

g

or

Mod

els

of a

ddic

tion.

Exp

lana

tions

of i

nitia

tion

mai

nten

ance

, and

rela

pse

(bio

logi

cal,

cogn

itive

an

d le

arni

ng in

c S

LT)

E

xpla

natio

ns o

f sm

okin

g an

d ga

mbl

ing

or

Wha

t is

anom

alis

tic p

sych

olog

y Fu

nctio

ns a

nd c

ultu

ral s

igni

fican

ce o

f pa

rano

rmal

bel

iefs

Is

sues

of p

seud

osci

ence

and

sci

entif

ic fr

aud

G

anzf

eld

stu

dies

and

psy

chok

ines

is

D

escr

ibe

the

key

feat

ures

of s

cien

ce

Dis

tingu

ish

betw

een

scie

nce

and

com

mon

sens

e E

valu

ate

the

scie

ntifi

c ap

proa

ch

Exp

lain

the

role

of h

ypot

hesi

s te

stin

g an

d fa

lsifi

catio

n in

theo

ry b

uild

ing

Use

crit

eria

to e

valu

ate

a th

eory

D

escr

ibe

and

eval

uate

the

proc

ess

of

valid

atin

g ne

w k

now

ledg

e

Und

erst

and

conc

epts

D

escr

ibe

stud

ies

and

expl

ain

mod

els/

theo

ries/

ex

plan

atio

ns

2 D

evel

opin

g P

sych

olog

y in

Act

ion

topi

c

Par

a so

cial

rela

tions

hips

A

ttrac

tion

of c

eleb

rity

soci

al a

nd e

volu

tiona

ry

expl

anat

ions

M

odel

s of

par

a so

cial

rela

tions

hips

M

easu

ring

cele

brity

and

sta

lkin

g

or

Mod

els

of a

ddic

tion

Des

igni

ng in

vest

igat

ions

R

evis

ion

of re

sear

ch m

etho

ds a

nd d

ata

colle

ctio

n te

chni

ques

from

AS

O

pera

tiona

lisin

g an

d co

ntro

lling

var

iabl

es

Rev

isio

n of

bas

ic p

rinci

ples

of i

nves

tigat

ion

desi

gn /u

se o

f pla

nnin

g do

cum

ent

Inve

stig

atio

n de

sign

(con

tinue

d)

Con

tinue

with

act

ivity

to d

evel

op u

nder

stan

ding

of

stre

ngth

s an

d lim

itatio

ns o

f met

hods

link

ed

to p

sych

olog

y in

act

ion

topi

c

Des

ign

of 2

stu

dies

usi

ng d

iffer

ent m

etho

ds

Res

ourc

e B

ank

rese

arch

met

hods

act

ivity

5

5

Exp

lana

tions

of i

nitia

tion

mai

nten

ance

, and

re

laps

e (b

iolo

gica

l, co

gniti

ve a

nd l

earn

ing

inc

SLT

)

Exp

lana

tions

of s

mok

ing

and

gam

blin

g or

W

hat i

s an

omal

istic

psy

chol

ogy?

Fu

nctio

ns a

nd c

ultu

ral s

igni

fican

ce o

f pa

rano

rmal

bel

iefs

G

anzf

eld

stu

dies

and

psy

chok

ines

is

Con

trove

rsie

s an

d ev

alua

tion

Act

ivity

to d

evel

op u

nder

stan

ding

of s

treng

ths

and

limita

tions

of m

etho

ds li

nked

to

psyc

holo

gy in

act

ion

topi

c

Res

ourc

e B

ank

rese

arch

met

hods

act

ivity

5

Des

ign

of 2

stu

dies

usi

ng d

iffer

ent m

etho

ds

Ple

nary

ses

sion

for a

ctiv

ity 5

R

evie

w o

f how

to s

elec

t an

appr

opria

te m

etho

d an

d te

chni

que

of d

ata

colle

ctio

n

U

nder

stan

d co

ncep

ts

Des

crib

e st

udie

s an

d ex

plai

n m

odel

s/

theo

ries/

exp

lana

tions

Des

ign

rese

arch

stu

dies

usi

ng a

t lea

st 2

di

ffere

nt m

etho

ds

Sel

ect a

n ap

prop

riate

rese

arch

met

hod

/dat

a co

llect

ion

tech

niqu

es. I

dent

ify s

treng

ths

and

limita

tions

of m

etho

ds

3 R

esea

rch

revi

ew a

nd e

valu

atio

n E

valu

atin

g m

odel

s an

d ex

plan

atio

ns o

f par

a so

cial

rela

tions

hips

R

evie

win

g re

sear

ch s

tudi

es e

g M

altb

y,

McC

utch

eon

E

valu

atin

g m

odel

s of

add

ictio

n R

evie

win

g re

sear

ch (b

iolo

gica

l, co

gniti

ve a

nd

lear

ning

inc

SLT

)

Eva

luat

ing

rese

arch

into

the

func

tions

of

para

norm

al b

elie

fs, G

anzf

eld

stu

dies

and

ps

ycho

kine

sis

(Con

trove

rsie

s an

d ev

alua

tion)

R

esou

rce

bank

act

iviti

es d

evel

opin

g cr

itica

l th

inki

ng a

ctiv

ity1,

2 a

nd 3

Res

earc

h re

view

and

eva

luat

ion

(con

t)

Eva

luat

ing

mod

els

and

expl

anat

ions

of p

ara

soci

al re

latio

nshi

ps

Rev

iew

ing

rese

arch

stu

dies

eg

Mal

tby,

M

cCut

cheo

n

Eva

luat

ing

mod

els

of a

ddic

tion

Rev

iew

ing

rese

arch

(bio

logi

cal,

cogn

itive

and

le

arni

ng in

c S

LT)

E

valu

atin

g re

sear

ch in

to th

e fu

nctio

ns o

f pa

rano

rmal

bel

iefs

, Gan

zfel

d s

tudi

es a

nd

psyc

hoki

nesi

s (C

ontro

vers

ies

and

eval

uatio

n)

Res

ourc

e ba

nk a

ctiv

ities

dev

elop

ing

criti

cal

thin

king

act

ivity

1,2

and

3

Issu

es in

inve

stig

atio

n de

sign

S

ampl

ing

and

gene

ralis

atio

n is

sues

and

pr

oble

ms

Rel

iabi

lity:

type

s of

relia

bilit

y, a

sses

smen

t and

im

prov

emen

t V

alid

ity: t

ypes

of v

alid

ity,

asse

ssm

ent a

nd

impr

ovem

ent

Eth

ical

issu

es in

inve

stig

atio

n de

sign

, st

rate

gies

for d

ealin

g w

ith th

em

Rev

iew

des

igns

from

ses

sion

4/5

and

sug

gest

im

prov

emen

ts

E

valu

ate

rese

arch

stu

dies

and

m

odel

s/ex

plan

atio

ns

Eva

luat

e re

sear

ch s

tudi

es a

nd

mod

els/

expl

anat

ions

Id

entif

y an

d ex

plai

n is

sues

in in

vest

igat

ion

desi

gn. A

sses

s re

liabi

lity

and

valid

ity

Sug

gest

way

s of

impr

ovin

g re

liabi

lity,

val

idity

. S

ugge

st w

ays

of d

ealin

g w

ith e

thic

al is

sues

. 4

Prac

tical

dat

a co

llect

ion

S

mal

l gro

up w

ork

Expl

orin

g re

liabi

lity

and

valid

ity o

f dat

a co

llect

ion

tool

s

Dat

a an

alys

is

Rev

ise

desc

riptiv

e te

chni

ques

and

gra

phic

re

pres

enta

tions

and

whe

n to

use

eac

h Le

vels

6

Stu

dent

s try

usi

ng d

iffer

ent t

ools

to

inve

stig

ate

an is

sue

asso

ciat

ed w

ith th

eir

Psy

chol

ogy

in A

ctio

n to

pic

Res

ourc

e ba

nk a

ctiv

ity 6

Com

plet

e pr

actic

al d

ata

colle

ctio

n

Eac

h gr

oup

to p

repa

re p

oste

r of w

hat t

hey

foun

d ou

t abo

ut e

ach

tool

and

how

they

w

ould

ove

rcom

e th

e pr

oble

ms

Dev

elop

dec

isio

n ch

art f

or s

elec

ting

tool

s/te

chni

ques

of d

ata

colle

ctio

n

of m

easu

rem

ent

App

lyin

g te

chni

ques

to d

ata

colle

cted

(se

ssio

n 10

,11

or to

dat

a se

ts )

Sum

mar

isin

g w

hat t

he d

ata

seem

s to

sho

w

Intro

duct

ion

to s

tatis

tical

test

ing

P

roba

bilit

y, s

tatis

tical

sig

nific

ance

and

err

ors

(e

xtra

cts

of re

ports

rele

vant

to p

sych

in a

ctio

n to

pic

that

cite

p v

alue

s et

c)

Use

dat

a co

llect

ion

tool

s /te

chni

ques

ef

fect

ivel

y U

nder

stan

d th

e lim

itatio

ns o

f diff

eren

t te

chni

ques

Und

erst

and

the

limita

tions

of d

iffer

ent

tech

niqu

es

Sel

ect a

nd d

evel

op a

ppro

pria

te d

ata

colle

ctio

n to

ols

/tech

niqu

es

Sel

ect a

nd a

pply

des

crip

tive

tech

niqu

es

Bas

ic u

nder

stan

ding

of p

roba

bilit

y

5 D

ata

anal

ysis

R

evis

it an

d co

nsol

idat

e pr

obab

ility

and

st

atis

tical

sig

nific

ance

Te

sts

of s

tatis

tical

sig

nific

ance

C

hoos

ing

a te

st

Wha

t the

test

s do

(ove

rvie

w )

App

lyin

g te

sts

(com

pute

r or b

y ha

nd )

Usi

ng s

igni

fican

ce ta

bles

Dat

a an

alys

is c

ont

Rev

iew

test

s of

sta

tistic

al s

igni

fican

ce

Cho

osin

g a

test

W

hat t

he te

sts

do (o

verv

iew

) A

pply

ing

test

s (c

ompu

ter o

r by

hand

) U

sing

sig

nific

ance

tabl

es

Exe

rcis

es to

sel

ect t

est,

just

ify i

nter

pret

dat

a

Rev

iew

of R

M

look

at s

ampl

e re

sear

ch

met

hods

exa

m p

aper

que

stio

ns

Pre

p fo

r nex

t ter

m o

nce

a w

eek

ques

tion

Rev

iew

of P

sych

olog

y in

act

ion

mat

eria

l and

pr

ep fo

r nex

t ter

m

E

xpla

in w

hat i

s m

eant

by

stat

istic

al

sign

ifica

nce

Sel

ect

an a

ppro

pria

te te

st o

f sig

nific

ance

S

tate

wha

t eac

h te

st d

oes

Use

sig

nific

ance

tabl

es

Ana

lyse

and

inte

rpre

t raw

dat

a

7

Aut

umn

Term

W

eek

Topi

c de

tails

Se

ssio

n 1

Topi

c de

tails

Se

ssio

n 2

Topi

c de

tails

Se

ssio

n 3

1 R

evie

w o

f app

roac

hes

in p

sych

olog

y R

esou

rce

bank

act

ivity

sum

mar

y of

ap

proa

ches

Intro

duct

ion

to is

sues

and

deb

ates

K

ey c

once

pts

and

term

s R

esou

rce

bank

act

ivity

sum

mar

y of

ap

proa

ches

in re

latio

n to

issu

es a

nd

deba

tes

Sci

entif

ic m

etho

d an

d re

sear

ch m

etho

ds

revi

sion

2 N

atur

e of

atti

tude

s, c

ompo

nent

s R

esea

rchi

ng a

ttitu

des/

tech

niqu

es fo

r m

easu

ring

attit

udes

Per

suas

ion

and

attit

ude

chan

ge m

odel

s an

d re

sear

ch

Hov

land

–Y

ale

Dua

l pro

cess

mod

els

Ela

bora

tion

Lik

elih

ood

mod

el

Res

earc

h m

etho

ds p

ract

ice

ques

tion

Dat

a an

alys

is a

nd in

terp

reta

tion

Des

ign

a st

udy

3

Atti

tude

s, b

ehav

iour

and

dec

isio

n m

akin

g D

isso

nanc

e/co

nsis

tenc

y m

odel

s an

d re

sear

ch

Atti

tude

s, b

ehav

iour

and

dec

isio

n m

akin

g

Sel

f per

cept

ion

mod

els

and

rese

arch

Res

earc

h m

etho

ds p

ract

ice

ques

tion

incl

udin

g ty

pes

of re

liabi

lity

and

valid

ity,

asse

ssm

ent a

nd im

prov

emen

t E

xpla

natio

ns o

f effe

ctiv

enes

s of

te

levi

sing

in p

ersu

asio

n

4

Med

ia in

fluen

ce p

ro a

nd a

nti s

ocia

l be

havi

our

Pro

cess

es s

ocia

l lea

rnin

g th

eory

ob

serv

atio

nal a

nd m

odel

ling

Scr

ipts

and

sch

emas

Med

ia in

fluen

ce p

ro a

nd a

nti s

ocia

l be

havi

our

Aro

usal

, cog

nitio

ns a

nd b

ehav

iour

R

esea

rch

evid

ence

Res

earc

h m

etho

ds p

ract

ice

ques

tion

inc

E

thic

al is

sues

in in

vest

igat

ion

desi

gn,

Des

ign

a st

udy

corr

elat

ion

Vid

eo g

ames

and

com

pute

rs

5

Influ

ence

of v

ideo

gam

es a

nd c

ompu

ters

on

arou

sal,

cogn

ition

s an

d be

havi

our

Influ

ence

of p

sych

olog

ical

rese

arch

on

polic

y an

d pr

actic

es

Res

earc

h m

etho

ds p

ract

ice

ques

tion

incl

udin

g st

udy

of c

eleb

rity

wor

ship

pe

er re

view

Psy

ch in

act

ion

revi

ew

Pow

erpo

int

Per

suas

ion

med

ia c

eleb

rity

8

Psyc

hopa

thol

ogy

W

eek

Topi

c de

tails

Se

ssio

n 1

Topi

c de

tails

Se

ssio

n 2

Topi

c de

tails

Se

ssio

n 3

6 P

sych

opat

holo

gy in

trodu

ctio

n an

d ov

ervi

ew

Res

ourc

e ba

nk a

ctiv

ity a

ppro

ache

s in

P

sych

opat

holo

gy a

ctiv

ity 1

Crit

ical

thin

king

ask

ing

the

right

que

stio

ns

abou

t exp

lana

tions

and

ther

apie

s R

esou

rce

bank

act

ivity

app

roac

hes

in

Psy

chop

atho

logy

act

ivity

2

A2

supp

ort m

ater

ials

Cla

ssifi

catio

n an

d di

agno

sis

P

urpo

se b

enef

it an

d lim

itatio

ns

Issu

es o

f rel

iabi

lity

and

valid

ity, g

ende

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PSYA4-Section A- Psychopathology

Specification Candidates will be expected to develop knowledge and understanding of one of the following: schizophrenia

• depression • anxiety disorders (either phobic disorders or obsessive compulsive disorder). Candidates should consider the chosen disorder with regard to all of the following: • clinical characteristics • issues surrounding classification and diagnosis, including reliability & validity • biological explanations • psychological explanations • biological therapies, including evaluation in terms of appropriateness & effectiveness • psychological therapies, including evaluation in terms of appropriateness & effectiveness. The requirement is for more than one psychological and biological explanation but the choice of biological and psychological explanations is left to the teacher. Where the term ‘including’ appears, it is a requirement. For example, the specification states, ‘Biological therapies for their chosen disorder, including in terms of appropriateness and effectiveness’. This means that examiners could ask a question which specifically requires the candidates to consider the appropriateness and/or effectiveness of particular therapies. For example: ‘Outline two or more psychological therapies for depression and evaluate these therapies in terms of their appropriateness and effectiveness.’

Questions can be set on any of these areas and split questions can cover more than one area. Questions can be essay based or parted into two or three sections

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Clinical characteristics These could include:

• physiological, behavioural, emotional and cognitive signs/ symptoms • incidence and prevalence • course and prognosis.

It is important for candidates to able to describe the clinical characteristics but a question based on this is unlikely to be more than 4 or 5 marks out of the 25 marks available. For example; ‘Outline some of the clinical characteristics of any one anxiety disorder’ (5 marks). Candidates do sometimes find it difficult to focus appropriately in these short answer questions. Consider the example below: Example: “One anxiety disorder is phobias. This is when someone has an intense, irrational fear of a certain object. It has many characteristics one of which being the intense irrational fear. The person who has the fear knows it is irrational and the fear can interrupt and cause difficulties within the person’s life. Another characteristic is that the person will try to avoid the phobic object as much as they can. There are different types of phobia. Agoraphobia is where the person has fear of going outside. Social phobias is where the person fears social situations and specific phobia is where they have a phobia to a specific object like spiders.” Commentary: An appropriate anxiety disorder has been clearly identified (phobias). The definition is reasonable but there is some repetition i.e. intense, irrational fear. The candidate gains credit for mentioning that the individual recognises the irrationality and for mentioning that avoidance is another important characteristic of the disorder. The reference to different types of disorder does not add much other than suggesting the idea that phobias develop in response to different objects/ situations. There is little about the underlying ‘anxiety’ component of the disorder and the signs and symptoms associated with anxiety. The outline is generally accurate and reasonably coherent but limited (mark 3/5).

Clinical characteristics Activity Students read the relevant section of their textbook. They practise writing clear and succinct outlines of their chosen disorder in their own words.

N.B. Candidates will not always be asked about clinical characteristics. They will not gain

credit for doing this unless it is specifically required. For example, clinical characteristics are

not required in the following question:

‘Discuss biological explanations of schizophrenia.’ (25 marks)

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Issues surrounding classification and diagnosis of the chosen disorder, including reliability and validity The specification does not explicitly refer to the ICD and DSM manuals but it can be useful for candidates to have some awareness of these, particularly in relation to reliability and validity issues. Awareness of more than one diagnostic/ classificatory system encourages the candidates to look at some of the difficulties that can arise by using more than one diagnostic/ classificatory system. Prior to the development of classificatory systems, people whose behaviour was regarded as abnormal were considered to be ‘mad’ or ‘deviant’. Accurate diagnosis can, on the other hand, help with the provision of appropriate treatment and therapy. The diagnostic manuals can be found at: ICD www.who./classifications/icd/en/ DSM www.apa.org/

Issues surrounding classification and diagnosis: Activity 1 Ask students to think of reasons why classification can be helpful in psychopathology. They should generate a list of factors such as those below:

• To encourage communication between professionals (psychiatrists, clinical psychologists, nurses etc.) so they are all using common terminology.

• To understand more about the possible underlying causes of mental disorders. • To be able to predict the course and outcome of mental disorders and to select the

most appropriate treatment. • To encourage research and to make the research more reliable. For example, to

make sure the research is conducted with comparable groups.

Issues surrounding classification and diagnosis: Activity 2 Whilst most professionals acknowledge the benefits of classification and diagnosis, problems can arise. Ask students to think about the possible disadvantages of classification/ diagnosis mental disorders and explain why they are problematic.

They may suggest:

Misdiagnosis. Problem of mental disorder as a separate category- assumption of discontinuity

between normal/ abnormal behaviour e.g. anyone can be depressed or anxious to some extent at certain times in their life.

Labelling can stigmatise. Diagnostic manuals can reflect historical and cultural context of the time.

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Issues of reliability and validity: Activity 3 Ask students to think about the ways in which mental and physical disorders are different from each other and how this might affect the reliability and validity of diagnosis.

They may suggest:

Lack of objective tests in psychological disorders whilst physical disorders use x-ray, scans, blood and urine tests.

In psychological disorders reliability is only based on whether clinicians agree. Classification systems are only useful if they provide descriptive accounts for all

types of abnormal behaviour. Classification categories should be mutually exclusive i.e. boundaries between

categories should be clearly drawn so it is obvious that symptoms fit one particular category.

To ensure reliability, clinicians who are classifying/ diagnosing (using ICD and DSM) should come to the same conclusions (inter-rater reliability) about particular patients.

Validity refers to the appropriateness of the categories - do the categories group together people whose symptoms arise from the same underlying factors and who respond to similar therapy.

Making the answer relevant to the chosen disorder Candidates need to ensure they make the discussion relevant to their chosen disorder. For example, one important issue in schizophrenia is the number of sub-types, are they valid, separate categories or different points on the same continuum? Other issues which could be linked to classification and diagnosis:

cultural issues- do western classification systems apply universally? gender issues- are some disorders more likely to be diagnosed in women than in

men? ethical issues- is it appropriate to label, if the label carries a stigma?

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Explanations in psychopathology - biological and psychological Students’ AS level notes should provide the main assumptions of the models. These can then be applied to the chosen disorder.

Explanations in psychopathology: Activity 4 The assumptions of the models could be reviewed in a table based on the headings below. Alternatively the answers could be provided by the teacher written on cards which the students have to sort and put in the appropriate slots in the table. Approach Biological Psychodynamic Behavioural Cognitive Central ideas

What is ‘normal’ behaviour?

What is ‘abnormal’ behaviour

Research techniques used

Therapies/ treatment

Aims of therapy/ treatment

The approaches must be applied to the chosen disorder. There are a number of opportunities to link explanations to issues and debates. For example:

nature-nurture debate reductionism free-will and determinism cultural and gender issues.

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Biological and psychological therapies, including evaluation in terms of appropriateness & effectiveness Therapies are not specified as some therapies are more applicable to one disorder than to another. For example, ECT is appropriate for some types of depression but not for phobias. Evaluation of therapies, by students, is often basic e.g. ‘ECT is unethical’. Statements are often presented unsupported by any evidence. As part of an understanding of ‘How science works’, candidates should be encouraged to think about research methods and go beyond basic commentary such as ‘This study lacks ecological validity’. Evaluation has to be more than it would be at AS level. AO2/ AO3 credit could, for example, be gained by:

considering the quality of research into the effectiveness of therapies consideration of methodological, practical and ethical issues in the research e.g.

investigator bias, comparability of groups of patients being compared, any placebo effect

criteria and timing for judging the effectiveness of treatment, what is meant by cure? the role of drug companies in research studies ethical issues in treatments and therapies, for example, informed consent, protection

from harm.

Biological and psychological therapies: Activity 5

Find some research articles reporting on the effectiveness of therapies, for

example abstracts from PsycINFO on the internet. Ask students to read the

abstracts and consider the issues raised in the bullet points above.

Ideas on Psychopathology based on AQA, CPD material, Preparing to Teach A2: A2 delivery issues (2009)

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Sample marked essay Schizophrenia

01) Discuss one or more issues surrounding classification and/or diagnosis of schizophrenia (4 marks + 8 marks) 02) Discuss what research has shown about one or more biological explanations for schizophrenia (5 marks + 8 marks)

Candidate Response

01 There are problems with the diagnosis and classification in schizophrenia. There is not a set of symptoms that are required for diagnosis but some symptoms from each category. So 2 schizophrenics could have completely different sets of symptoms. Also these symptoms may overlap with symptoms of other disorders such as bipolar disorder or symptoms of brain disease or damage A further difficulty in diagnosis is the stage of the disorder. It is only reliably diagnosed in the active stage where symptoms are numerous and evident.

Two relevant issues are identified and presented in a way that suggests knowledge of criteria for diagnosis without describing the criteria in full.

These problems are associated with the classification systems used . In science a good classification system would mean that the categories would be discrete and mutually exclusive but this is not possible with a disorder that has so many sub types and symptoms.

Another issue of diagnosis of schizophrenia is bias. Goater found that misdiagnosis of black people as schizophrenic was more likely than misdiagnosis of white people.

The study is appropriate but it would have been useful to elaborate on the methodology and to use this to evaluate the evidence. The final paragraph implies that the diagnosis was done in different cultures when it was a study based in London

In many ways it is not just psychiatrists that may be biased it may be that there are some symptoms of schizophrenia that signal mental disorder in western culture but not in other cultures eg hearing voices.

The issues is identified and explained and by linking back to the preceding paragraph there is elaboration

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Examiner comment on 01 a) Given that this question is worth virtually half the marks for the topic the answer is very short. A number of relevant issues, mainly associated with diagnosis were identified. Evaluative points are made but in most instances would have gained more marks if they had been elaborated, the lines of argument developed and the implications explored more fully. Alternatively, the essay could have considered other issues directly associated with classification. Whilst the content is sound and focused it is limited in depth and range. Errors of grammar and punctuation but these do not compromise meaning. AO1 2 or possibly 3 AO2/3 4

02 Biological explanation for schizophrenia include genetic, viral, biochemical and brain dysfunction. Each has evidence to support it and evidence to challenge it along with other explanations that can explain the research findings

Clear identification of explanations

Gottesmans study reports on a number studies. He found that if a child has schizophrenia there is a 9% chance of the his sibling developing schizophrenia, whilst for Mz twins who share the same genes there is a 48% chance compared with DZ twins ( as alike a siblings) that have a 17% chance.

Though the expression is clumsy, detail is accurate

These rates are different from the Cardno study that found concordance rates of 26% for MZ twins and 0% for dz twins. One explanation for the difference is that the Cardno study used strict diagnostic criteria to distinguish MZ form DZ twins. Earlier studies did not and so may not reflect the true degree to which genetics explain schizophrenia. As families share the same environments, the similarity could be due to the environment and MZ may have even more similar environments and experience the same environments at the same age and stage of development

This material has been credited as evidence to support/challenge the genetic explanation

Research studies have controlled for some of these problems by looking at adopted children. Tienari studied 100 adopted children who had schizophrenic mothers and compared them with 180 children who had been adopted but did not have a family history of schizophrenia. He found 15 of adopted children with schizophrenic mothers

Not quite accurate but to understanding is evident The rationale could be elaborated

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had schizophrenia but only 2 of the control group . By using the control group the evidence is stronger. The other main issue with genetic explanations is that no single gene has been found for schizophrenia. Studies of mice showing social abnormalities and studies of schizophrenic families found defects in the pp33cc gene but this research is in early stages.

This paragraph earns both AO1 and AO2/3 credit. There is a real discussion with one point leading to another. It demonstrates some reasonably accurate detail of studies and their methodology and some focused evaluation. Given the balance of AO1 to AO2/3 it would not be sensible to spend a long time describing the studies in detail but better as has been done here to focus on details of the studies that can be used as evaluation and be commented on.

Biochemical explanations are not an alternative to genetic explanations as it may be that the genetic abnormality causes the biochemical abnormality. Most research point to the dopamine hypothesis to explain schizophrenia. Too much dopamine activity at the synapses in the brain causes the symptoms. The extra activity could be because too much is produced or that the receptors are over sensitive. Most of the research into the explanation comes from drug therapies such as phenothiazines that reduce schizophrenia by blocking the receptors and clozapine that reduces positive symptoms by occupying the dopamine receptors at the synapse. Post-mortem and PET studies show schizophrenics have more dopamine receptors than normal people. To add to this evidence Ldopa, used for treating parkinsons, increases dopamine activity and causes positive symptoms ofschizophrenia . However it is only the positive symptoms that decrease, not the negative symptoms and just because these drugs affect dopamine and symptoms of schizophrenia it can’t be concluded dopamine is the cause. Newer studies show that symptoms can also be controlled by drugs that act on serotonin receptors as well as dopamine receptors. Lewandowski found that negative symptoms of

Useful points but needs elaboration. Why is it a problem if they are not comparable ? What is the implication for the research.

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schizophrenics may be the result of too little dopamine in prefrontal regions of the brain. A more general issue is that sub types have very different symptoms and these may have different causes also diagnosis is not always reliable due to symptom overlap with bipolar disorder so participants may not be comparable.

b) The candidate has probably spent more than half their time on this short essay, so it is quite long for a 13 mark essay. The extra time has been spent on the description of the research and findings rather than presenting a range of evaluative points. The evaluation and commentary that is provided is focused and sound but is limited in scope and not always expressed clearly. There is however evidence of appropriate use of terminology. There are some minor errors of grammar punctuation AO1 5 AO2/3 5

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PSYA4 Psychology in Action Each topic in this section focuses on

• concepts, theories and research studies • how science works • application of psychological knowledge.

In the Anomalistic psychology option the focus is on application of scientific method to investigate belief in paranormal phenomena. So it is vital to address methodological issues throughout. It is also important to focus on why people believe in the paranormal rather than the description of paranormal phenomena. In the Media and Addiction options, the focus is on the application of theory and how research influences practices and policy. Students need to be able to outline examples of applications, interventions, policy and practices and to evaluate these. They also need to be able to apply their knowledge to unfamiliar situations. Applications such as advice, suggestions for intervention need to be explicitly rooted in psychological theory and evidence.

Media Psychology class activity: From research to policy

In 1993, the Canadian Association of Broadcasters (CAB) filed a strengthened voluntary code of practice regarding violence in broadcasting.

The Code's provisions included:

• a prohibition on airing programs that are gratuitously violent and that promote or glamorize violent acts

• a "watershed hour" of 9:00 p.m. before which only violence suitable for adults could be aired

• a statement that violence would not be shown as a preferred way of solving problems, or as the central theme of children's programming and that children's programming would not invite dangerous imitation

All privately-owned conventional television stations and networks were obliged to follow this code.

Divide the class into two groups.

Group A should assemble evidence from psychological theory and studies that challenges the appropriateness of imposing this code on television stations or evidence that undermines the research on which this code is based.

Group B should assemble evidence from psychological theory and studies that supports the decision of CAB to impose this code on television stations.

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Provide a range of paper based resources and internet access

The following sites may be useful

Media Violence Debates Government and Industry Responses to Media Violence

Research on the Effects of Media Violence

http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/reprint/124/5/1495

Each group should then prepare a short but powerful presentation of their side of the debate. The presentation will need to have a clear line of argument with assertions substantiated with scientifically rigorous evidence.

Media Psychology stretch and challenge activity: Investigating the effects of video games and internet on young people Watch the extract in which Douglas Gentile talks to Jo Frost about video and internet violence.

http://www.channel4.com/programmes/jo-frost-extreme-parental-guidance/articles/video-expert-opinion-on-computer-gaming

1. Stone and Gentile propose a model of the effects of video games. List the 5 dimensions and effects of video games identified in their model.

Sources Holt and Lewis. A2 level Psychology : the student’s textbook. Crown Publishing Limited 2009 http://www.drdouglas.org/drdpdfs/APA-Dimensional_Approach-presented.pdf

2. Review research into the impact of video games and internet. Consider

Sources http://www.drdouglas.org/page_resources_articles_2008pedsabstract.html http://www.video-game-addiction.org/ http://www.drdouglas.org/page_issues_issues.html http://virtualmentor.ama-assn.org/2008/01/jdsc1-0801.html http://www.youngmedia.org.au/pdf/fact_sheet/02_01_overview_violence.pdf

3. Discuss the effects of internet and video games on children and young people.

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In delivering Psychology in Action topics, it is important to ensure that students can distinguish between commonsense and psychology. This is particularly important given the plethora of pseudo-scientific material in the media. They need to appreciate the importance of substantiating assertions by explicit reference to rigorous scientific research and basing judgements on robust psychological evidence.

Media Psychology activity 2: Parasocial relationships healthy or unhealthy? McCutcheon identified three levels of parasocial relationship. Provide an outline of what is meant by each level

• The entertainment or social level ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………

• The intense personal level ……………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………

• The borderline pathological ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… Explanations of parasocial relationships make contrasting predictions about the adjustment and wellbeing of people who engage in such parasocial relationships

• The absorption addiction hypothesis and attachment theory argue that those with poorer adjustment are likely to seek parasocial relationships to make up for deficits within their own live.

• The positive active view asserts that parasocial relationships fulfil harmless but important social functions by allowing access to social groups of fellow fans.

Based on evaluation of research evidence, which of these opposing views has most compelling support? The following studies may be useful, Maltby et al (2001), McCutcheon (2006), Roberts (2007) in Bailey et al (2009) AQA Psychology A2 Nelson Thornes (2009). These studies set out to test these competing explanations. Obviously you can use alternative or additional studies if you wish. In evaluating the evidence, you should consider the methodological strengths and limitations of the research, the reliability and validity of the findings. Present your decision in the form of a report that justifies your decision.

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Sample marked answers to Media questions

a) Outline the Hovland-Yale model of persuasions (5 marks) b) John is about to move from primary to secondary school. When looking round the schools he and his mum agree that Greenway High comes top of their list and Rowan Lane a close second. When it comes to putting in the application form John’s Mum sees that the chances of getting into Greenway are very slim and only people who put Rowan as first choice are given a place so she puts Rowan as John’s first choice. A few days later when talking to John she doesn’t mention any of the good points about Greenway, only weaknesses that she had just noticed in their brochure.

Explain how cognitive dissonance theory could be used to explain John’s Mum’s behaviour. (8 marks) c) Discuss explanations for celebrity worship. (4 marks +8 marks)

Candidate Response

Comments

a) Hovland argues that persuasion and attitude change depend on the interaction between the source, the message, the medium, the receiver and the situation.

Useful succinct introduction

Messages that provoke moderate fear can persuade if there is information about how to avoid the fear but when the message causes strong fear the receiver is overwhelmed and my ignore the message. If the receiver is well educated and intelligent then the message content needs to be justified and give both sides of the argument if it is to persuade. If only one side is given the receiver thinks they are not being told the whole story so become suspicious. If we think that a person is trying to persuade us we tend to put up barriers and not take in the message.

Physically attractive people similar to ourselves who are credible and speak fairly fast tend to be more persuasive. Often adverts use these factors for example they often use experts in white coats to make the source seem credible. Most people in adverts are reasonably good looking and if not actually like us they are like what we aspire to

This elaboration of the first paragraph is accurate and detailed reflecting knowledge of a range of research evidence

b) Cognitive dissonance theory argues that when 2 related cognitions contradict each other we experience dissonance this is an uncomfortable state which we are motivated to change . Dissonance is reduced by changing one of the cognitions so that consistency is restored

The basic assumptions of the theory are outlined clearly

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Dissonance is often generated by having to choose between 2 equally attractive alternatives. The rejection of something that is attractive leads to dissonance, often referred to as post decisional dissonance. One of the ways to reduce this dissonance is to seek out information that justifies the rejection This is illustrated by John’s mother.

This reference to John’s mother does not explain how CDT is applied.

C) There are various explanation for celebrity worship they differ in terms of whether they view the behaviour as adaptive McCutcheons absorption-addiction model argues that people develop these parasocial relationships with celebrities because of inadequacies in their real life. They attempt to escape from reality and cope with their situation by developing relationships with celebrities. The relationship can provide an identity and give a sense of purpose. Parasocial relationships are seen as addictive. The individual needs an increasingly strong involvement with their celebrity and once a relationship reaches a certain intensity the stronger the relationship the poorer psychological health

A fairly succinct and reasonably accurate description of the theory

One of the strengths of this theory is that it reflects the three levels of celebrity worship. Most fans stay in the harmless ‘Level One’ stage social entertainment, those with a weaker sense of personal identity or coping skills become absorbed in a celebrity’s life and the third level is reached by a few people who have the poor mental health and social adjustment.

Maltby in a study of students found that individuals at each successive level of the CAS showed higher levels of social dysfunction and anxiety providing support for the pathological view of celebrity worship but because of the correlational design causal inference cannot be drawn. One issue of relevance here is that the manifestation of celebrity attraction seems to be a culturally specific phenomena typical of individualist cultures

Some useful evaluation in terms of methodology and issues though the point about culture needed to be evidenced as there are contradictory views on this.

Evolutionary explanations challenge this view arguing that the tendency to look up to and imitate successful individuals could have had powerful advantages in the past and is a more efficient way of learning than trial and error. However the more extreme 2nd and 3rd levels of celebrity

This ref to evolutionary theory is used to counter the reference to CW being culture specific and as commentary on addiction absorption theory

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seem to go beyond imitation and are associated with dysfunction

/pathological view of CW

According to attachment theory, the tendency to form parasocial relationships starts in early childhood. Insecure attachment types show more intense attraction to celebrities because the celebrity makes no demands and there is no risk of being criticised, or rejected as in real relationships. Anxious-ambivalent attachment types tend to be needy and clingy in real relationships and are more likely to try to make contact or stalk a celebrity.

Clear summary of the main point of the theory

Attachment theory is deterministic in that attachment style is established in childhood. It suggests treatment of borderline pathological relationships would require intense therapy to resolve childhood problems.

An attempt here to consider implications of determinism

McCutcheon in a correlational study of university students found no relationship between insecure attachment and parasocial relationships with celebrities. Whilst other studies have supported this view Roberts found evidence of attachment style being linked to stalking. Both attachment and absorption models are pathological models. In contrast to these, positive models eg Jenkins argue that celebrity worship helps to create social networks rather than substitute para-social relationships for real relationships and we are in danger of pathologising the behaviour – the daily mail articles talk about it as a syndrome.

Examiner comment a) This answer is reasonably accurate and certainly very detailed, but covers only part of the theory. The absence of any mention of stages in the process of attitude change prevents the answer from being thorough. The question is only worth 5 marks therefore this candidate should have provided less detail about the effect of varying the source, message and receiver and mentioned the stages in the process. 4/5 b) It is clear that the candidate has sound knowledge of the theory and the elements described are relevant to the scenario about John. However the question required explanation of John’s mother’s behaviour and this explicit requirement has not been satisfied. It is possible to tackle this type of question by starting with an outline of relevant theory but it is then necessary to point out the relationship between the elements of the theory and the material in the stem.

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In this case, the two schools are the attractive alternatives, putting Rowan as first choice and rejecting Greenway means that an attractive option has been rejected (in this case the most attractive option). It is also worth pointing out that she was not forced to do this. The remainder of the text refers to strategies to reduce post decision dissonance.

AO2/3 4/8

c) The candidate provides a clear outline of two explanations and uses other theories as commentary/alternative explanations for the evidence. The description is reasonably thorough, accurate and detailed given the time and marks available.

The discussion is focused and reasonably well developed, though more thorough methodological evaluation of the research cited as evidence would have been useful as would elaboration of the issues raised

AO1 4/4 AO2/3 7/8 Total 19/25

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Addiction Total for this question: 25 marks

Jake is addicted to gambling, just like his father. He started in the arcades where he and his mates used to hang out after school. Soon he started skipping school to go to the arcades and stealing money from his Mum. Jake’s mates think he is really cool when he wins but cannot understand why Jake doesn’t seem to recognise when he is losing, risks even more money on his next bet and why he finds betting so exciting. a(i) Discuss explanations for Jake’s gambling addiction. (10 marks) a(ii) Outline one psychological intervention that could be used to help overcome addiction to gambling. (5 marks ) b) Discuss legislation and public health interventions that have been used to prevent addiction (4 marks + 6 marks )

Candidate response

a (i) Jakes gambling addiction can be explained in a number of ways. As his father is also addicted to gambling just like his father his gambling could be explained by genetics

Correct identification of possible explanation linked to Jakes situation

Eisen using twin studies found evidence for genetic contribution to pathological gambling. This would be a very deterministic nature based explanation and the fact that father and son are both addicted could be explained just as well by modelling and reinforcement from behaviourist approach

Useful commentary which involves evidence to support the view and makes ref to determinism leading nicely into an alternative explanation (coherence)

There is also evidence that vulnerability is increased by a culture that approves of gambling and permissive family attitudes

This is an apt point but would gain more credit if it had been supported by for instance Fisher’s research . This would also provide evidence related to truancy, lies and stealing

Other biological explanations link gambling to increased dopamine and noradrenalin levels which would explain Jakes excitement and how gambling even if you don’t win becomes addictive

Again the explanation is linked to the material in the scenario demonstrating creditworthy analysis

The fact that Jake’s mates think he is cool suggests that reinforcement is involved or at least was involved in the initiation phase of the addiction.

Creditworthy analysis

Mark Griffiths in his research into gambling has shown that opportunities to gamble and access in particular to slot machines contributes significantly to gambling addiction in young men. In Jakes case having a local arcade and being able to bunk off school and having

A clear line of argument with good commentary

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money from Mum may have contributed. Griffiths also states that gamblers tend to turn losing experiences which would normally prevent repetition of a behaviour into near wins which can reinforce gambling. These explanations are reductionist they reduce a very complex behaviour with both biological and social causes to simple reinforcement. To explain jakes gambling a more holistic approach is needed a(ii) Because Jake is addicted to gambling biological treatments would not be appropriate. As he seems not to recognise when he is losing, cognitive therapy might be best as it could help him to challenge his inappropriate way of thinking about losing. As Griffith points out losing is not nearly winning.

The question does not require that the intervention is appropriate for Jake only that it is appropriate for gambling, however the stem has led this candidate to an appropriate choice and the reasoning shows knowledge of interventions

Cognitive therapy would involve first identifying the stage of the person possibly using the Prochaska model .If the person is not yet motivated, motivational interviewing might be appropriate

The question requires description of one intervention. This candidate has focused on cognitive therapy as if it is one intervention and the reference to both motivational interviewing and CBT as a sequence justifies this,

This involves reviewing habits and weighing up the positive and negative effects the gambling is having on the person’s life (work, family relations health, friendships, finances). The therapist gets the client to argue his own case for changing rather than being told he needs to change. Once the client is motivated he might move on the cognitive behavioural therapy where the therapist gets the person to keep a diary of negative and irrational thoughts and, in particular, thoughts about and when gambling. In the therapy sessions the therapist will challenge irrational thoughts that undermine self esteem and ability to cope without gambling and challenge thoughts that see losing as near wins and so to increase the persons control.

The description is very clear and takes the reader through the stages logically .

b) Legislation to reduce addiction can take a number of forms. Licensing laws restrict when and who can sell alcohol and cigarettes, where people can gamble and completely bans drugs which is a criminal offence. Legislation can also limit or ban advertising of addictive substances

This paragraph lists different types of intervention

The effectiveness of such measures is difficult to assess. Most research supports

This may be true but the candidate would gain more credit by referring to specific research

the view that ban on smoking in public places has increased the number of people giving up and reduced

This reference to a feature of a theory (cues) lifts this from commonsense.

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smoking by removing the cues to smoke However research is correlational so we can’t see if the ban causes reduced addiction and there are limitations on the sampling of these studies.

These points would gain more credit if they were more detailed and referred to specific research. It is unlikely that this is correlational . It is more likely to be a comparison or association.

Similar problems arise in assessing whether restricting advertising has an effect, though a study of the effect of a complete ban on cigarette advertising in Sweden showed a significant reduction in smoking.

Finland

One of the main problems of legislation and increasing taxation is that those who earn a living from the industry lobby against it and in some ways restricting access just to people below a particular age makes the Health advice from doctors or on the internet is another way of reducing addiction but even when lots of good advice is given, only about 5% of smokers succeed in giving up. substance more attractive or grown up

The candidate raises relevant issues here.

Examiner comment a(i) This candidate really has analysed the scenario and demonstrated knowledge and the ability to apply knowledge to a new situation. There is some evidence of reasonable commentary and reference to issues, though the real strength of this response is in the application skills. To gain full marks a candidate would not have to have looked at so many explanations or explained so many of the features of Jakes addiction. Most of the ideas are expressed clearly using appropriate terminology. 10 marks AO2/3 a)(ii) The answer is long for a question worth only 5 marks. Candidates should be aware that spending too much time on one part will detract from other answers. Part of the problem lies in the fact that the first paragraph, whilst showing this is an able candidate, does not earn marks as this part of the question does not have to be contextualised. Once the candidate starts describing the intervention the description is clear reasonably accurate and explicitly relevant to gambling. Ideas 5 marks AO1

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Part b Although the answer is well focused, details of the legislation and of the health advice are not provided such that the AO1/ knowledge is limited . The evaluation makes a number of statements but these are not justified or explained. References to research are superficial and the evaluation of the research is not well developed. For example, to gain credit, the comment about sampling needs to explain what the sampling problems were. Much of the answer could be regarded as commonsense. It is important that the answer is psychologically informed. Ideas are expressed reasonably clearly. Only minor errors that did not compromise meaning AO1 3 marks AO2/3 2 marks TOTAL 20/25

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Psychological Research and Scientific Method In this section, students need to focus on the application of scientific method in psychology. Students will need to not only understand the major features of science but also to draw on this understanding when designing, evaluating and interpreting research.

Basic Concepts

Associated points

Objectivity Bias/lack of objectivity. Dealing with bias in selection of research topics/focus, experimenter bias, demand characteristic and investigator effects – can psychology be objective?

Falsifiability Hypotheses need to be testable and capable of being shown to be incorrect. Only then can the decision to reject or accept a hypothesis be made

Replication The cornerstone of scientific process and means of checking reliability

Control This is central to the conclusions that can be drawn from research. Causal inference can only be drawn if Iv isolated manipulate and extraneous variables are controlled.

Generalisability Generalising is limited by sampling

Validating new knowledge

The role of peer review. The purpose, process, and pitfalls of peer review

Stretch and Challenge Concepts

Associated points

Deductive and inductive process

How hypotheses relate to theory in the context of: Induction – reasoning from particular to general Deduction – reasoning from general to particular

Paradigm Awareness of how the existence of a dominant paradigm (shared assumptions about the subject matter and methods of psychology) can facilitate the development of knowledge. Yet this shared understanding and collaboration can also inhibit progress and confirm status quo.

Parsimonious The best models in science are not overly complex but ones that predict the results with the fewest factors. As per Occam's Razor (from William of Occam, philosopher) best to slice away unnecessary theoretical baggage.

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The research cycle provides a model of how all the bits of scientific method fit together and illustrates the full process from problem identification through to application, as depicted in psychopathology and psychology in action. • problem identification through “observation” • hunch • hypothesis generation • empirical study to TEST whether or not the hypothesis is supported • analysis and evaluation to DECIDE whether or not the hypothesis is supported • replication • validating research - peer review • theory building • modification refining and checking replication • application. In the examination candidates could be required to • Explain and comment on the scientific process and scientific concepts. • Analyse research and respond to questions based on research reports. • Evaluate methodology and data collection techniques described in a report. • Design a study or a part of a study such as the materials, consent form, standardised instructions, debriefing statement. • Explain how a variable could be operationalised, manipulated, measured, controlled or how a sample could be selected . • Explain improvements at the design of an investigation. • Select and apply techniques of data presentation. • Select techniques of data analysis. • Explain how data would be analysed, presented and interpreted. When designing an investigation it is really important that students appreciate how to select APPROPRIATE methods and techniques and that selection is linked to the aim of the investigation and the strengths and limitations of the method. Students need to use their knowledge of strengths and limitations of methods and techniques when making investigation design decision. So when teaching investigation design, encourage students to link the design choice to the strength/limitations; this also helps them to justify selection. Students often know about sampling, reliability and validity, ethical issues but fail to address these in designing studies. Similarly, when considering possible extraneous variables and design flaws in a study and how to remedy them, students need to apply their knowledge to the features of the particular study and to focus on real issues that affect the reliability and validity of the study. Students often focus on simple inconsequential facets of the study e.g. lighting, temperature. Whilst candidates would not be asked to recall statistical formulae or do statistical calculations they could be asked draw up graphs, and to use statistical tables to decide if results are significant.

http://www.psychlotron.org.uk/newResources/researchDesign.html

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Developing research skills using Psychology in Action: activity 1 - Appreciating the strengths and limitations of different methods

• As a class, decide on an aspect of ……… (eg celebrity worship) that all members of the class will investigate.

• Divide into groups. Each group has to design a study that uses a different research method to investigate the aspect of ……….. (eg celebrity worship) identified. Your design will need to provide details of

The aim Hypothesis Design Task or materials Sampling Brief outline of procedure Likely issues and how they would be addressed e.g. extraneous variables, clarity of questions in a questionnaire

• Once the data has been collected and analysed each group should identify and list the

strengths and limitations of the method for investigating that particular aspect of ………..(eg celebrity worship). You should consider

ease of preparation ease of use administration quality of the data did you get the level of detail you required validity of the data –were they honest, were ther biases ease and reliability of the analysis of data

• Each group should then provide a brief but justified review to the class as a whole on the effectiveness of the method for investigating the particular aspect of ……….. (e.g. celebrity worship).

• After the class has heard the reviews of each method, you should pair up with someone who has used a different method. You then work as a pair to see if your different methods produced different findings and if so suggest explanations for this in terms of the methodology

Teacher notes You could provide a list of methods or start the session with a brainstorm to get the students to list methods. It is useful to make a distinction between methods e.g. experiment, survey, case study and techniques such as questionnaire, observation, interview that might be used to collect data in any of these methods. You may prefer to alter the brief to focus on just the data collection technique rather than the research method as a whole. To achieve the aim of the exercise it is really important that there is sufficient time at the end for the 2 plenary activities as these provide the forum for developing understanding of the strengths and limitations and helping students to see that strengths and limitations are relative and dependent on the focus of the research. If your students do not find the group plenary session easy to learn from they should be guided to consider the strengths and weaknesses when working in pairs on the final task.

34

Developing research skills using PSYA3 topic Relationships: activity 2 Qualitative data collection and analysis Evolutionary theory suggests that males and females look for different things in a partner. To investigate this ask a sample of male and female students year 13 to write a paragraph describing what they would look for in a partner. Provide the paper with the task, clearly set out and 3 or 4 lines for the person’s response and also provide consent form for participant to sign (keep this separate from the description in order to maintain anonymity) Work in groups of 4, each member of the group should collect descriptions from 2 males and 2 females. Analysis of the data

• Read each response in turn and identify preliminary themes/ideas or patterns. • Use different colour highlighter pens to code themes. Remember a sentence may

include more than one theme. • Gather together all the points being made about each theme. Record the actual

words/phrases used. Record these on separate sheets, one for males and one for females.

• Draw up a mind map to depict the links between the themes for males and a separate mind map to depict the links between the themes for females. Make sure that the map is driven by the data not your expectations.

• You could draw up a grid to record how often each theme is mentioned i.e. a quantitative analysis, this could then be analysed statistically.

• Finally, you need to turn these themes and links into a narrative. What does each theme say about partner selection? Explain and interpret the data. You will need to ensure that your interpretation is grounded in the data / what the participant actually said.

• Relate the findings and interpretation of data to previous work. Use actual quotes to illustrate the points you make.

• Reflect on whether the links between the themes depicted by a male investigator and a female investigator would, or do, differ.

• Prepare a short review of the two techniques. This should refer to

o ease of preparation o ease of use / administration o quality of the data did you get amount and the level of detail you required o validity of the data did they seem to take the task seriously –were they honest? o ease and reliability of the analysis of data o limitations and biases

• Consider whether you would have got the same results if you had used a questionnaire.

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Pictionary - Levels of measurement Knowledge requirement: prior understanding of levels of measurement Materials:

3 cards which look the same on one side but with either nominal, ordinal or interval/ ratio written on the other side

some pieces of A4 paper a few felt tip pens for drawing

1. Students sit in groups of 3/4. The cards with nominal, ordinal or interval/ratio

are placed face down on the table. This is a team game played between groups.

2. One student takes a card and reads the level of measurement written on it. This

student then has 2 minutes to illustrate the level of measurement by drawing a picture or object. Some examples of what could be drawn are suggested below:

A watch to illustrate ratio/ interval data: justification - time in seconds A motor race showing first, second third to illustrate ordinal data:

justification - the rank order of the winning cars is shown People grouped in different age categories to illustrate nominal data:

justification - people are placed in a named category by age

3. The group suggest which level of measurement is being illustrated and why the picture/ object illustrates that level of measurement. They are allowed only one guess. For each correct guess one point is awarded. For each justification a further point is given.

4. When the guess has been made, the 3 cards are shuffled and placed face

down before the next member of the group takes their turn.

5. A scorer keeps a record of each group’s scores.

Nominal data

Ordinal data

Interval/ ratio data

36

Sample Question 2 Research has shown that people that are depressed often have low arousal and say that they feel time passes slowly. A researcher wanted to compare time estimation by people who are depressed with time estimation by people who are not depressed. Sixty volunteer participants were recruited through the local newspaper. They were asked to complete a standardised depression scale, where a high score on the scale indicated a high level of depression. Those above the median score for the total sample were placed in the depressed group and those on or below the median score were placed in the non-depressed group All participants then carried out a task. When the task was over they had to estimate the duration of the task in minutes and seconds. There were no clocks in the room and the participants had been asked to leave their watches and mobile phones outside the room where they were tested. The researcher used a letter cancelling task which she thought would be neither pleasant nor unpleasant as she believed that a neutral experience was an important element of the design. The task involved scanning rows of letters as quickly as possible and crossing out the ‘U’s. An example is given below A N E U S H E T B L D K W M N S M R P F Z U W N U E A O D H U E K S N E V B D Y G U G Q U P Z U W N U E A O D H U H E T B N E U S H M N S M R After 10 minutes the participants were asked to stop the task and to estimate how much time in minutes and seconds, had passed whilst they were doing the task. The results are shown in the table below Table 1 Mean estimates of time (in seconds) and standard deviation for participants in the depressed condition and non-depressed groups. Depressed Group Non-depressed Group Mean score in seconds 620.6 592.4 Standard deviation 48.5 10.3 (a) With reference to the data in Table 1 what do the findings seem to show? (4 marks) (b) State the operationalised independent variable and the operationalised dependent variable in this study (2 marks) (c) What experimental design was used in this investigation ? (1mark) (d) The researcher decided to use what she felt was a neutral task. Suggest why it was important that the task was neutral. (2 marks)

37

The difference between the estimate of time for the depressed and non-depressed group was not statistically significant at the 5% level for a one tailed test. (e)(i) Explain what is meant by the phrase “was not statistically significant at the 5% level for a one tailed test“ (2marks) (e)(ii) What is meant by a type 1 or a type 2 error ? (2 Marks) (f) The researcher submitted a report of the investigation to a peer reviewed journal. However the journal declined to publish the article claiming there to be methodological flaws in the study. (f)(i) Explain one or more limitations in the methodology of the study and suggest how the researcher might improve the design of the study to address limitations. (6 marks) (f)(ii) Briefly discuss the role of peer review in psychological research.

(6 marks) (g) The researcher noticed that there was a difference between the time estimates for young and old participants in the depressed group. The younger participants seemed to perceive that time passed slowly and the older participants perceived it to pass fast. Design a study to investigate whether there is a difference between estimates of time passing amongst old depressed people and young depressed people. You should include details of the design, participants, materials and procedure and brief details of how you would analyse the data. Make sure that there is enough detail to carry out this study. (10 marks)

38

PSYA3 Distinguishing AO1, AO2 and AO3 - Group Activity

The Cereal Box Activity for developing description and commentary skills is based on an idea in an ATP magazine Give out one mini cereal box for 3/ 4 people.

Instructions for the group leader One person is the group leader and they explain the task to others in the group. The group leader should read the whole sheet before the task begins. The group leader should try to keep the team ‘on task’ and point to any comments that do not fit the task e.g. evaluation being used when the task requires description. The group leader can also develop the evaluative commentary e.g. if someone says the box would appeal due to its bright colours the group leader could follow the statement with questions; why would that appeal? who would it appeal to? Thus the idea of elaborating discussion can be introduced.

Task for the group

AO1 description task 1. Each person in the group is required to make a descriptive comment about the cereal

box e.g. colour, logo, nutritional information.

2. Open the cereal box. Look at, touch and eat some of the contents

3. Each person in the group is required to make a descriptive point about the contents of the cereal box e.g. shape, taste, colour

AO2 skills- commentary, evaluation, discussion

1. Each person in the group is required to make a comment, evaluation or discussion

point about the cereal box e.g. value of nutritional information, design of box, appeal to children or adults.

2. Each person in the group is required to make a comment, evaluation or discussion

point about the contents of the cereal box e.g. whether it has a pleasant taste or appearance.

This activity aims to help students to think carefully about the skills required when answering questions.

39

A2 Content and Delivery

Version 1.0 Copyright © 2010 AQA and its licensors. All rights reserved.

Generating Sufficient AO2/3

Criteria for evaluating evidence

• research method used • techniques of data collection• design of the study• reliability and validity• sampling• sampling• setting• ethics• social sensitivity• value (can the finding be applied).

Generating 16 marks worth of AO2/3

Criteria for evaluating theory/explanations

• assumptions • effectiveness • hypotheses• evidence**• comparison with other theories• contribution to psychology

l d li i• value and application • approaches to issues and debates.

40

Approaches, issues and debates

Candidates need to develop awareness of the major approaches in psychology

In each topic, at least two approaches are clearly identifiable e.g. in Unit 3, aggression, social psychological theories and evolutionary explanations have been identified.

Candidates are required to develop an appreciation of issues and debates in theCandidates are required to develop an appreciation of issues and debates in the context of their chosen topics.

In assessment, to access the full range of marks, candidates will need to demonstrate appreciation of approaches, issues and debates.

They will need to use their knowledge of these issues and debates to comment on and evaluate theories and studies and build commentary and evaluation.

Using issues and debates

Candidates will need to do more than just identify potentially relevant issues and debates. To gain credit they will need to:

• Explain how and why the issues are relevant

• Explain the consequences and implications

• Consider negative and positive consequences and implications where appropriate

• Make sure that the material on issues and debates is made relevantto the requirements of the question

Characteristics of effective AO2/3

Quality rather than quantity

Range rather than repetition

Elaboration rather than lists

Contextualised rather than genericContextualised rather than generic

Consequences and implications explained

Succinct and well planned rather than rambling

41

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46

Relationships: activity 1 Read Jes’s story Jes grew up in a large family. Her mother and father argued a lot and had little or no time for the children. So family life was always quite stressful. Occasionally, her Dad would drink and this would result in him abusing her Mum. In the evenings and at weekends, she would escape from the atmosphere at home and go to the shelter in the park where she would spend time with Mustafa who lived in the next street. These were the happiest times in her youth. Jes was very attractive and soon she and Mustafa started going out together. He liked to be seen with Jes. When they finished school Jes just wanted to leave home, so they decided to get married. Although Jes could have gone on to college she became a wife and soon after a Mum. By the time she was 21 she had 3 children and the marriage was on the rocks. She used to see her friends from school in town. Unlike her they were shopping for clothes, planning holidays and making progress in their careers. Jes felt she had put a lot of effort into the marriage but was beginning to resent Mustafa who seemed to have his career, his friends and a social life whilst all she had was cooking, cleaning, washing, ironing and looking after the children and his Mother and trying to makes ends meet. She tried talking to Mustafa but he said she should think herself lucky to have him and spent even less time at home. All she could see was the little she had compared to him and her friends from school. One day she told Mustafa’s sister how she felt. She suggested Jes and Mustafa should go to a marriage guidance counsellor. Mustafa refused and accused Jes of telling lies about him to his family.

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Use your knowledge of psychological theory and evidence to explain the formation and breakdown of Jes’s relationship with Mustafa. 1. Use the table below to analyse the story For each paragraph • identify any theory or research that might be relevant. • explain how it is relevant

Point from the story

Relevant theory/research

Explanation of how the theory/research is relevant

2. Use the most relevant material from the table to explain the formation and breakdown of Jes’s relationship with Mustafa ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Continue on separate sheet

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Relationships: activity 2 Your task is to improve this answer to the question given on relationships. First of all read this student answer. Then, go to the task on the next page. Discuss the influence of childhood and adolescent experiences on adult relationships, including parent-child relationships and interaction with peers. (AO1- 9 marks, AO2/3- 16 marks) A lot of research suggests early experiences affect adult relationships. Most people know from their own family experiences that their attachments and the way they are brought up affect their adult life and later relationships. John Bowlby was one of the first people to explain this when he talked about us having an internal working model and he set up the continuity hypothesis. Ainsworth’s strange situation found a way of deciding what attachment type infants had and her Type A, B and C attachments become the basis of later relationship types. This explains the internal working model. Relationships with peers are influenced by early experiences. Children are more confident with their peers because of their early attachment type. This might be true but it is also down to what our parents taught us. We get on with friends because our parents taught us how to do this. These ideas about the effect of attachment and the way we are brought up are different from each other. Neither of them has been proved right. As our early attachments are important, they probably affect our adult relationships. Adults who break up with their partners probably had difficulties in their early relationships. They do not know how to get on with other people so they avoid them or argue with them. Having a bad start in life or problems with early friendships can affect you forever. This is not always the case as sometimes you can overcome early bad experiences. If you meet someone you like and trust you can have a good quality attachment later in life.

Hazan and Shaver did however show there were relationship problems if you had an insecure attachment early in life. There are problems with their study because it was based on a magazine quiz and you do not know if replies are truthful or if people are remembering properly. Sometimes things that happen, like life events, can change your relationships. If you meet someone really nice and you trust them this can help to overcome early insecure relationships. People can change. There have been a lot of problems with research into relationships. It might not be reliable because people say what they think you want to hear. They are too upset or embarrassed to describe their early relationships, especially with their parents, as they do not want to blame them. Anyway it might not be an attachment problem that the person suffers from, it might be that they are a difficult personality and that is different. Also a lot of research is correlational which does not tell you much. It is too simple to say relationships in adult life are due to early parent-child and peer relationships.

49

Task - Improve this essay on relationships The essay on the previous page is largely a ‘common sense’ essay. Much of what is said could be based on psychological knowledge but the evidence given is very limited. The AO2/3 evaluation is very weak and limited in quantity. Try to improve this essay. Use the framework below to help you. In the left hand column write phrases or sentences that you think could be made more useful in answering the question. In the right hand column transform the ‘common sense’ points into research evidence (AO1) or evaluative points (AO2/3). Try to increase the balance of the essay in favour of evaluative commentary as 16 marks are available for this. You may wish to use some rows to develop the essay beyond the answer given by this student. When you are satisfied with the improvements you have made, write up the answer. A framework for improving AO1 material is given on this page. A framework for improving AO2/3 material is given on the next page. A few examples have already been completed. Start by going through the essay and underline phrases or sentences that need to be explained, supported by evidence or evaluative and methodological points.

Phrase or sentence Development of appropriate research (AO1)

Internal working model and continuity hypothesis

An early attachment type develops and the internal working model of relationships develops from this. This early relationship experience continues into adult life and is referred to as the continuity hypothesis

Children are more confident with peers because of their early attachment type

Evidence suggests children classified as secure are more confident in interactions with friends than are insecure types, (e.g. Lieberman, 1977). Popular children were socially able at forming relationships (Hartup, 1993)

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Phrase or sentence

Development of appropriate evaluation (AO2/3)

If you meet someone really nice and you trust them this can help to overcome early insecure relationships.

Wood, Littleton and Oates (2002) suggest a distinction between relatedness (how we relate to others which stems from our attachment style) and relationships (interplay between two people’s attachment styles). An insecure person may lack trust in relating to others but may act differently in a secure relationship.

Hazan and Shaver’s study was based on a magazine quiz

The methodological shortcomings of this study e.g. volunteer sample, retrospective recall, demand characteristics does limit the value of the findings and ideas based on these findings.

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Sample marked Exam answer Relationships 01 Discuss evolutionary approach to explaining parental investment in humans (eg sex differences. Parent –offspring conflict)

AO2/3 material is highlighted in yellow Parental investment is the extent to which a mother or father or both invest in their offsprings in order for their chances of survival to be increased.

Clarification of terms

Evolutionary explanations are based on the idea that behaviour of our ancestors has evolved because certain attributes enabled some to survive and reproduce and others not. An evolutionary reason for parental investment would be because the parent wants to increase their chance of reproductive fitness and successfully pass on their genes

Clear and focused.

Trivers devised a parental investment theory. He proposed that the females invest more time and energy in looking after their offspring than men do because in their life time they produce only 4000 eggs for fertilization whereas men have an unlimited amount of sperm. Women breast feed for up to two years so they can’t reproduce again for some time. So they are choosy about who they mate with and have to make sure that each offspring carrying their genes survives. Men in contrast tend to be promiscuous and try to maximize the number of offspring they father. Instead of putting the same time and effort into rearing their young they move on to another woman.

With the exception of the 4000 eggs reasonably accurate and detailed outlining of an evolutionary explanation

This is supported but the evidence of greater promiscuity of men in western society, though it is not true of all cultures and even in western society women are promiscuous.

OK but what evidence. It is easy to say this about anything.

A further flaw in this theory is that it is the males resources that arguably enable the child to survive and pass on the genes and there is evidence from research into second marriages that shows fathers do invest in offsprings that are not their own . This research looked at children in a current relationship but born to a previous relationship compared to

Relevant but a bit muddled. The focus should be on competition for resources between adolescent and possible new baby produced by the mother – though the reader gets the idea.

52

children born to parents in a current relationship where for example a male has left a female for another but still had offspring with that female. Here the research showed that the male invested the same in “his own child” as in his partners child. This criticises the main idea of Trivers theory as the father would be expected to put all their resources into ensuring their own genes survive. However it could be he invests in her offspring to convince her he can provide for any future children and so increase his chance of reproducing again.

Reference to the “main idea” seems to focus on assumptions and the commentary ok

Another evolutionary explanation is parent conflict. A second explanation – this does not have to be in as much detail

This is where the parent and child clash. Research has shown mother daughter conflict begins in adolescence where a mother will try to stop her daughter from reproducing until the mother thinks the daughter has the appropriate resources and emotional wellbeing to raise a child. As the mother shares only 25% of her genes with a grandchild compared with 50% with her own child, from an evolution point of view, having more children of her own would ensure more of her genes survive.

Although this seems like evidence it is being used to present the idea so AO1

Whilst this may have been relevant to past times or rural communities where they have lots of children women today in Britain generally have few children so only the first part would be supported by evidence.

Hint at the issues of cultural bias – it would have benefited if it had been elaborated or the irony of this “genetic universal” being not true in all cultures.

Evolutionary explanations focus on the biology, behaviours such as parent child conflict could equally well be explained by behavioural or psychodynamic approaches and behavioural explanations are supported by scientific evidence.

This comparison with other approaches needs to be elaborated to gain more than minimal credit. (some for selection of approaches and for hinting that behaviour might be supported by scientific evidence).

With the evolutionary explanations there are assumptions about why men and women invest differently that we can not test. Evolutionary explanations are also deterministic

To gain credit this needs to be explained - our need for our gene pool to survive makes us invest and conflict. It would be further improved by considering the implications eg is it a male theory that lets them off the hook ! Phrased more formally this could gain credit .

53

Comment on script The answer is focused. The outline of parental investment theory is sound but the parent conflict is muddled. Because there is no requirement to do both the AO1 overall is reasonable. The evaluation is closer to the descriptors for basic. There are a number of points made, though they are not always clear. There is reference to one study. This has been used effectively although is not clearly described. The discussion would have benefited from reference to other research. In the final paragraphs there is an attempt to use issues, debates and approaches to develop the discussion but the points made need to be elaborated and implication addressed. AO1 5 marks AO2 6 marks Total 11 marks

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