THINKING beyond the canopy THINKING beyond the canopy

IUFRO

Session 101a

Transitions to sustainable

forest management:

Economic, social and

cultural parameters

10 October 2014

Prunus africana “No chop um, no kill um, but keep um”: From an endangered species to an everyday tree?

Verina Ingram

THINKING beyond the canopy

Prunus africana • Afromontane, evergreen tree • Key species in Cameroon montane

forests • Fruit eaten and dispersed by >20

species, 50% endangered &/or endemic

• High degradation & deforestation rates in main harvest areas

• Local use and trade in timber and bark • Estimated 60,000 people dependent

on the international trade in 2007 • Principal ingredient in prostatic

hyperplasia pharmaceuticals and health supplements

Introduction

THINKING beyond the canopy

Prunus

africana

range and

trade

= exporters & % world exports

1995-2013

= border trade

= traditional medicinal use & trade

= main importers & % world imports 1995-2013

= national management plan

Source: Cunningham 2008, Hall et al .2000, CITES WCMC Trade database 2014

22%

52%

50%

4%

8%

28% >1%

12%

1%

>1%

2%

1%

5%

1% 0.1%

13%

2%

5%

>1%

Main harvest zones

THINKING beyond the canopy

Background

International trade, apparent over-exploitation, respite & action

Photo: K Stewart

• Regulated since 1974 : arbitrary, poor enforcement and monitoring, counterproductive to sustainable trade.

• Cameroon worlds’ largest exporter origin of 51% of all exports since 1995, with increasing volumes harvested.

• Sources unknown. In 2007 wild P. africana un-quantified , inventories only in SW.

• This raised concerns about overexploitation of wild stocks, leading to : • IUCN Red List (Vulnerable) in 1998 – but “needs updating” • Trade restrictions (CITES Appendix II listed ) in 2005 • ‘Special Forestry Product’ in Cameroon in 2006 • EU suspension international trade from Cameroon November 2007 • Cameroon self-imposed moratorium 2007-2010.

• Lobbies: African exporters, European importers, governments and conservation organisations. Conflicting conservation vs. livelihood and business interests

• Participatory developed national management plan in response to concerns by organisations in Cameroonian value chain

• Exports resumed 2010 with new statutory rules i.e. inventories and management plans. Inventories now near completion: approx. 60% wild in forest, 40% cultivated.

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

4,000

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Exp

ort

s P

run

us

afr

ica

na

bar

k fr

om

Cam

ero

on

in t

on

s

Year

Bark (COMCAM & MINFOF)

Bark (CITES UNEP WCMC)

Powder (CITES UNEP WCMC)

Bark (Cunningham 2006, Bellewang 2005)

THINKING beyond the canopy Value Chain

Harvester Wholesaler Processor Exporter Retailer Consumer

Access to resources for

production

Access to

markets

THINKING beyond the canopy

Research questions

1. What arrangements are used to

govern Prunus africana chains in

Cameroon?

2. How do these governance

arrangements impact the livelihoods

of actors along the chain?

3. How do these governance

arrangements impact chain and

product sustainability?

Kongo CF,

Illegal harvesting, Kilum Community forest,

December 2008

THINKING beyond the canopy

Meth

odolo

gy

see In

gra

m 2

014

Background • Selection harvest zones stakeholder interviews (2007)

Field work

• Inventory 3 zones (2007-2008)

• Bark regeneration post-harvest study 4 zones (2009)

VCA

2007-2009

• 250 interviews actors in chains (193) 2007-2010 and 57 (2014) governance, economics, livelihoods, sustainability, 5 market surveys (2007-2008)

Action data collection

• Participatory action research SWOT, stakeholder analysis, 6 working sessions stakeholder groups & 1 stakeholder workshop, participatorily developed management plan

• Capacity building : supporting collective action (2007-2010)

Analysis

• Data analysis; Existence and intensity governance arrangements, qualitative and quantitative impacts

• Preliminary findings verified in meetings & peer cross-checked

Outputs

• Reports: Problem analysis workshop report, Inventory in NW & SW Cameroon, Guidelines for a National Management Plan for Prunus africana in Cameroon, Assessment sustainable harvest methods, Baseline study of Prunus africana chain, Domestication Guide (ICRAF), Harvest and inventory norms (GIZ + CIFOR), Cost benefit analysis of value chain (GIZ & PSFE)

• Policy briefs: Prunus africana in Cameroon

Lit. review

• Literature reviews (2007 and 2014)

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Methodology: Assessing governance arrangements Indicators Score

Strong 10

Clear 8

Moderate 5

Weak 2

Non-existent 0

Existence of an institution and rules/norms known and named

Well known by all actors; clearly stated

Stated by majority of actors

Named, some rules known

Not clear, few rules discernible

Not stated or known

Boundaries of rights known by chain actors

Well known & stated by all actors

Known by most Known to some Little known Not known

Monitoring and compliance with rules

Frequent Occasional Infrequent Low None

Frequency of use of sanctions and enforcement

Frequent Occasional Infrequent Low None

Use of conflict resolution mechanisms

Well used Occasional Infrequent Little used Not used

Use of individual & collective action to develop and modify rules

Well used Occasional Infrequent Little used Not used

Nesting horizontally (within particular scale) and vertically (value chain)

Well-nested, both horizontally &

vertically

Partially horizontal & vertical

Some horizontal/ and/or vertical

Low horizontal or vertical

None

Level of accountability and dependence on actors

High level Moderate Low Minimal None

Moral grounding & (democratic) legitimacy of power High level Moderate Weak Very weak No

Location of decision making clear to actors

High level, clear to actors

Known Uncertain Vague/unclear No

Longevity of institution Long lived Long to medium term Medium to short term Temporal None

Participation of actors Frequent Occasional Infrequent Low None

Literature review of governance indicators (Graham, Amos, and Plumptre 2003; Hyden et al. 2008; Ibrahim Foundation 2013; Kaufmann, Kraay,

and Mastruzzi 2007; Ribot, Chhatreb, and Lankinad 2008; World Bank 2010) and institutional design principles (Agrawal and Chhatre 2006; Cox,

Arnold, and Tomás 2010; Ostrom 1990; Scott 2001) yielded eleven indicators.

THINKING beyond the canopy

Q1. Arrangements governing Prunus africana chains in Cameroon

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Statutoryregualtion

Voluntary/market

standards

Corruption

Customaryregulation

Projects

Involuntarystandards

Score 10 = strong governance

0 = no governance

“Super regulated” chain and products

2007 EU CITES trade suspension → crisis and review of arrangements

Statutory regulation

• Grown in coverage

• internationally influenced by

‘’involuntary’’ international

standards

• Enforcement arbitrary and

ineffective , varies by region

• Regulates wild harvest only

Voluntary, market based

harvester collective action

• community-based

companies and community

forests

• used, adapted, collaborated

with, occasionally subjugated

and often challenged

traditional and regulatory

authority

• Alienated and disabled

customary institutions as

commodification increased.

• community based action

resulted in both forest

management and

unsustainable exploitation

Customary regulations

• Differ by region,

• preceded regulatory

framework,

• frequently overrun by

projects and new forest

management models- CFs

• block and contradict

statutory rights.

• Focus on ownership and

access to resource, in some

areas on sustainable

harvesting.

Projects

• 5 long term projects

• Introduced CBOs and CFs,

protected areas

• Introduced harvesting rules,

monitoring , controls

Corruption

• Permitting process

• Transport

• Illegal harvesting

• Access in CFs

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Traditional &

customary laws Statutory law

‘bricolage’

Regulatory authorities

national and provincial

ministries, local councils,

implementing agencies

Traditional authorities

Chiefs, customary councils,

courts

Community forests

‘Project’ rules

NGOs & donors

Collective

‘Voluntary’ and ‘supplier’

rules

AFRIMED Prunus Platform

International organizations

Conventions

Stakeholders

Companies

Corruption

Private owners

THINKING beyond the canopy

• Harvesters & tree owners: silent chain “actors”, little voice & power in regulatory arrangements, act to create their own ‘’messy’’ arrangements

• Actors become bricoleurs – make best of arrangements they are in

• Creatively using and making new arrangements & remoulding existing ones to reduce vulnerabilities, cope with risks, take control, reduce hassle and make money.

Laurel & Hardy

Silver screen stars

c.1920-1940

Moses & Pa

Pygeum hoe handle

traders, c.1990-2009

THINKING beyond the canopy

Q2. How do these arrangements impact livelihoods?

• Trade suspension negative economic impact on harvester incomes

• Harvester incomes decreased with regulation and influence of projects

• Few exporters & importers profited for decades, two dominate

• Liberalisation increased prices and competition, decreased information.

• PAUs decrease competition, increased prices & scope for corruption

• Competitive PAUs form entry barrier for small operators and CBOs

• State officials and customary elites access revenues from corruption.

• Collective action aided CF & CBOs to increase revenue, secure rights

• Projects and CBOs explored possibilities for adding value

• Private owners no statutory provision to access markets or arrangements

THINKING beyond the canopy

Q3 How do these governance arrangements

impact chain & product sustainability

Negative • Pre-2007 government ignored own rules, now

introduced but methods questionable

• Statutory arrangements continue to be ineffective

• Regeneration tax barely invested in regeneration

• Projects promoting CFs & CBO facilitated ‘mining’

• Regulations, and project-based based upon a

presumption of wild sourcing and threatened status,

conventions created dominant, but mistaken

perception

• Farmed trees unquantified, “invisible”, source

undistinguished, inventories only now occurring.

• Community collective action, promoted by statutory

and project-based arrangements, failed to control

access or over-extraction

• Customary rules negated even by some traditional

chiefs

• Corruption increased illegal harvesting

Positive • Research indicates techniques for sustainable

harvest,

• Projects stimulated collective and individual

planting

• Projects brought customary harvest rules into

formal sphere

• Trade suspension provided respite and led to

quantification.

• Concessions easier to control and monitor,

increased rates sustainable harvesting when

combined with project support.

• Collaborations between research, development

and conservation led to policies and institutions

focus on product and livelihood sustainability.

Multiple, incongruent arrangements had mixed, but overall negative impacts

THINKING beyond the canopy

Conclusions

Overlapping and often incongruent governance arrangements

• Conventions ripe for rationalisation, statutory needs tweaking, implementation and

customary arrangements and projects to be incorporated

Impact of arrangements on livelihoods, mixed but generally negative

• Access, employment and profitability decreased by increased regulations

• Importance of business, infrastructure & technical support

• Power critical in determining access to resource, markets and revenues

• Processing & storage offer local value adding

• Harvest techniques & domestication technologies potential to increase profits – but

needs dissemination and enforcement

Impact of arrangements on the sustainability of Prunus africana also mixed but

generally negative

• Recognising tree and land tenure critical for sustainable exploitation

• Selective cultivation with appropriate market access key to sustainable supply and

livelihoods

Recognize often clashing livelihood and sustainability impacts for different

actors due to overlaps of traditional, regulatory, CBOs, projects with regulatory

arrangements

THINKING beyond the canopy

Role of research To address a range of issues simultaneously1

√

To link to development & government institutions for impact1

√

• Bearing in mind different/conflicts of interest

To inform policymakers & practionnners via evidence based science1

√

• When evidence is incomplete?

• When “they’’ don’t listen ?

• Are scientists independent ?

To evaluate impacts of policy and governance actions

√

• Who pays?

• How to access data for all actors, particularly in competitive chains?

1 CGIAR Consortium Research Program 6 Forests, Trees and Agroforestry 2010

THINKING beyond the canopy THINKING beyond the canopy

The Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)

is one of the 15 centres supported by the Consultative

Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR)

Thank you!

www.cifor.cgiar.org v.ingram@cgiar.org