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PSYC 3630 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT MAY-JUNE 2008 NOTEBOOK

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Tom Forbes, Ed.D. [email protected] Office: Education Department Phone 226-4198 Office Hours: by appointment http://homepage.mac.com/tforbes7/courses/index.html COURSE DESCRIPTION

Human Development examines the physical, cognitive, emotional, social and spiritual growth and maturation from birth through death with special focus on school age human growth through the study of psychological, social and moral influences on development.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Chapter 1 Students will know:

• that lifespan developmental occurs in distinguishable periods or stages • what contributions theories of development make to our overall understanding of how human

development unfolds. • why the study of human development is considered from a scientific perspective. • the distinction between scientific and unscientific methods for obtaining knowledge

Chapter 2 Students will know:

• how we inherit traits from our parents, and how those traits are expressed. • the kinds of disorders that are caused by problems in how genes are inherited. • why adopted children and twins are of special interest to those who study behavior genetics. • how environmental events exert their influence on developmental processes. • how one’s family and culture help shape the way that development unfolds.


• how various risk factors and protective factors affect the course of prenatal development. • about critical periods in development.


• how sensory, perceptual, and motor abilities advance during infancy and toddlerhood. • how the infant develops the ability to think. • how we can best explain how children learn to speak and understand language.


• how the development of early infant attachment can influence later development throughout childhood.

• how infants and toddlers develop a sense of their own autonomy without losing their attachment with their caregivers.

• how child abuse or neglect influences development and autonomy. Chapter 6 Students will know:

• what it means to say that human development is integrated, interactive, and dynamic. • what role brain maturation plays in major developmental events that characterize early

childhood. • how physical development and cognitive development influence each other as children move

through early childhood. • how language development and cognitive development interact. • what it means to say that play both mirrors and encourages cognitive development.


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• why learning to control emotions is such an important developmental event in early childhood. • if TV shows, movies, and other media have a negative or positive impact on the development

of today’s generation of young children. • about the primary developmental task that preschool children must undertake. • if having an imaginary companion bodes well or ill for normal development in early childhood. • how children come to understand the concept of gender. • the kinds of parenting styles that lead to the healthiest adjustment for children.


• about the overarching principles that guide development through the period of middle childhood.

• why asthma and obesity are becoming more prevalent among grade school children in the US. • how the thought processes of a grade school child differs from those of a preschool child. • the best way to define intelligence. • the most important adjustments children face when they begin school. • the best way to meet the educational challenges faced by children with special needs.


• the events in middle childhood that enhance or detract from the child’s developing self concept.

• how a child’s social world is influenced through interactions with others. • how children of different ages think about questions of right versus wrong. • what influences peers have on development during grade school years. • how a child comes to develop a sense of ethnic identity. • what developmental issues are posed for children when family structure changes.


• if adolescents in cultures around the world experience the period of adolescence in the same way.

• why adolescents focus on issues of body image and ways these concerns are expressed. • if the brain’s development during adolescence influences the thinking and behavior of

teenagers. • what adolescent egocentrism is and how it is linked to the changes in cognitive development

that teenagers typically experience. Chapter 11 Students will know:

• why forming an identity is often considered the most important task of adolescence. • the most important roles that parents play during the teenage years. • why adolescents place so much importance on how their peers regard them. • if risky behavior is a normal part of adolescence for most teenagers. • how adolescents typically cope with the pressure they feel during the teenage years.


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LEARNING OUTCOMES 1. Class Discussion/Reflection Activities

Class activities are designed for small group interaction, whole group discussion and analysis, and personal reflection on a variety of topics within the course. Written responses for Class Discussion/Reflection Activities may be hand-written or word-processed.

2. Mini-Research Project Select one of the topics listed below from the textbook and complete the questions associated with it. Locate at least one other professional journal article using a Simpson University online resource tool such as ProQuest and include some of the author’s contentions, presuppositions, and conclusions in your paper. Contact the library for assistance in using the online resources. Be sure to provide complete references for all citations.

To access ProQuest from off campus, open a web browser, go to: http://www.simpsonuniversity.edu/ and select the “Resources” hyperlink, select “Library” from the Resources list, and then select the “http://library.simpsonuniversity.edu/” hyperlink. Next select “ProQuest” from the “access... subscription databases...” list. Users need to provide their Simpson user name and ID number.

At the May 26 class meeting you will share the initial results of your study in a small group setting. Each member will use approximately 8-10 minutes to describe the process, results, and a few personal reflections of his/her mini-research project. A whole group discussion will review some of highlights.

Briefly address the in-class small group discussion in your final paper and submit the completed project on June 2, 2008 in digital format titled “research” with your initials; for example, “research_abc” and utilize 12pt standard font, double-spaced, 4-6 pages.

Topics • “Try This” Attitudes About Breastfeeding on page 125 of the textbook • “Try This” Replicating the Strange Situation on page 153 of the textbook • “Try This” Watching Young Children Play on page 201 of the textbook • “Try This” A Child’s Choice in Media Programming on page 217 of the textbook • “Current Issues” Obesity in Childhood: An Outcome of Our Changing Lifestyles? on page

249 of the textbook • “Try This” Exploring Your Concept of Intelligence on page 260 of the textbook • “Try This” The Impact of Divorce on Children on page 299 of the textbook • “Try This” Exploring Postformal Thought on page 385 of the textbook • “Try This” Exploring the Type of Career Best Matched to You on page 420 of the

textbook • “Try This” Just What Is Middle Age? on page 436 of the textbook • “Try This” What Makes a Great Grandparent? on page 472 of the textbook


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3. Summative Assessment The summative assessment is comprised of two parts designed to help students prepare for the material encountered in the Human Development section of the California Subject Examination for Teachers (CSET) a requirement for the California Multiple Subjects Teaching Credential. The first is a “pre-test” that will provide students with baseline results from which to build content knowledge as they move through the course objectives. The second is a “post-assessment” completed online the last class meeting. The hyperlink for the online assessment is located on the course webpage. The password to enter the online assessment is “cset”

4. Attendance & Participation Much of the learning in this course is derived from in-class interactions and discussions, as well as additional material supplied during class time. To gain full value from this course, students are expected be present at all class sessions, be prepared by reading textbook material prior to class, and actively participate in discussions and activities. Students are responsible for any material missed when absent. It is assumed that the instructor will be notified in a timely fashion about any absences.

TEXTBOOK Understanding Human Development. 1st Edition. Grace J. Craig and Wendy L. Dunn. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458. ISBN 9780131710306. PLAGIARISM Plagiarism is defined as deliberately or inadvertently using someone else's actual words or ideas as one's own without attribution to the author or source. Plagiarism is a serious offense in both academic and public contexts. The consequences for students who practice plagiarism in this course may include: re-submission of any paper containing plagiarized material; a grade as low as "F" for the paper and/or for the course; other action deemed necessary by Simpson University.

ASSESSMENT OF STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT Grades will be assigned as: A=94-100; A-=90-93; B+=88-89; B=84-87; B-=80-83; C+=78-79; C=74-78; C-=70-73. All criteria listed below are weighted by percent for the overall grade. To earn at least a “B-,” will require meeting all objectives at a minimum level of quality and submitting some assignments on time. To earn a grade of “B” or “B+,” will require meeting all objectives at an outstanding level of quality, consistent participation, interaction, inquiry, occasionally helping others, and submitting most assignments on time. To earn a grade of “A” or “A+,” will require meeting all objectives at a superior level of quality, consistent participation, interaction, inquiry, regularly helping others, and submitting all assignments on time.

The evaluation of all submitted items will include an assessment of your attention to aesthetic elements including spelling/grammar, formatting headers/footers, page numbers, appropriate graphics, etc. Criteria for student achievement occurs as follow Discussion/Reflection Activities = 30% of course grade; Attendance, Participation, Submission of Assignments = 20% of course grade; Summative Assessment = 20% of course grade. Mini-Research Project = 30% of course grade.


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COURSE SCHEDULE: TOPICS & TEXT READING ASSIGNMENTS The schedule of topics and text reading assignments is tentative, meaning that class lectures, discussions, and activities will impact our progress from topic to topic. The best way to be prepared for each class is to read ahead.

DATE TOPIC/ACTIVITY READ BEFORE 1ST CLASS • Journal article titled, “Survey

Describes the Ups and Downs of Tween Life”

READ DURING 1ST CLASS

May 5 • Introduction to Development • Pre-Assessment • Small Group Activity – Knowledge and

the Scientific Method • Exploring the Basis of Personality activity • “Survey Describes the Ups and Downs of

Tween Life activity

• Chapter 1 pages 4-5, 10-11, 16-22, 26-36

• Chapter 2 pages 58-65, 68-70 • Chapter 3 pages 82-90 • Chapter 4 pages 130-139 • Chapter 5 pages 146-150, 153, 158-

160, 164, 169 READ PRIOR TO REMAINING CLASSES May 12 • Poverty Activity

• Child Care activity • Researchers Target Impact of Television

Violence activity • Moral Dilemmas Handout

• Journal article titled, “Poverty's Infernal Mechanism”

• Journal article “Child-Care Effects Seen Into 3rd Grade” and “New Analysis Bolsters Child Care, Behavior Link”

• Chapter 6 pages 176-180, 182-187, 189-190, 192, 194-195, 199-201

• Chapter 7 pages 207, 210, 212, 214-217, 219, 221-222, 225, 230-232

• Chapter 8 pages 244-259, 263, 265 • Chapter 9 pages 276-283, 286, 288-

290, 292-298

May 19 • Teenage Spending activity • The Spirituality of Moms Outpaces that of

Dads activity • Peer Referencing activity

Chapter 10 pages 304-307, 310-312, 320-326 Chapter 11 pages 333-335, 339-341, 343-358, 360-362

May 26 • Mini-Research small group discussions TBA June 2 • Mini-Research Projects due

• Online Post-Assessment TBA

Exploring the Basis of Personality

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One of the most pervasive questions in explaining human behavior concerns the way heredity and environment interact in the processes human development. During the 1950s and 19608, when behaviorism especially popular explanation for human behavior, the thinking was that much of human behavior, and thus human development, resulted from the particular environment in which an individual was raised. When children grew up to be successful, parents were praised for their good parenting skills. When children experienced adjustment problems or other problematic behavior, the finger was pointed first at the parents' lack of skill in raising successful children.

Much of that thinking has changed, and today researchers are emphasizing that although early environments do have an impact on development, so do the particular genetic instructions that each person inherits. Large longitudinal studies of twins are beginning to reveal a more accurate understanding of how genes and environment each contribute to a person's development. For example, data from the Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart has shown that both genetic and environmental factors heavily influence the formation of basic personality patterns, although the magnitude of the genetic factors generally is larger (Krueger, Markon, & Bouchard, 2003; Markon, Krueger, Bouchard, & Gottesman, 2002.) This means that much of personality development is programmed according to one's genes and that environmental situations contribute less to how a given individual's personality develops than was previously thought.

To explore how people think about the basis of their own personalities, complete the discussion

portion of this activity in groups of four participants. 1. Each person writes down five adjectives (e.g., generous, extraverted, shy, conscientious, loving,

anxious) that describe the important dimensions of his/her own personality. 2. Estimate what percentage of each trait comes from the way you were raised (from your environment)

and what percentage of the trait is simply inborn (from your genetic inheritance). 3. Each trait percentages should total 100%.

Your Name

Environmental % Genetic %

Trait 1

Trait 2

Trait 3

Trait 4

Trait 5

Participant 2 Name


Trait 1

Trait 2

Trait 3

Trait 4

Trait 5

Exploring the Basis of Personality

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Participant 3 Name


Trait 1

Trait 2

Trait 3

Trait 4

Trait 5

Participant 4 Name


Trait 1

Trait 2

Trait 3

Trait 4

Trait 5 Reflect on What You Observed: respond to the prompts in writing and submit by the next class meeting (20 points) 1. What general pattern of results did you observe? 2. Were most individuals consistent in how they rated the genetic and environmental proportions of the

traits they identified? 3. Did individuals see some traits as largely the result of environmental factors and others as the result

of genetic inheritance? 4. Which set of factors did the individuals generally see as more influential in their personality? 5. Did they see their personalities as being more strongly shaped by environmental forces or by their

genetic background? 6. How much individual variability did you observe?

Consider the Issues

Psychologists no longer debate the question of "Nature versus Nurture" because now it is understood that complex behavior results from an interaction of these two forces, with neither being an independent factor in development. However, many people still see their own behavior as largely the result of environmental forces, despite evidence that suggests that genetic dispositions exert a powerful effect on variables such as intelligence and basic personality.

7. Why do you think many people prefer an environmental explanation rather than a genetic

explanation? 8. If hereditary influences are powerful factors in development, does this mean that good (or bad)

parenting is less important? Why or why not? 9. What lessons does this kind of research suggest for how parents might consider their influence on

raising their children?

Survey Describes the Ups and Downs of Tween Life

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(Ventura, CA) - Americans vacillate between feeling sorry for children growing up in today’s challenging world and harboring envy over the opportunities and advances that characterize modern life. But the children themselves are pretty clear about what does and does not work in their lives. A new nationwide survey among children ages 8 to 12, conducted by The Barna Group, reveals some of their points of satisfaction and frustration. What Works for Kids Family life has changed radically in the past several decades, but most of today’s children give positive marks to aspects of their family experience. For instance, the Barna survey found that eight out of every ten adolescents (79%) feel safe when they are at home; two out of every three (69%) say their family eats dinner together at least five nights a week; and 64% say they feel they can always trust their parents to do what is right for the child. Contrary to the idea that kids do not receive much guidance from their family these days, the survey discovered that more than nine out of every ten adolescents (91%) get punished by their parents if they are caught using bad language. Three out of four young people (74%) said their parents enforce a strict curfew, and two out of every three (67%) noted that the amount of television they are allowed to watch is limited by their parents.

One of the bright spots in the lives of most kids is their friendships. More than nine out of ten (94%) said they have good friends whom they can trust.

What Doesn’t Work Among the areas that stood out as not fulfilling the needs and hopes of adolescents was the faith arena. Overall, less than four out of every ten young people (38%) said that churches have made a positive difference in their life. An even smaller number (34%) said that prayer is very important to them. And a minority of pre-teens (43%) rejected the notion that they would rather be popular than do what is morally right.

There are noteworthy lifestyle challenges facing kids, too. A bare majority (56%) believe that they will have a great life. A similarly slim majority (57%) contend that they look forward to spending free time with their family. Just one out of every three pre-teens (35%) said they find it easy to talk to their parents about everything that is happening in their life these days.

The survey also revealed that one out of every three 8-to-12-year olds (31%) is bothered by bullies who threaten or scare them.

Improving the Odds The survey showed that three specific dimensions enhance the perceived quality of life for "tweens" - that is, for young people living in the gap between the early childhood and teenage years.

Young people who get mostly "A’s" in their schoolwork tended to have a much more positive experience and outlook. Compared to less proficient students, the academic achievers were less likely to be bothered by bullies. They were also more likely than others to trust their parents’ choices, to expect to have a great life, to look forward to time spent with family, to be comfortable doing what is morally right rather than popular, and to believe their church has positively affected their life.

Having both parents in their home also makes a big difference. Kids living with both of their birth parents were more likely than other peers to regularly eat meals as a family, to feel safe at home, to enjoy spending time together as a family, to find it easy to speak with parents about


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their life, to choose morality over popularity, and to say their church had a positive impact on them.

Born again Christians were also much more likely than non-born again tweens to possess an upbeat life perspective and experience. These young disciples of Christ were more likely than the other two-thirds of their age cohort to feel safe at home, to enjoy spending time together as a family, to find it easy to speak with parents about their life, to choose morality over popularity, to say their church has had a positive impact on them, and to trust their parents. They were also more likely to live with a curfew and with television limitations than were other kids.

The study underscored the importance of age 12 as a transition time for kids. At that point, young people are notably vulnerable to losing trust in their parents, losing interest in family activities, lean more toward popularity than morality, and question their future. A Time for Strength The importance of the family in the life of young people was underscored by George Barna, who directed the research. "Much of the stability and security that tweens experience is a result of their family environment and relationships," he noted. "There are a variety of areas in which that experience is a struggle, but parents must be encouraged to devote themselves to investing themselves in their relationship with their children, and in providing places and opportunities for their children to mature.

"One of the more significant outcomes of the study," he continued," was the challenge to churches. While most kids in the 8-to-12 age range are involved in a church, relatively few of them consider church experiences to be valuable. That is confirmed by the fact that so few kids consider prayer to be a critical part of their life. Parents must take the lead in establishing the centrality of faith experiences and practices for their children. That begins with parents modeling the significance of faith in their lives. It also highlights the importance of families taking the lead in the spiritual development process, rather than expecting or waiting for a church to produce spiritual growth in adolescents"

Barna also reinforced the importance of age 12 as a hinge point. “During the 11 to 13 age range, most kids undergo huge changes and challenges related to their self-image and their choices concerning morals, beliefs, relationships and life goals. It often becomes a difficult time in the relationship between parents and kids, but it is also one of the most critical times for parents to make sure they stay connected and accessible to their kids." Research Details The data in this report are based on interviews drawn from a national survey conducted by The Barna Group with a random sample of children from ages 8 through 12. In total, 608 children were interviewed from throughout the United States during July 2006. The maximum margin of sampling error associated with the aggregate sample is ±4.1 percentage points at the 95% confidence level. Statistical weighting was used to calibrate the aggregate sample to known population percentages in relation to demographic variables.

“Born again Christians" are defined as people who said they have made a personal commitment to Jesus Christ that is still important in their life today and who also indicated they believe that when they die they will go to Heaven because they had confessed their sins and had accepted Jesus Christ as their savior. Respondents are not asked to describe themselves as "born again."


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The Barna Group, Ltd. (which includes its research division, The Barna Research Group) is a privately held, for-profit corporation that conducts primary research, produces media resources pertaining to spiritual development, and facilitates the healthy spiritual growth of leaders, children, families and Christian ministries. Located in Ventura, California, Barna has been conducting and analyzing primary research to understand cultural trends related to values, beliefs, attitudes and behaviors since 1984. If you would like to receive free e-mail notification of the release of each new, bi-monthly update on the latest research findings from The Barna Group, you may subscribe to this free service at the Barna website www.barna.org

© The Barna Group, Ltd, 2006. Copyright Disclaimer: All the information contained on the barna.org website is copyrighted by The Barna Group, Ltd., 1957 Eastman Ave. Ste B, Ventura, California 93003. No portion of this website (articles, graphs, charts, reviews, pictures, video clips, quotes, statistics, etc.) may be reproduced, retransmitted, disseminated, sold, distributed, published, edited, altered, changed, broadcast, circulated, or commercially exploited without the prior written permission from The Barna Group, Ltd.

Small Group Discussion/Reflection Activity (10 points) Your Name:

1. Compare the similarities/differences of your own experiences as an 8-12-year-old child to the results of the Barna study. What factors account for some of the differences?

2. Compare the similarities/differences of an 8-12-year-old child you know right now to the

results of the Barna study. What factors account for some of the differences?

Poverty's Infernal Mechanism

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Gerald W Bracey. Principal Leadership. Reston: Feb 2006.Vol. 6, Iss. 6. ProQuest document ID: 991115581 Poverty puts children at risk before birth--many poor mothers-to-be do not seek or cannot

afford adequate prenatal care, especially in the first trimester. Such neglect often results in problems at term, especially low birth weight, which many studies have implicated in later cognitive difficulties. Here, Bracey discusses the impact of poverty in student learning and behavior in school.

Money gives people options. Poverty takes them away. Poverty puts children at risk before birth: many poor mothers-to-be do not seek or cannot afford adequate prenatal care, especially in the first trimester. Such neglect often results in problems at term, especially low birth weight, which many studies have implicated in later cognitive difficulties.

Many children experience ear infections. Many poor children do not receive treatment, which leaves them with hearing difficulties. Principals and teachers should consider that the student who is reluctant or resistant in the classroom is not necessarily being difficult but actually might not understand what is said to him or her.

Similarly, poor children do not receive the same number or quality of vision screenings that middle class children do, and the exams that they do get often do not detect problems with close-up processing-the kind of processing required for reading.

Lead poisoning remains a problem for the poor, and it is often a problem that goes unrecognized because educators might not realize that a child who cannot hold still to line up for recess has synapses clogged with lead.

Asthma is epidemic in some city slums. Struggling to breathe makes it hard to concentrate on academics, and absences by asthmatic students add up to some 10 million lost days for students. Poor parents often do not have the luxury of taking personal or sick leave from their jobs so their children can get the requisite care-assuming they have the money for it. A Lack of Social Capital

In general, the poor are not plugged into the larger community they way middle class parents are. Only 36% of poor parents say that they have a teacher-friend compared to 93% of middle class parents. For having a doctor as a friend, the figures are 14% and 70%, respectively. The poor lack social capital. This makes them virtually invisible to the rest of the nation, as noted by Michael Harrington in The Other America (1962) and by David K. Shipler in The Working Poor: Invisible in America (2004). Shipler writes:

Poverty is not a culture. It's more like an ecological system of relationships among individuals and families and the environment of schools, neighborhoods, jobs, and government services. Professionals who aid the poor witness the toxic interactions every day. Doctors see patients affected by dangerous housing, erratic work schedules, transportation difficulties, and poor child rearing skills. Teachers see pupils undermined by violence at home and malnutrition.

The October 16, 2005, Chicago Sun-Times compared two classes of students entering kindergarten: one group attended a high-scoring Chicago school and the other a low-scoring school. More than half of the kids in the low-scoring school missed the first day of class and more than one day the first week of school. Almost half of the students at the high-scoring school had had two years of preschool, compared to 19% at the low scoring school.

Twenty-three percent of the mothers at the high-scoring school had college degrees compared to zero at the low-scoring school where 50% had dropped out of high school.

These parents might come close to replicating the study that found that the three-year-old children of professional mothers used 1,116 words interacting with their mothers while poor

Poverty's Infernal Mechanism

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mothers used only 974 words interacting with their children. Yes: The three-year-olds in one group used more words than the adults in the other group.

Although poor children learn as much as middle class and affluent children during the school year, they lose their gains over the summer. Outside of school, poor children are much less likely than middle class children to participate in organized athletics, music, dance, or drama, all of which teach rules, sequences, motor skills, vocabulary, and self-confidence. They are also less likely to visit libraries, museums, or fairs. They own far fewer books: even if their parents could afford them, generally stores in poor areas carry few children's titles.

All of this supports the same conclusion that Richard Rothstein came to in Schools and Class: we can make big strides in narrowing the student achievement gap, but only by directing greater attention to economic and social reforms that narrow the differences in background characteristics with which children come to school.... If the nation can't close the gaps in income, health, and housing, there is little prospect of equalizing achievement.

This means, of course, that the No Child Left Behind Act is rather badly out of touch with reality. So is anyone who doesn't recognize the essential truth of Rothstein's statement.

The following is an excerpt from “The Goals of Education,” Richard Rothstein, Rebecca Jacobsen. Phi Delta Kappan. Bloomington: Dec 2006. Vol.88, Iss. 4; pg. 264, 9 pgs

“No Child Left Behind (NCLB) holds all elementary schools, regardless of student characteristics, accountable for achieving proficient student scores in reading and math. By demanding that schools report achievement for racial, ethnic, and economic subgroups, the accountability system aims to shine a light on schools that ‘leave children behind.’

At first glance, this approach seems reasonable. But few who debate the details of implementation have considered how this accountability system has begun to shift how we think about what schools should do. By basing sanctions solely on math and reading scores, the law creates incentives to limit - or in some cases to eliminate entirely time spent on other important curricular objectives. This reorientation of instruction disproportionately affects low income and minority children, so achievement gaps may actually widen in areas for which schools are not now being held accountable.” Discussion/Reflection Activity (10 points) Your name: 1. What implications might the arguments in these readings have for K-12 classroom teachers?

Child Care Activity

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New Analysis Bolsters Child Care, Behavior Link Linda Jacobson. Education Week. Apr 4, 2007. Vol.26, Iss. 31; pg. 13, 1 pgs ProQuest document ID: 1252487251

A previously identified correlation between children's behavior problems and the time they spent in center-based child-care programs during their early years does not fade by the end of elementary school, according to a report from a long-running federally funded study.

While some similar patterns of disobedience and aggression were detected among children who had received other types of care-such as from nannies or in family child-care homes-those problems did not persist past the 1st grade, say authors of the report, published in the March-April issue of the journal Child Development.

The latest study on the child-care/behavior issue, which focuses on 5th and 6th graders, confirms earlier findings from the same Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development, which the federal government's National Institute of Child Health and Human Development launched in 1991. The children are being studied at least through high school.

Members of the network of researchers working on the overall study-which started out studying about 1,300 newborns-have emphasized that the children's behavior falls into the range of what is considered normal.

But Jay Belsky, the lead author of the journal article and a psychology professor at Birkbeck College in London, said the findings are significant "because of the large number of children in America who experience extensive and/or low-quality child care prior to school entry."

As a result, the findings may have "collective consequences" for classrooms, schools, and society at large, Mr. Belsky said.

The Children's Defense Fund, a Washington-based advocacy group, estimates that 2.3 million U.S. children are in center-based childcare.

In 2005, researchers from Stanford University and the University of California, Berkeley, reported similar findings among a different, much larger sample of children-more than 14,000 kindergartners from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, a project of the U.S. Department of Education. In that analysis, children who had attended center-based care or preschool had higher rates of poor social behavior, such as bullying and aggression, when compared with those who hadn't attended centers. (See Education Week, Nov. 2, 2005.) Issue of Quality

Still, the NICHD findings also show that the quality of parenting that children receive has a larger effect on their social functioning and academic achievement than whether they spent at least 10 hours per week in out-of-home child-care arrangements.

Over the years, the NICHD project has grabbed headlines and been used by some commentators to argue that mothers' work outside the home hinders their children's development. Others, however, have focused on the positive aspects of center-based care, which can include stronger cognitive skills, and have said such findings show that policymakers should focus on improving center quality.

In a press release, Linda K. Smith, the executive director of the Washington-based National Association of Child Care Resource and Referral Agencies, said that quality "is without question linked to school-readiness skills."

In this newest study, Mr. Belsky also reports that vocabulary skills among 5th graders remain slightly stronger for children who experienced center-based care, but that the math and reading gains for children who attended high-quality centers faded after 1st grade.

Child Care Activity

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Child-Care Effects Seen Into 3rd Grade Linda Jacobson. Education Week. May 4, 2005. Vol.24, Iss. 34; pg. 9, 1 pgs ProQuest document ID: 834807901 Early Years Some of the negative effects of child care fade once children enter school, but others linger through the end of 3rd grade, according to the latest findings of the long-running Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development. While the relationship between longer hours in care and greater behavioral problems grew weaker over time, the researchers still found a strong link to poor social skills. They also found a continuing connection between the amount of time children spend in center-based care and conflicts between them and their parents. Children, however, benefit by spending time in non-maternal care when its quality is high. Standardized 3rd grade achievement tests reviewed by the researchers showed that higher scores were linked to higher-quality care. And more time in center-based arrangements was tied to better memory skills in that grade. Sponsored by the federal government's National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, the longitudinal study began in the early 1990s. The study, which involves more than 20 researchers, has used a variety of assessments and observation tools to determine the effects of different forms of child care-including center-based, home-based, and care by relatives-and whether those effects change over time. In more recent years, the researchers have focused on the influence of school and children's activities. "It remains to be determined if these relations with early child care remain, dissipate, or grow in early adolescence, a critical transition period for many children," Deborah Lowe Vandell, a psychology professor at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, said last month in Atlanta at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development. "It also remains to be seen if some effects such as those between child-care hours and behavior problems reappear as the study children move into early adolescence," she added. The report on the new findings, "Early Child Care and Children's Development in the Primary Grades," has not yet been published. -LINDA JACOBSON

Child Care Discussion/Reflection Activity Your Name 1) In groups of four, review the data on the charts on pages 164 and 166 in the textbook. 2) Read the journal articles “Child-Care Effects Seen Into 3rd Grade” and “New Analysis Bolsters Child Care, Behavior Link” 3) Compare the two sources of information. 4) Record your reflections in a couple of brief paragraphs and submit. (10 points)

Researchers Target Impact of Television Violence

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Marianne D Hurst. Education Week. Washington: Nov 17, 2004. Vol.24, Iss. 12; pg. 8, 1 pgs ProQuest document ID: 743562421 To help children distinguish between real and imaginary violence, the National PTA has for years promoted a school-based workshop called "Taking Charge of Your TV." Among other goals, the program aims to help parents and educators talk with children about what they see on television. In the wake of several violent incidents at schools of the late 1990s, interest in the program began to take off. Then, last year, when singer Justin Timberlake ripped off part of Janet Jackson's top in a simulated assault during a Super Bowl halftime show, the initiative attracted even more interest. "If parents and children are sitting and watching a television program together [with some violent content], and the parent says nothing, it's an implicit endorsement-whereas if a parent says something, it makes their values clear to the child," said Frank Gallagher, the assistant director of education for Cable in the Classroom, the cable television industry's education foundation and a co-sponsor of the program. "Kids today live in a media world. If you open up a channel of communication, they're often happy to talk about it."

No Laughing Matter Researchers, in particular, say it is paramount that parents get involved in what their children are watching on television, because decades of research, including several recent studies, indicate that heavy exposure to television violence can lead children to think it is appropriate to act in the ways that violent TV characters do. "One problem with cartoon violence is that it has the same effect [on the brain] as realistic violence," said John P. Murray, a professor of developmental psychology in the school of family studies at Kansas State University, in Manhattan, Kan. He is a co-author of a book to be released in February that documents 50 years of research on the effect of television on children. "But there are no consequences to [cartoon] violence," Mr. Murray said. "Characters get shot with double-barreled shotguns and they get back up. It sets it in a humorous context with a laugh track, and communicates to preschoolers that violence is funny and it's OK to do." "We can safely say that viewing violence does lead to more aggressive behavior," he added, noting some estimates that nearly 10 percent of all violence can be explained by the viewing of televised violence. Douglas Gentile, an assistant professor of psychology at Iowa State University and the director of research for the National Institute on Media and the Family, based in Minneapolis, says that while hundreds of risk factors contribute to aggression, television violence is certainly a major one. Some popular television programs, such as "Rug Rats," were cited by researchers as encouraging children to behave aggressively. Cartoons such as "The Simpsons" and "Pokemon" and the show "Power Rangers" were also cited, as were evening news broadcasts, which tend to emphasize violent incidents. "People are violent without media violence, and most who watch it are not violent, but that doesn't negate the fact that it does have a causal role," he said. Most researchers, Mr. Gentile said, are more cautious about establishing a full causal relationship, because not all children exposed to media violence will act aggressively. That is due, in large part, to parental and societal interventions, he said, but he pointed out that children who lack those critical interventions are likely to act more aggressively. A study Mr. Gentile conducted in Minnesota between 2000 and 2003 of 430 children in grades 3-5 illustrates an apparent connection. The study surveyed not only the students, but also their peers and teachers. It found that children who watched heavy amounts of television with some violent content-what some researchers define as roughly four hours a day-were more violent by the end of the school year than they were at the beginning, and that they had a greater likelihood than children who viewed less TV of spreading rumors and of performing worse academically. But many in the television industry dispute such research findings. They say there is a dearth of studies that examine the long-term effects of television violence. The industry also says that parents need to take the primary role in determining what their children watch. Several media organizations contacted for this story were unavailable for comment.

Researchers Target Impact of Television Violence

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'Ray of Hope' Despite the industry's arguments, many experts contend that more needs to be done to curb violent content on TV. A report released in 1998 by the Santa Barbara, Calif.-based Center for Communication and Social Policy-titled the "National Television Violence Study"-reviewed the body of research available and concluded that while the industry has made some attempts to manage televised violence, it still contributes to aggressive behavior in children, desensitizes them to violence, and increases their fear of being victimized. The study also found that most violence on television is trivialized, that few programs emphasize anti-violence themes, and that many programs fail to show the real consequences of violent acts. A more recent study-released last year by the Parents Television Council, a Los Angeles-based advocacy group for improved programming on TV-came to similar conclusions. The study reviewed 400 hours of prime-time programming on all major broadcast networks from 1998 to 2002. It found that overall violence seen during the 8 p.m. family hour increased 41 percent during those years, and that the per-hour rate of deaths depicted doubled, with many violent scenes becoming more graphic and detailed. Melissa Caldwell, the pro's director of research and publications, says the research linking television violence and childhood aggression is unquestionably strong. "This is something the medical community has been researching for 50 years now, and there are over 1,000 studies documenting the causal relationship between media violence and aggression," she said. But Jennings Bryant, the director of the Institute for Communication Research at the University of Alabama in Tuscaloosa, cautioned that "TV is not the sole factor" in the development of aggression. Not all children who view televised violence will act out in a violent way, he pointed out, especially those whose parents intervene when they see their children watching violent programming. Moreover, most experts agree that the problem cannot be solved by the television industry alone. In fact, most of the researchers interviewed for this article emphasized that parents can be one of the most effective deterrents of violence and aggression by simply watching programs with their children and commenting on what they see. "It's like an inoculation when parents and teachers tell kids that cartoon and media violence is not real, and it's not the way one is supposed to act," said Mr. Murray of Kansas State University. "The ray of hope is that parents do matter. What they do sticks with kids, particularly the younger you start."

Impressionable Minds Studies estimate that the average child watches 23 to 28 hours of television a week, and that by the age of 18, a child will have witnessed 200,000 acts of TV violence, including 40,000 murders. Researchers specifically cite some popular programs as contributing to the problem, such as the cartoon shows "Rug Rats," "The Simpsons," "Pokemon," and other youth shows such as "Power Rangers." They said emphasis on coverage of violent incidents by nightly news shows is also a problem. Concerns about the effects of television violence on children have also attracted the attention of character education organizations, such as The Polite Child Inc., a Seattle-based company that aims to improve social skills among K-12 students. Started in 2001, the program is taught in 16 schools in Seattle and five schools in Palm Springs, Calif. It wraps a social skills curriculum into existing school curricula to help teachers show students how to be more compassionate, loyal, honest, and respectful. "The sad thing about most television [programs] is what you are teaching these young, impressionable kids is that it's OK to be disrespectful, to tease, to taunt, and hurt other people-and it just gets worse from there," said Corinne Gregory, the founder and president of the group. "Kids will learn and repeat what they are exposed to, and it strongly affects their behavior." Discussion/Reflection Activity (10 points) Compare the text reading on pages 214-216 with this article and your own perspective on the topic.

Kohlberg’s Moral Dilemmas

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Work in groups of four and discuss your assigned dilemma responding to the questions under it. Dilemma I Joe is a fourteen-year-old boy who wanted to go to camp very much. His father promised him he could go if he saved up the money for it himself. So Joe worked hard at his paper route and saved up the forty dollars it cost to go to camp, and a little more besides. But just before camp was going to start, his father changed his mind. Some of his friends decided to go on a special fishing trip, and Joe's father was short of the money it would cost. So he told Joe to give him the money he had saved from the paper route. Joe didn't want to give up going to camp, so he thinks of refusing to give his father the money. Respond to each prompt and provide why/why not. (20 points) Your Name: 1. Should Joe refuse to give his father the money?

2. Does the father have the right to tell Joe to give him the money?

3. Does giving the money have anything to do with being a good son?

4. Is the fact that Joe earned the money himself important in this situation?

5. The father promised Joe he could go to camp if he earned the money. Is the fact that the father promised the most important thing in the situation?

6. In general, why should a promise kept?

7. Is it important to keep a promise to someone you don't know well and probably won't see again?

8. What do you think is the most important thing a father should be concerned about in his relationship to his son?

9. In general, what should be the authority of a father over his son?

10. What do you think is the most important thing a son should be concerned about in his relationship to his father?

11. In thinking back over the dilemma, what would you say is the most responsible thing for Joe to do in this situation?


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Dilemma II Judy was a twelve-year-old girl. Her mother promised her that she could go to a special rock concert coming to their town if she saved up from baby-sitting and lunch money to buy a ticket to the concert. She managed to save up the fifteen dollars the ticket cost plus another five dollars. But then her mother changed her mind and told Judy that she had to spend the money on new clothes for school. Judy was disappointed and decided to go to the concert anyway. She bought a ticket and told her mother that she had only been able to save five dollars. That Saturday she went to the performance and told her mother that she was spending the day with a friend. A week passed without her mother finding out. Judy then told her older sister, Louise, that she had gone to the performance and had lied to her mother about it. Louise wonders whether to tell their mother what Judy did. Respond to each prompt and provide why/why not. (20 points) Your Name: 1. Should Louise, the older sister, tell their mother that Judy lied about the money or should she

keep quiet? 1a. Why?

2. In wondering whether to tell, Louise thinks of the fact that Judy is her sister. Should that

make a difference in Louise's decision?

3. Does telling have anything to do with being a good daughter?

4. Is the fact that Judy earned the money herself important in this situation?

5. The mother promised Judy she could go to the concert if she earned the money. Is the fact that the mother promised the most important thing in the situation?

6. Why in general should a promise be kept?

7. Is it important to keep a promise to someone you don't know well and probably won't see again?

8. What do you think is the most important thing a mother should be concerned about in her relationship to her daughter?

9. In general, what should be the authority of a mother over her daughter?

10. What do you think is the most important thing a daughter should be concerned about in her relationship to her mother?

11. In thinking back over the dilemma, what would you say is the most responsible thing for Louise to do in this situation?


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Dilemma III In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. the drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $400 for the radium and charged $4,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money and tried every legal means, but he could only get together about $2,000, which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying, and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said, "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from if." So, having tried every legal means, Heinz gets desperate and considers breaking into the man's store to steal the drug for his wife. Respond to each prompt and provide why/why not. (20 points) Your Name: 1. Should Heinz steal the drug?

2. Is it actually right or wrong for him to steal the drug?

3. Does Heinz have a duty or obligation to steal the drug?

4. If Heinz doesn't love his wife, should he steal the drug for her? Does it make a difference in what Heinz should do whether or not he loves his wife?

5. Suppose the person dying is not his wife but a stranger. Should Heinz steal the drug for the stranger?

6. Suppose it's a pet animal he loves. Should Heinz steal to save the pet animal?

7. Is it important for people to do everything they can to save another's life?

8. It is against the law for Heinz to steal. Does that make it morally wrong?

9. In general, should people try to do everything they can to obey the law?

9b. How does this apply to what Heinz should do?

10. In thinking back over the dilemma, what would you say is the most responsible thing for Heinz to do?


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Dilemma VII Two young men, brothers, had got into serious trouble. They were secretly leaving town in a hurry and needed money. Karl, the older one, broke into a store and stole a thousand dollars. Bob, the younger one, went to a retired old man who was known to help people in town. He told the man that he was very sick and that he needed a thousand dollars to pay for an operation. Bob asked the old man to lend him the money and promised that he would pay him back when he recovered. Really Bob wasn't sick at all, and he had no intention of paying the man back. Although the old man didn't know Bob very well, he lent him the money. So Bob and Karl skipped town, each with a thousand dollars. Respond to each prompt and provide why/why not. (20 points) Your Name: 1. Which is worse, stealing like Karl or cheating like Bob?

2. What do you think is the worst thing about cheating the old man?

3. In general, why should a promise be kept?

4. Is it important to keep a promise to someone you don't know well or will never see again?

5. Why shouldn't someone steal from a store?

6. What is the value or importance of property rights?

7. Should people do everything they can to obey the law?

8. Was the old man being irresponsible by lending Bob the money?

Teen Spending

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Teen spending estimated to top $190 billion by 2006 http://www.marketresearchworld.net/index.php June 26, 2007 Teen spending estimated to top $190 billion by 2006 Chicago, IL, November 12, 2004 -- According to a new report from Mintel on teen consumers, teen spending was valued at $175 billion in 2003 and is on the rise. The estimated spending power of teens, those age 12 to 17, is expected to top $190 billion by 2006, a figure that surpasses the gross domestic product of many countries in the world. In addition, families with teens spent $100 billion on them with projected spending for 12 to 17 year olds as $128.5 billion in 2006. Teens represent the first significant demographic change in the past decade. Not since the Baby Boom's teenage years has this age group been so large. Twenty-five million strong in 2004, teens constitute 8.5% of the total US population in 2004. By 2010, teens are projected to comprise 10% of the US population. Today's teens are the most affluent generation of young people to date. Over one-third receives some kind of allowance from their parents, and nearly three-quarters work around the house to earn it. Almost one third of teens work while going to school and participating in other teen activities. Marketers should recognize that a considerable amount of teens work and treat them accordingly when encouraging them to spend money on their products and services. Teen girls have generally been regarded as the primary spenders. This has now shifted. For example, teen boys are the new darling of the health and beauty industry spending an estimated $2.1 billion on personal care in 2003. Teen boys buy shampoo and hair gels, often spending on hair coloring, too. They also purchase their own soaps, deodorants, shaving products and moisturizers. This new target market represents an entirely new opportunity for marketers of many products. Teens' dollars are primarily spent on themselves. This increase in their spending power will be fueled by higher earnings from jobs held by teens, increased teen savings and expansion of family expenditures on teens. Parents will always have a difficult time saying "no" to their children and teens will continue to receive hand outs from parents, grandparents and relatives. Their spending clout will wield tremendous economic power and drive overall consumer trends through their purchases. Discussion/Reflection Activity Your Name: What are possible impacts/consequences might there be for schools as a result of this trend? (10 points)

THE SPIRITUALITY OF MOMS OUTPACES THAT OF DADS © The Barna Group, Ltd, 2007

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Mothers inhabit many roles inside and outside the family. Within the household, they are often counted on to be the emotional compass, organizer, and multitasking manager of the family. Add to that list another common function: spiritual energizer. According to a new Barna study, women who are raising children are among the most faith-minded and spiritually active segments of the American population. The study explored faith-related activities, commitments and perspectives, relying upon nationally representative interviews among more than 10,000 adults and nearly 2000 women who are currently parenting children under the age of 18. The study shows that more than three-quarters of moms identify "family" to be their highest priority. At the same time, a majority of mothers strongly agree that their faith is very important in their life. In contrast, fathers also tend to list family as their top priority in life, yet they are much less likely to equally attribute importance to faith. Mom versus Dad Men may enjoy advantages in physical strength, but they are much less likely than women to exercise their spiritual muscles. This gender gap extends to the typical family unit: mothers outpace fathers in terms of spiritual activity and commitment. In fact, the Barna survey examined 12 different elements of faith behavior and perspective. Mothers were distinct from fathers on 11 of the 12 factors. When it comes to spiritual perspectives, a majority of mothers said they have been greatly transformed by their faith, while less than half of fathers had shared this experience. Also, three-quarters of moms said their faith is very important in their life, while this view was true among just two-thirds of fathers. Mothers were also more likely than fathers to be born again Christians, to say they are absolutely committed to Christianity, and to embrace a personal responsibility to share their faith in Jesus Christ with others. Moms are also more religiously active. In a typical week, mothers are more likely than are fathers to attend church, pray, read the Bible, participate in a small group, attend Sunday school, and volunteer some of their time to help a non-profit organization. The only faith-related activity in which fathers are just as likely as mothers to engage is volunteering to help at a church. David Kinnaman, President of The Barna Group and the director of the study, clarified the role of gender in shaping a person’s spiritual profile. "Whether they are a parent or not, women in America have high levels of spiritual sensitivity and engagement. Men generally lag behind the spirituality of women - and particularly so if they are not a father. In other words, having children intensifies the spiritual commitment of men, but even so most fathers still do not measure up to the spiritual footprint of their parenting counterparts."

Boomer versus Buster The responsibility for raising America’s children is primarily in the hands of two adult generations: Boomer and Buster parents. About one out of every five adults in America is a mom with children under age 18, meaning there are currently about 45 million moms of young children in the nation. Among these women, 54% are part of the Buster generation (ages 23-41) and 39% are Boomers (ages 42-60). While these groups share many attributes, the research raised several points of caution concerning young moms.

1. First, going it alone as a parent is becoming increasingly common. Most Buster moms are currently married; however, three out of ten are not. Also, one-sixth of young moms have never been married, which is double the proportion found among Boomer moms. Stunningly, among the young women in the Mosaic generation who are parents (that is, the moms who are currently ages 18 to 22), four out of five are not married (79%). In the next decade, this

THE SPIRITUALITY OF MOMS OUTPACES THAT OF DADS © The Barna Group, Ltd, 2007

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percentage will significantly decrease as more married Mosaics enter the ranks of parenthood, yet it demonstrates how millions of the youngest of moms in our culture do not have the support or energy of a husband alongside them in their parenting efforts.

2. Second, Buster moms exhibit less passion for spirituality and less commitment to Christianity compared to Boomer moms. For instance, young moms are less likely to volunteer to help at a church, to read the Bible or to attend worship services at a church. While this decreased activity may be a function of the more intense requirements of raising preschoolers, it is not merely an issue of time management. Buster moms are significantly less likely than Boomer moms to be absolutely committed to Christianity (53% versus 67%). They are also less likely to say they feel compelled to share their faith with others and young moms are less inclined to describe their faith as very important in their life.

What it Means Kinnaman pointed out several implications of this research. "One of the trends we have been monitoring is the erosion of commitment among young Americans toward Christianity and traditional expressions of faith. Buster moms are in the crux of that challenge, being much more spiritually minded than young dads, but still wrestling with the Christian faith in ways Boomers did not. If moms are the spiritual backbone of families today - and they often are - it is imperative to find new approaches that help moms connect faith and family, especially for young mothers. "Still, moms of every generation deserve an enormous amount of credit for empowering the spiritual pursuits of their family and, in turn, energizing faith in America. Compared to men, women are more likely to communicate about faith, prioritize activities that develop their faith and that of their children, and they are more vulnerable about their needs and emotions. There is still room for growth among moms. Church leaders and parents still need to focus on outcomes and the depth of their parenting efforts. Yet our nation would not be the same without the significant spiritual influence of mothers. Imagine the impact on our society if fathers were to simply match the intensity of their parenting peers."

Research Details This report is based upon telephone interviews conducted in 10 nationwide surveys conducted by The Barna Group. The random sample of 10,035 adults, age 18 and older, was conducted from January 2005 through January 2007. The study included interviews with 1,926 women who are parenting a child under the age of 18. The maximum margin of sampling error associated with the sample of mothers is ±2.4 percentage points at the 95% confidence level. Statistical weighting was used to calibrate the sample to known population percentages in relation to demographic variables. "Born again Christians" are defined as people who said they have made a personal commitment to Jesus Christ that is still important in their life today and who also indicated they believe that when they die they will go to Heaven because they had confessed their sins and had accepted Jesus Christ as their savior. Respondents are not asked to describe themselves as "born again." Discussion/Reflection Activity Your name: Compare this article to the section in the textbook “Parenting Styles and Parental Monitoring on p.340-341. State two major similarities and or differences. (10 points)

Peer referencing in adolescent decision making as a function of perceived parenting style Adolescence, Winter, 2003 by Dell Elaine Bednar, Terri D. Fisher

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Erikson (1959) and Piaget (1965) both theorized that identity formation during adolescence is achieved by emotional disengagement from the family and a transfer of attachment to peers. It is within the context of the adolescent peer group that most sexual socialization is acquired and the skills for developing intimate friendships are learned (Sullivan, 1953). Related Results Jessor and Jessor (1978) claimed that problem behavior occurs as the result of the many transitions that occur in adolescence, such as an emphasis on independence, an increase in social activism, a decrease in religiosity, the apparent loosening of parental standards, and increased dependence on friends rather than parents. Jessor and Jessor viewed these transitions as problematic because such changes are often accompanied by sexual activity, substance use, and lower achievement. Therefore, their advice to parents was to "keep tight control," whereas Freudian or Piagetian stage theorists would advise parents to "let go."

Those adolescents who decide to follow peers may do so because of the perceived benefits, or because of what they might lose by not doing so (Larson, 1974). Adolescents feel that the time spent with their peers is one of the most entertaining parts of their day because it consists of activities that are fun, whereas time spent with their family consists of activities centered around chores and rules (Larson, 1983). Therefore, adolescent friendships are important, enduring, and relatively problem-free relationships in which the participants understand one another and learn new things (Yonniss & Smollar, 1983). The peer group is important in the psychological development of adolescents, serving as a guide in the formation of identity as adolescents begin to establish a sense of self that is separate from the family (Brown, 1990). It enables adolescents to test their new decision-making skills in an environment in which there are few adults to monitor or control their decisions (Hill & Holmbeck, 1986). Baumrind (1991) found that early adolescents become closer to their peers while temporarily becoming more distant from their parents because peers are generally better able to meet their changing needs. The beginning of the ability to think abstractly and use complex reasoning may lead adolescents to look for opportunities to practice these new skills with their peers.

Peer influence is at its peak during early adolescence, around age 14, and then decreases through middle and late adolescence (Brown, Clasen, & Eicher, 1986; Steinberg & Silverberg, 1986). Peers are most influential if friendships are stable, reciprocated, and exclusive. Furthermore, peers influence each other because they have coercive power (the ability to punish others for noncompliance), reward power (by controlling the outcomes others desire), and referent power (when others admire them and want to be like them) (Savin-Williams & Berndt, 1990). While peers become more influential during adolescence, parental influence ultimately does not change (Krosnick & Judd, 1982) However, in contexts where adolescents view attempts at independence from their parents as unsuccessful, adolescents may turn to their peers as their primary source of guidance and support (Youniss & Smollar, 1983). Adolescents whose parents are overly negative or who are low in monitoring tend to become oriented toward deviant peers and to engage in more externalizing behaviors (Kim, Hetherington, & Reiss, 1999).

Adolescent Decision Making Given the importance of peers during the adolescent years, researchers have tried to determine whether peers play a more important role than parents in adolescent decision making. Brittain (1963) reported that when adolescents were faced with a decision, the choice of whether to use peers or parents as the source of information tended to reflect their perception as to who


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was most competent in terms of the particular subject, as well as reflected a concern about being different, and thus separated, from peers. Brittain concluded that adolescents utilize their peers for short-term, day-to-day, and social decisions, and they utilize their parents for long-term, value-based, and ethical decisions. Brittain also noted that there were four types of adolescents with regard to making parent-conforming or peer-conforming choices: those who had relatively strong parent-conforming tendencies, those who had relatively strong peer-conforming tendencies, those who had mixed conformity, and those who made choices based on the content of the decision. However, Brittain did not explain what types of adolescents fell into each of these groups.

Devereux (1970) found that adolescents who had not received enough guidance (i.e., had permissive or neglectful parents) often became psychologically dependent on peers and detached from their parents; these adolescents were not autonomous or competent. In addition, Durbin et al. (1993) found that uninvolved parenting was associated with female adolescents who were part of peer groups that did not endorse adult values, and indulgent parenting was associated with male adolescents who tended to be peer or "fun-culture" oriented. Neglectful parents seem to put their adolescents at risk for problems arising from peer pressure by encouraging autonomy at too early an age (Shucksmith, Hendry, & Glendinning, 1995).

Parenting Style and Adolescent Decision Making Although research on the relationship between parenting style and adolescent decision making is limited, it appears that peer orientation, such as reliance on peers for advice, has less to do with the extent of adolescents' interaction with peers and more to do with the nature of adolescents' relationships with parents. Fuligni and Eccles (1993) studied 1,700 early adolescents in order to understand the finks between adolescents' perceptions of how they and their parents interacted during early adolescence and the adolescents' orientation toward peers and parents. Adolescents who perceived little opportunity for involvement in decision making or who felt that their parents had not eased up on their assertion of power and control sought less advice from their parents and more advice from their peers. These adolescents were willing to ignore their parents' rules, shirk homework, and neglect their own talents in order to maintain their friendships and popularity. Additionally, peer orientation increased if parental strictness increased and/or decision-making opportunities decreased. Fuligni and Eccles concluded that early adolescents' perception of parental control and power assertion influenced orientation toward peers. The Present Study The purpose of the present study was to explore the relationship between adolescents' perception of parenting style (using Baumrind's typology) and their tendency to refer to a particular source when making decisions. We predicted that adolescents raised in authoritative environments would exhibit the pattern previously found by Young and Ferguson (1979)--referencing peers for social decisions, parents for moral decisions, and other adults for informational decisions. Based on previous findings, namely that thwarted attempts at achieving independence from parents result in greater-than-normal reliance on peers (Youniss & Smollar, 1983), that peer orientation is a function of adolecents' relationships with their parents (Fuligni & Eccles, 1993), and that parental permissiveness is related to adolescents' susceptibility to peer pressure (Steinberg, 1987), it seemed reasonable to predict that if adolescents are raised in an environment that is not conducive to the development of an independent identity and autonomous decision making, they will be more likely to turn to peers as a source of guidance and support. We therefore hypothesized that adolescents who reported being raised with a parenting style other


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than authoritative (i.e., authoritarian, permissive, or neglecting-rejecting) would utilize their peers as resources for decisions concerning not only social matters but moral and informational matters as well.

The present research differs from the Fuligni and Eccles (1993) study in several ways. The most important difference is that instead of examining the dimensions of strictness and opportunity for decision making, we chose to look at parenting styles as categorized by Baumrind. In the Fuligni and Eccles study, adolescents who had parents with authoritarian characteristics (strict, little opportunity for decision making) exhibited the strongest peer orientation. We wanted to examine the differential impact of being raised by authoritative parents as opposed to nonauthoritative parents. Given that Krosnick and Judd (1982) found that the effects of parenting style do not change as the adolescent ages, we chose to study older adolescents rather than younger ones. It is well known that peers are highly influential during early adolescence (e.g., Brown et al., 1986). We were interested in determining whether or not peers are still influential in late adolescence in three domains: moral, social, and informational. Conclusion As previously noted, Krosnick and Judd (1982) found that while peers become more influential during adolescence, parental influence does not generally change. The present study reinforces that finding, at least with regard to adolescents raised by authoritative parents. Less orientation toward peers during late adolescence seems to be another advantage of authoritative parenting. While reliance on peers by adolescents raised by nonauthoritative parents may certainly produce challenges, it need not always be considered a problem. In fact, if an adolescent is involved with a positive peer group, that influence could help to counteract negative parenting. Perhaps instead of trying to repair problems related to peer-group association after they occur, society should strive to do a better job at targeting at-risk adolescents and help them join positive peer groups. Discussion/Reflection Activity Your name Compare the major contentions in this article with the ones in the textbook on p.339-341 and your own personal experiences. (10 points)

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