psych 101 - cognition

COGNITIONthinking, intelligence, language

Alex the Parrot

Why study the nature of thought?

To fully understand how we do any of the thingswe do (such as learning, remembering, andbehaving), we need to understand how wethink.

How do we organize our thoughts?

How do we communicate those thoughts to others?

What do we mean by intelligence?

Why are some people able to learn so much faster than others?

Thinking or Cognition

-mental activity that goes on in the brainwhen a person is processing informationorganizing it, understanding it, andcommunicating it to others

-includes memorybut it involves makingdecisions about it, comparing it to otherinformation, and using it to solve problems

-includes more than just a kind of verbalstream of consciousness.

How People Think

mental images

-representations that stand in for objects or events and have a picture-like quality-are one of several tools used in the thought process

- a very useful tool for remembering other ideas and concepts

How are mental images and concepts involved in the process of thinking?Mental Imagery

How many 7-eleven stores do you pass by on your way to school?

What stores are there in the Padre Faura Wing of Robinsons Place Manila?

Ilan ang butas ng SkyFlakes?

Anong animal ang nasa logo ng Elmers Glue?

seeing an actual image

-information goes from the eyes to thevisual cortex of the occipital lobe and isprocessed, or interpreted, by other areas ofthe cortex that compare the newinformation to information already inmemory

- activity in the visual cortex is stronger

How are mental images and concepts involved in the process of thinking?Mental Imagery

creating a mental image

-areas of the cortex associated with storedknowledge send information to the visualcortex, where the image is perceived in theminds eye

***During both types of tasks, activity was present in the frontal cortex (cognitive control), temporal lobes (memory), parietallobes (attention and spatial memory), and occipital lobes (visual processing). However, the amount of activity in these areasdiffered between the two types of tasks.

***Those areas activated during visual imagery were a subset of those activated during visual perception, with the greatestsimilarity in the frontal and parietal regions rather than the temporal and occipital regions.

***There is commonality between the processes of visual imagery and visual perception but it is not a complete overlap.

Concepts

-ideas that represent a class or category ofobjects, events, or activities

-used by people to think about objects orevents without having to think about all thespecific examples of the category

-the to think in terms of concepts allows us tocommunicate with each other

-not only contain the important features ofthe objects or events people want to thinkabout, but also they allow the identificationof new objects and events that may fit theconcept

-can have very strict definitions

How are mental images and concepts involved in the process of thinking? Concepts

superordinate concept-concepts that represent many different levels of objects orevents; they can be of a very general form

subordinate concept-concept that is the most specific

formal concepts-concepts defined by specific rules or features; are quite rigid-science and mathematics are full of formal concepts

natural concepts-concepts people form not as a result of the application of astrict set of rules, but rather as the result of their experienceswith these concepts in the real world- are important in helping people understand theirsurroundings in aless structured manner than the formal concepts that aretaught in school


Prototypes- a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of the concept-are the most basic examples of concepts-develop according to the exposure a person has to objects in that category-culture matters in the formation of prototypes


What is the first thing that comes to your mind when I say..Fruits ViandClothes

Problem solving -occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways

What are the methods people use to solve problems and make decisions?

1. trial and error-also known as a mechanical solution-refers to trying one solution after another until finding one that works

2. algorithms -are specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems-will always result in a correct solution, if there is a correct solution to be found, and you have enough time to find it-example: mathematical formulas

3. heuristic-also called rule of thumb -is a simple rule that is intended to apply to many situations-(whereas an algorithm is very specific and will always lead to a solution, a heuristic is an educated guess based on prior experiences that helps narrow down the possible solutions for a problem)-(using a heuristic is faster than using an algorithm in many cases, but unlike algorithms, heuristics will not always lead to the correct solution)

4. insight-when the solution to a problem seems to come suddenly to mind-in humans, insight often takes the form of an aha! moment

How are mental images and concepts involved in the process of thinking? Problem Solving and Decision Making

3 most common barriers to successful problem solving :

1.functional fixedness-involves thinking about objects only in terms of their typical uses-a kind of mental set

2.mental sets-the tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past- solutions that have worked in the past tend to be the ones people try first, and people are often hesitant or even unable to think of other possibilities

3.confirmation bias- the tendency to search for evidence that fits ones beliefs while ignoring any evidence to the contrary- similar to a mental set, except that what is set is a belief rather than a method of solving problems

How are mental images and concepts involved in the process of thinking? Problems with Problem Solving

convergent thinking -a problem is seen as having only one answer and all lines of thinking will eventually lead to

(converge on) that single answer by using previous knowledge and logic -works well for routine problem solving but may be of little use when a more creative solution is needed

What is a pencil used for?

divergent thinking-the reverse of convergent thinking

-starts at one point and comes up with many different, or divergent, ideas or possibilities based on that point

-has been attributed not only to creativity but also to intelligence

How many different uses can you think of for a pencil?

***Having part of ones attention devoted to routine actions (walking) allows the rest of the mind to sneak up on more creative solutions and ideas.

How are mental images and concepts involved in the process of thinking? Creativity: Divergent and Convergent Thinking

creativity- solving problems by combining ideas or behavior in new ways

intelligence

-defined by psychologists as the ability to learn from ones experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems -characteristics that individuals need in order to survive in their culture

Intelligence

What is the influence of heredity and environment on the development of intelligence?

***The problem with trying to separate the role ofgenes from that of environment is that controlled,perfect experiments are neither practical norethical. Instead, researchers find out what they canfrom natural experiments, circumstances existing innature that can be examined to understand somephenomenon. Twin studies are an example of suchcircumstances.

Spearmans G Factor

-Charles Spearman saw intelligence astwo different abilities:

a. ability to reason and solve problemswas labeled g factor for generalintelligence

b. task-specific abilities (in certain areassuch as music, business, or art) arelabeled s factor for specificintelligence

Theories of Intelligence

Gardners Multiple Intelligences

-Howard Gardner proposed the existenceof several kinds of intelligence

-Gardner originally listed seven differentkinds of intelligence but later added aneighth type and then a ninth (Gardner,1998, 1999b).


Multiple Intelligences

1. Verbal- Linguistic Intelligence

2. Logical-math Intelligence

3. Spatial Intelligence

4. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence

5. Musical Intelligence

6. Interpersonal Intelligence

7. Intrapersonal Intelligence

8. Naturalistic Intelligence

1. Verbal- Linguistic Intelligence

- the ability to think in words and use language to express meaning

-ex. writers, authors, lawyers, philosophers, politicians, religious leaders, poets, journalists

2. Logical-math Intelligence

-has to do with logic, abstractions, inductive-deductive reasoning, and numbers

-ex. scientists, mathematicians, accountants, doctors, economists, statisticians, engineers

3. Spatial Intelligence

-the ability to think three-dimensionally

-ex. artists, photographers, sculptors, decorators, sailors, architects

4. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence

-ability to manipulate objects and be physically adept such as in sports, dance, acting or performance

-ex. athletes, dancers, actors, surgeons, craftspeople

5. Musical Intelligence

-has to do with pitch, rhythm, melody, and tone.

-ex. musicians, singers, conductors, composers, songwriters

6. Interpersonal Intelligence

-the ability to understand and interact effectively with others

-ex. politicians, managers, teachers, social workers, therapists, psychologists

7. Intrapersonal Intelligence

- has to do with introspective and self-reflective capacities

-ex. philosophers, psychologists, writers

8. Naturalistic Intelligence

ability to predict patterns in nature and understand natural and human-made systems

-ex. scientists, naturalists, botanists, zoologists, gardeners, farmers

9. Existential Intelligence

-capacity or ability to understandand contemplate philosophical topicsrelating to mankinds existence

-some individuals have an easiertime conceptualizing deep philosophicalquestions, such mans purpose on earth

-more inclined to ask questionsregarding these ultimate realities, includingthe meaning of life

-ex. philosophers

Sternbergs Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

-Robert Sternberg (1988, 1997b) has theorized that there are threekinds of intelligence (triarchic means three)--the three aspects areanalytical, creative, and practical intelligence

analytical intelligence-he ability to break problems down into component parts, oranalysis, for problem solving-the type of intelligence that is measured by intelligence tests andacademic achievement tests, or book smarts as some people liketo call it

creative intelligence-the ability to deal with new and different concepts and to come upwith new ways of solving problems (divergent thinking, in otherwords)-also refers to the ability to automatically process certain aspects ofinformation, which frees up cognitive resources to deal with novelty

practical intelligence-best described as street smarts, or the ability to use informationto get along in life


Binets Mental Ability Test

-Alfred Binet (French psychologist ) designed a formal test of intelligencethat would help identify children who were unable to learn as quickly or aswell as others, so that they could be given remedial education-along with Theodore Simon, he noticed that the fast learners seemed togive answers to questions that older children might give, whereas the slowlearners gave answers that were more typical of a younger child.-Binet decided that the key element to be tested was a childs mental age,or the average age at which children could successfully answer a particularlevel of questions.

Stanford-Binet and IQ

-Lewis Terman (researcher at Stanford University) adopted Germanpsychologist William Sterns method for comparing mental age andchronological age (number of years since birth) for use with the translatedand revised Binet test

IQ- Intelligence Quotient; a single number which represents an individualsscore on the test

Measuring Intelligence: Intelligence Tests

The 3 Versions of the Wechlsler Test

-David Wechsler was the first to devise a series of tests designed for specific age groups; hedeveloped an IQ test specifically for adults

1. Wechlser Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV)2. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV)3. Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI-III)

***In earlier editions, another way these tests differed from the Stanford-Binet was by havingboth a verbal and performance (nonverbal) scale, as well as providing an overall score ofintelligence (the original Stanford-Binet was composed predominantly of verbal items).

***While still using both verbal and nonverbal items, the WISC-IV and WAIS-IV organizes itemsinto four index scales, that provide an overall score of intelligence and index scores related tofour specific cognitive domains verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, workingmemory, and processing speed.

Measuring Intelligence: Intelligence Tests

Reliability -producing consistent results each time the test is given to the same individual or group of people

Validity -the degree to which a test actually measures what its supposed to measure

Standardization-refers to the process of giving the test to a large group of people (randomly selected) that represents the kind of people for whom the test is designed-one aspect of standardization is in the establishment of consistent and standard methods of test administration--all test subjects would take the test under the same conditions

Norms-the scores from the standardization group-the standards against which all others who take the test would be compared

Measuring Intelligence: Test Construction

gifted-those who fall on the upper end of the normal curve above an IQ of 130 (about 2 percent of the population)

genius-those who fall at the extreme high end of the normal curve for intelligence-IQ falls above 140 to 145 (less than half of 1 percent of the population)

intellectual disability -(formerly mental retardation) is defined in several ways.:1. the persons IQ score must fall below 702. the persons adaptive behavior is severely below a level appropriate for the persons age3. ***these limitations must be present before the age of 18 years

developmentally delayed-behavioral and cognitive skills exist at an earlier developmental stage than the skills of others who are the same chronological age

Individual Differences in Intelligence

emotional intelligence

-includes the abilities to identify emotions accurately in ones self and in otherpeople, understand emotions and emotional language, manage emotions in oneselfand in other people, and use emotions to facilitate cognitive activities and motivateadaptive behavior

-was first introduced by Salovey and Mayer (1990) and later expanded upon byGoleman (1995)

-Goleman proposed that emotional intelligence is a more powerful influence onsuccess in life than more traditional views of intelligence

Emotional Intelligence

Daniel Goleman (1995) divided Emotional Intelligence into

five emotional competencies.

1. Emotional awareness

2. Managing ones emotions

3. Self-motivation

4. Empathy

5. Coaching others emotions

Dimensions of Emotional Intelligence

1. Emotional awareness-ability to be critically self-reflective, which

includes:

a. ability to read and understand ones emotions and recognize their impact on performance or relationships

b. ability to give a realistic evaluation of own strengths and limitations and to accurately recognize ones own emotions or moods

c. having a positive and strong sense of ones self-worth


2. Managing ones emotions

-includes self-management or control overown emotions by keeping disruptiveemotions and impulses under control,shifting undesirable emotional states tomore adequate ones, responding withappropriate and adaptive emotions, andflexibility in adapting to changingsituations and overcoming obstacles.


3. Self-motivation

-the ability to enter into emotional states (at will) associated with a drive to achieve and be successful and comprised of: (a) achievement orientation and (b) initiative.


4. Empathy

-the capacity to read, be sensitive, and be understanding of others emotions and taking an active interest in their concerns. It also includes recognizing and meeting others needs.


5. Coaching others emotions-includes:

a. the ability to enter and sustain satisfactory interpersonal relationships

b. developing others to strengthen and support their abilities through feedback and guidance

c. influencing others, or the ability to exercise persuasive strategies with integrity to influence others towards positive growth

d. serving as change catalyst, or the proficiency in initiating new ideas and leading people in a new direction

e. conflict management, or resolving disagreements and collaboratively developing resolutions;

f. ability to work in a team and build collaboration, or the promotion of cooperation and building of teams


Language

-a system for combining symbols (such as words) so that an infinite number ofmeaningful statements can be made for the purpose of communicating with others

-allows people not only to communicate with one another but also to represent theirown internal mental activity

Language

***The structures of languages all over the world share common characteristics.

***Languages involve word order, word meanings, the rules for making words into other words, the sounds that exist within a language, the rules for practical communication with others, and the meanings of sentences and phrases.

Language: Levels of Language Analysis

Grammar-the system of rules governing the structure and use of a language-includes rules for the order of words known as syntax,morphology (the study of the formation of words), phonemes (thebasic sounds of language), and pragmatics (the practical socialexpectations and uses of language).

***According to famed linguist Noam Chomsky (Chomsky, 2006;Chomsky et al., 2002), humans have an innate ability tounderstand and produce language through a device he calls thelanguage acquisition device, or LAD. While humans may learn thespecific language (English, Spanish, Mandarin, etc.) through theprocesses of imitation, reinforcement, and shaping, thecomplexities of the grammar of a language are, according toChomsky, to some degree wired in to the developing brain. TheLAD listens to the language input of the infants world and thenbegins to produce language sounds and eventually words andsentences in a pattern found across cultures.


Syntax -a system of rules for combining words and phrases to form grammatically correct sentences

You are welcome to visit the cemetery where famous composers, artists, and writers are buried daily except Thursday.

Morphemes-are the smallest units of meaning within a language-are governed by semantics

playingkumain

Semantics-rules for determining the meaning of words and sentences-sentences can have the same semantic meaning while having different syntax:

Johnny hit the ball and The ball was hit by JohnnyKinain ni Larry ang isaw at Ang isaw ay kinain ni Larry


Phonemes -are the basic units of sound in a language-***The a in the word car is a very different phoneme from the a in the word day, even though it is the same letter of the alphabet. The difference is in how we say the sound of the a in each word.


paso- burn paso- pot

nga-nga nga-nga

baba baba

saya saya

linguistic relativity hypothesis

-assumes that the thought processes and conceptswithin any culture are determined by the words ofthe culture-thought processes and concepts are controlled by(relative to) language

***The words people use determine much of theway in which they think about the world aroundthem.

cognitive universalism-concepts are universal

Linguistics: Hypotheses

Alex the Parrot

There are really two questions about animals and language.

can animals communicate? -Yes. Animals communicate in many waysthrough sounds, physical behavior, etc

can animals use language?

-this is more complicated, because language is defined as the use of symbols, and symbols are things that stand for something else. Words are symbols, and gestures can be symbols. But the gestures used by animals are instinctual, meaning they are controlled by the animals genetic makeup.

-***In human language, symbols are used quite deliberately and voluntarily, not by instinct, and abstract symbols have no meaning until people assign meaning to them.

Animal Studies in Language

Can animals be taught to use symbols that are abstract?

Kanzi--a bonobo chimpanzee trained to press abstract symbols on a computer keyboard-at last count, Kanzi could understand about 150 spoken English words

Alex the parrot

***linguists still debate whether these animals are truly learning language if they are not also learning how to use syntaxcombining words into grammatically correct sentences as well as being able to understand the differences between sentences such as The girl kissed the boy and The boy kissed the girl. As yet, there is no conclusive evidence that any of the animals trained in language have been able to master syntax (Demers, 1988; Johnson, 1995; Pinker, 1995).

Animal Studies in Language

psych 101 - cognition

Documents