psych 101 chapter 7 1 prologue to chapter 7: memory occasionally, some individuals can perform feats...
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Psych 101 Chapter 7 1
Prologue to Chapter 7: Memory
Occasionally, some individuals can perform feats of memory that seem astounding to us
Memory is a cognitive tool and a tool most people are not taught how to use effectively
Psychologists are interested in how memory works and how it can be improved
We will look at some theories of memory in this chapter
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3 Stages of memory: an information processing view The “information processing” view of
memory posits three stages of memory The stages are:
the sensory register short-term memory long-term memory
This theory was proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin as a model of memory
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Stage 1: the sensory register
First stage of memory Briefly holds an exact image of each sensory
experience until it can be processed iconic memory, audiotic memory, kinesthetic
memory information remains here for a very brief time,
e.g., on the order of about a few seconds or less
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Stage 2: Short-term Memory
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Stage 2: the short-term memory
The second stage of memory STM will hold about 5 to 9 bits of
information (averaging around the magic number 7)
Objective in STM is to encode SR information into a form suitable for storage in LTM
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Stage 2: the short-term memory
Data remains in STM for about 30 seconds unless it is refreshed rehearsal is one way to refresh information in
STM getting a phone number from a directory
assistance operator is an example of use of STM and rehearsal
rehearsal is also a way to encode information for storage in LTM (though a crude method)
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Stage 2: the short-term memory
Chunking in STM: overcoming STM’s 5-9 bit limited desktop capacity remembering data with more than around 9
bits of information is difficult STM desktop capacity can be extended by
using “chunking” where bits are collapsed into packets of information
packet formation is the key to effective chunking techniques in STM useage
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Stage 2: STM
Examples of chunking here is a series of numbers: 3504694067970098 chunked: 350 46 9406 797 0098 we’ve reduced 16 bits down to 5 bits with each bit of
information containing more information what is your driver’s license number? effective use of chunking can increase your memory
ability by at least 200%
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Stage 2: STM
Encoding: Preparing information for effective storage in LTM there are many encoding strategies; some
work better than others mneumonics can you name the Great Lakes?
HOMES can you name the 9 planets in correct order?
MVEM J. SUNP
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Stage 3: Long-term Memory
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Stage 3: Long-term memory
The 3rd stage of memory Information stored here will remain for a
relatively indefinite time Types of LTM
Procedural LTM: skills memory Episodic LTM: memory of a specific episode in your
life Semantic LTM: memory for specific meaning of
words, symbols, other information
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Stage 3: LTM
Procedural LTM How do you tie your shoe, play the piano,
play a trombone? How do you do long division?
Episodic LTM Where were you when the SST-51
“Challenger” space shuttle exploded? Where were you (if you were) when John F.
Kennedy was shot?
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Episodic Memory
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Episodic Memory
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Stage 3: LTM
Semantic LTM What does the word “arbitrary” mean? How do you use the “Periodic Table” to
determine the number of electrons in the shells of a particular matter’s atom?
In the book, Moby Dick, what is the meaning of the relationship of Captain Ahab and the white whale?
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Stage 3: LTM
Organization of LTM Organization in LTM helps to facilitate
retrieval of information from the LTM Storing an “address” with the item to be
remembered helps in its later recall Cognitively mapping information into
meaningful “trees” Adjoining one memory onto another one,
e.g., the depth of Crater Lake
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Stage 3: LTM
Retrieval of LTM memories 3 ways of testing LTM
recognition memory recall memory relearning speed
Recognition: the multiple choice examination Recall: the essay examination Relearning speed: how fast can your learn
this?
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Recognition: Have you seen this picture before?
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Stage 3: LTM
Serial learning and LTM Observations from research into the learning
of lists The “Serial Position Effect” reveals that memory
for the first and last items in a long list is easier than for items in the middle of the list
The “Von Resteroff Effect” is useful for increasing the probability of remembering items in the middle of a long list
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Stage 3: LTM
The “tip of the tongue” phenomenon when you know you know something but
cannot immediately recall it the phenomenon suggests a retrieval problem
in LTM the information is there but you cannot access
it as you have lost the address to it improve LTM by being sure to encode
addressing information in stored material
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An alternative theory of memory: the “Levels of Processing” theory
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“Levels of Processing” theory
Model suggests that the difference between STM and LTM is a matter of processing rather than actually different stages of memory model suggests memory is based on the cognitive
processing of information rather than on specific skills in each stage of memory
model seems to suggest memory limited by one’s ability to process information; less “hopeful” theory than Atkinson/Shiffrin view
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Forgetting and why it occurs?
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Biological basis for memory
An “engram” is the as-yet-unidentified physical change that takes place in the nervous system when something is learned similar to the bit-level changes that happen
on a magnetic storage disk for computers an engram could be considered to be a bit-
level change in the nervous system of an individual after learning has occurred
the search is on for the “engram”
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Biological basis for memory
Synaptic theories of memory: where is the engram? Donald O. Hebb theorized that there were
physical changes at the synapses when learning occurred recent research tends to support Hebb’s theory that
there are, indeed, physical changes at the synapses data suggests that biochemistry is important in
memory and this has many implications memories by pill in the future?
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Memory: Changes at the synapse?
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Disorders of memory
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Amnesia: Disorders in memory
There are 2 types of amnesia Anterograde amnesia Retrograde amnesia
Anterograde amnesia an inability to store and/or retrieve new
information in the LTM person cannot remember anything newly
acquired for more than seconds
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Amnesia: Disorders in memory
Causes of anterograde amnesia brain surgery, brain trama brain tumors, lack of oxygen (anoxia) to the
brain stroke, senility severe nutritional deficiences
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Amnesia: Disorders in memory
Retrograde amnesia an inability to retrieve old LTM data person can remember new things but not old causes of retrograde amnesia may include:
severe psychological trama severe brain trama
often associated with a psychiatric disorder called “fugue”
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Enhancing memory?
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Enhancing memory?
Do “smart drugs” really work? drugs designed to enhance memory are highly
controversial and should be viewed with caution memory enhancers must work at the level of the
synapses to be effective, e.g., neural transmitters drug-assisted memories can only usually be recalled
successfully if subject is in the drugged state
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Enhancing memory?
Stimulants and memory: should I use stimulants to keep me hyped-up for studying for exams? memory is state-dependent you must be in the same state to most
effectively recall something that you were in when you learned it
if you are coffee-buzzed learning, then you should be coffee-buzzed testing
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Application of Psychology
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Application of psychology
How valid is eyewitness testimony and their memory? research by Loftus reveals that eye-witness memories
can be faulty the influence of perception on recall of events is
substantial eye-witnesses may not be lying but may be
remembering false data implications for lawyers, clients, and witnesses
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How good is your memory?
Be prepared to describe the following
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What did you see?
What was occurring? What color was the floor? Was there a spoon in the picture? What color was the handle on the grinder? How many eyes were in the picture? Was there any food in the picture? How was your memory?
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Questions?
Any questions over chapter 7?
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Test #2 coming up!
Our next test, Test #2, will be over chapters 5, 6, and 7.
Have your studyguides done and checked before test day if you desire any extra credit
If you didn’t do well on the first test, then make sure to read the textbook at least twice; study your notes carefully; use the studyguide.