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Field ManualNo. 22-100

*FM 22-100Headquarters

Department of the ArmyWashington, DC, 31 July 1990

MILITARY LEADERSHIP

A Trained and Ready Army has as its foundation, competent andconfident leaders. We develop such leaders through a dynamic processconsisting of three equally important pillars: institutional training,operational assignments, and self-development. This approach is de-signed to provide the education, training, and experience that enableleaders to develop the necessary skills, knowledge, and attitudes.

FM 22-100, Military Leadership, is the Army’s basic manual onleadership. It has two purposes: to provide an overview of Armyleadership doctrine, including the principles for applying leadershiptheory at all organizational levels to meet operational requirements;and to prescribe the leadership necessary to be effective in peace andin war.

While this manual applies to all Army leaders, its principal focus ison company grade officers, warrant officers, and noncommissionedofficers, the junior leaders of soldiers at battalion-squadron level andbelow. FM 22-100 incorporates the professional military values, thebedrock of our service, that all Army leaders must internalize in theearliest years of their careers.

Army leaders must learn to fulfill expectations of all soldiersincluding other leaders. FM 22-100 addresses fundamentalexpectations:

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Demonstrate tactical and technical competence.Know your business. Soldiers expect their leaders to be tacticallyand technically competent. Soldiers want to follow those leaderswho are confident of their own abilities. To be confident a leadermust first be competent. Trust between soldiers and their leaders isbased on the secure knowledge that the leader is competent.

Teach subordinates.In training, leaders must move beyond managing programs ordirecting the execution of operations. Our leaders must take the timeto share with subordinates the benefit of experience and expertise.

DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited

*This publication supersedes FM 22-100, 31 October 1983.

i

•

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Be a good listener.We must listen with equal attention to our superiors and oursubordinates. As leaders we can help solve any problem for a soldieror a unit. However, we can only do so if we know about it. We won’tknow about it if we don’t listen.

Treat soldiers with dignity and respect.Leaders must show genuine concern and compassion for the soldiersthey lead. It is essential that leaders remain sensitive to familymembers and include them in unit activities to the extent possible.Remember, respect is a two-way street; a leader will be accorded thesame level of respect that he or she shows for others.

Stress basics.Leaders must demonstrate mastery of fundamental soldiering skillssuch as marksmanship, first aid, and navigation, as well as therequisite skills for their particular specialty, and be able to teachthem to their soldiers.

Set the example.Leaders abide consistently with the highest values of the militaryprofession and its institutions. They encourage within their soldiersa commitment to the same values. Leaders take pride in selflesslydedicating their service to ensure mission accomplishment. They-areaware that they are always on parade—24 hours a day, seven daysa week—and that all their actions set personal and professionalexamples for subordinates to emulate.

Set and enforce standards.A leader must know, and always enforce, established Armystandards. Perhaps the most fundamental standard which must bemaintained is discipline. Our soldiers must promptly and effectivelyperform their duty in response to orders, or in the absence of orderstake the correct action.

The fundamental mission of our Army is to deter war and win incombat. The American people expect that officers and noncom-missioned officers at all levels will lead, train, motivate, and inspiretheir soldiers. Our soldiers and units perform difficult tasks, oftenunder dangerous, stressful circumstances. To achieve excellence in

The proponent of this publication is HQ TRADOC. Submit changes for improving thispublication on DA Form 2028 (Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms)and forward it to Commander, U.S. Army Combined Arms Center and Fort Leavenworth,ATTN: ATZL-SWA-DL, Fort Leavenworth, KS 66027-6900.

Unless otherwise stated, whenever the masculine gender is used,both men and women are included.

i i

these tasks, leaders must explain the importance of the mission, articu-late priorities, and focus soldier and unit efforts to perform in anefficient and disciplined manner. Well led, properly trained, motivated,and inspired soldiers will accomplish any mission.

Leaders in our Army have a challenge. They must take care ofsoldiers’ needs; develop them into cohesive teams; train them undertough, realistic conditions to demanding standards; assess theirperformance; assist them with their personal and professional growth;and reward them for their successes. To meet that challenge ourleaders must be competent, and confident in their ability to lead. Suchleaders will remain essential to our Trained and Ready Army, todayand tomorrow.

Carl E. VuonoGeneral, United States ArmyChief of Staff

This publication contains the following copyrighted material:Excerpts from The Twentieth Maine by John J. Pullen. Copyright 1957

by John J. Pullen, reprinted by permission of the author.Reproduced from Heroes of the Army, The Medal of Honor and Its Winners,

by Bruce Jacobs, by permission of W.W. Norton and Co., Inc. Copyright © 1956by Bruce Jacobs. Copyright © renewed 1984 by Bruce Jacobs.

From The Boy Scout Handbook and Other Observations by Paul Fussell. Copyright ©1982 by Paul Fussell, reprinted by permission of Oxford University Press, Inc.

iii

Contents

Chapter 2.

Chapter 4.

iv

PAGEPreface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iIntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi

PART ONE. LEADERSHIP IN PRINCIPLEChapter 1. A Concept of Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0

The Battlefield Challenge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Leadership Defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2Foundations of Army Leadership Doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3The Factors of Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3The Principles of Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

PART TWO. LEADERSHIP IN ACTIONChapter 3. The Face of Battle and the Leader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Past Bathes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .What a Leader Must Be . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Beliefs, Values, and Norms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .The Professional Army Ethic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Ethical Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .An Ethical Decision-Making Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .......What a Leader Must Know . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Know Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Know Yourself . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Know Human Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Know Your Job . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Know Your Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

212222252930313435353838414244

Chapter 5.

PAGEChapter 6. What a Leader Must Do . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Providing Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46Providing Direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46Providing Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Chapter 7. The Payoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52Results of Effective Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52Will and Winning in Battle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

PART THREE. LEADERSHIP IN BATTLEChapter 8.

Chapter 9.

Appendix A.Appendix B.Appendix C.Appendix D.Appendix E.

Stress in Combat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .The Human Side of Warfighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Stress in Battle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Battle Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .The Environment of Combat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Weather and Terrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Continuous Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .High Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Leadership Competencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Leadership Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Assuming a Leadership Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Officer and Noncommissioned Officer Relationships . .Developmental Leadership Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Introduction

The changing face of war poses specialchallenges for our Army. Because of theincreasing complexity of the worldenvironment, we must prepare to respondacross the entire spectrum of conflict. Just as wehave changed our doctrine, weapons, and forcestructure, so have our potential enemies. Thesechanges have dramatically altered thecharacteristics and demands of modern combat.More than ever, we need competent andconfident soldiers, leaders, and units to meetthese challenges.

We must work to strengthen our ability toemploy new equipment and to execute ouroperations doctrine. We must also focus ondeveloping leaders at all levels who understandthe human dimension of war and are able to gofrom theory to practice where its application isrequired.

Understanding the human element will helpus win in situations where we may beoutnumbered or face an enemy with excellentweapons and equipment. This understanding isequally important in low-intensity conflictswhere we expect to have better equipment thanthe enemy has, but face a struggle of competingprinciples and ideologies. In eitherenvironment, we can only succeed if we havebetter-prepared leaders, soldiers, and units thanthe enemy does.

Examining situations where soldiers arelikely to be called on to fight or to deteraggression helps identify future leadershipchallenges and focus on the kind of leadersneeded. The worst-case war may be a “come asyou are war,” fought with little time for buildupor preparation, Because of the speed anddevastation of modern warfare, battle successmay well depend on the effectiveness of existingsmall units during the first weeks of battle.

Across the entire spectrum of conflict,independent actions and operations within thecommander’s intent will be necessary. Inlimited and general war, the turbulentintermixing of opposing units may blurdistinctions between rear and forward areas.

Combat will occur throughout the entire lengthand breadth of the battlefield. In the midst ofthis fast-paced battlefield, leaders must take theinitiative, make rapid decisions, and motivatetheir soldiers. They must effectively maneuvertheir units, apply firepower, and protect andsustain their force.

In low-intensity conflicts, leaders will also beunder great stress and have to display as muchor more discipline than in conventional war.Short periods of intense fighting may interruptlong periods of relative inaction. The signssoldiers are trained to watch for may not helpthem distinguish friend from enemy. To achieveo peratiorial success, leaders may have torestrict the amount of combat power used. Theserestrictions can frustrate soldiers and leaders ofsmall units. The stress of this environment,coupled with a possible lack of popular supporton the home front, will require leaders tomotivate their soldiers without many of thetraditional supports accorded soldiers in battle.

The nature of future operations placessignificant demands on leaders. Specifically,the Army needs leaders who—•

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Understand the human dimension ofoperations.Provide purpose, direction, and motivation totheir units.Show initiative.Are technically and tactically competent.Are willing to exploit opportunities and takewell-calculated risks within the commander’sintent.Have an aggressive will to fight and win.Build cohesive teams.Communicate effectively, both orally and inwriting.Are committed to the professional Army ethic.

LEADERSHIPREQUIREMENTS

The Army’s leadership doctrine lays outprinciples that, when followed, provide the toolsto execute our operations doctrine. It suggests

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that leaders must satisfy four leadershiprequirements:• Lead in peace to be prepared for war.• Develop individual leaders.• Develop leadership teams.• Decentralize.

Lead in Peace to bePrepared for War

The Army needs leaders who sustain theirability to look beyond peacetime concerns andwho can execute their wartime missions evenafter long periods of peace. Difficulties inmaintaining this focus in peace arise becauseresponsibilities and priorities may blur. Leadersmust guard against the natural peacetimetendency to use “efficient” centralized methodsof training and “zero defects” approaches today-to-day operations. Administrativeactivities are important, but they must not takepriority over realistic combat training.

The key to maintaining a proper perspectiveis the ability to look beyond garrison concerns.Leaders must develop units through theirwartime focus on all activities. They mustrecognize that the fast pace of combat allowslittle time to learn new skills, so they mustdevelop units that can respond rapidly tochanging situations. The way leaders traintheir soldiers and organizations in peace is theway these organizations will fight in war.

Develop Individual LeadersThe Army has made a total commitment to

develop leaders by providing the skills,knowledge, and attitudes necessary for them toexhibit the leadership characteristics and traitsdiscussed in this manual. This objective isaccomplished through a dynamic leaderdevelopment system consisting of three equallyimportant pillars:•

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Schools. These institutions provide the formaleducation and training that all soldiersreceive on a progressive and sequential basisto prepare them for positions of greaterresponsibility. The NCOES is a goodexample.Experience. Operational experience throughduty assignments provides leaders theopportunity to use and build upon what waslearned through the process of formaleducation.Self-development. Individual initiative andself-improvement are keys to training anddeveloping every leader. The formal

•

education system has limits to what it canaccomplish; the leader can and must continueto expand that knowledge base whetherthrough Army correspondence courses,civilian education, reading programs, or anyof a number of self-study programs.As a leader you have a responsibility to assistyour subordinates in implementing all threeof these leader development pillars: you musthelp obtain school quotas for deservingsoldiers and then ensure prerequisites are metbefore attendance; you must have a plan todevelop your subordinates while in your unit;and you must encourage the self-disciplinerequired in your soldiers to want to learn moreabout their profession.At all levels, the next senior leader has the

responsibility to create leader developmentprograms that develop professional officer andNCO leaders. Leaders train their subordinatesto plan training carefully, execute itaggressively, and assess short-termachievements in terms of desired long-termresults. Effective leader development programswill continuously influence the Army asyounger leaders progress to higher levels ofresponsibility y.

The purpose of leader development is todevelop leaders capable of maintaining atrained and ready Army in peacetime to deterwar, to fight and control wars that do start, andto terminate wars on terms favorable to US andallied interests.

The ethical development of self andsubordinates is a key component of leaderdevelopment. To succeed in upholding theiroath of office, leaders must make a personalcommitment to the professional Army ethic andstrive to develop this commitment throughoutthe force.

Every leader must be a role model activelyworking to make his subordinates sensitive toethical matters, Leaders must not tolerateunethical behavior by subordinates, peers, orsuperiors.

We must develop and nurture trust thatencourages leaders to delegate and empowersubordinates. Subordinate leaders may then

begin to make the decisions that are properly performing those tasks. This requires thetheirs to make and to develop the judgment andthinking skills they will need in battle. Thisapproach requires leaders to recognize thatsubordinates learn by doing and givessubordinates a chance to try their ownsolutions.

Develop Leadership TeamsThe ability to develop a leadership’ team is

essential to success in war. While we havetraditionally viewed leadership as anindividual influence effort, today’s operationsdoctrine demands we also view it in terms ofleadership teams. A leadership team consists ofa leader and those subordinates necessary toplan and execute operations. For example, aplatoon leader’s leadership team usuallyconsists of a platoon sergeant and the squadleaders. Developing leadership teams is evenmore important in larger, more complexorganizations. Leaders must develop a teamthat anticipates requirements and exercisesinitiative within the commander’s intent. Unitsmay fail because of a single leader’s ineptness,but units succeed in combat because of thecollective efforts of leadership teams. Aneffective leadership team will providecontinuity in combat that is tied to acommander’s intent instead of to a specificleader or person. Responsive teams reactquickly because of their common understandingof mission requirements.

DecentralizeDecentralization is a peacetime objective

because you want to develop leaders capable ofmaking tough decisions in a combat situation.To decentralize requires a more senior leader torelease authority for execution at a lower level.Leaders must create a leadership climate wheredecision making is decentralized to theappropriate level. This climate is necessary forsubordinate leaders to learn and then todemonstrate the mental flexibility, initiative,innovation, and risk-taking skills that ourtraining and operations doctrine require.

Army doctrine recognizes the high-qualitysoldier of today. The leader is responsible todevelop each soldier’s potential and to givecompetent subordinates authority andresponsibility y. Although leaders should not domost things themselves if subordinates can andshould do them, they must be capable of

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judicious interplay of centralization anddecentralization. Leaders must tailordecentralization to the ability, training, andexperience of subordinates who may need to becoached and supported as well as empowered.Although decentralization must allow forsubordinate initiative in matters of judgmentwithin the commander’s intent, leaders musthold subordinates strictly accountable for theiractions at their level of responsibility. Whenhonest mistakes are made, leaders must bewilling to coach, encourage, and trainsubordinates. All must realize thatdecentralization is not a cure-all and successfulimplementation requires patience. The key is todevelop subordinates’ ability to solve problems.The leader must establish standards, decidewhat needs to be done, and then let competentsubordinates decide how to accomplish themission.

KEY ELEMENTS OF OURLEADERSHIP DOCTRINE

The study of the skills, knowledge, andattitudes of effective leaders of the past hasidentified certain leadership factors, principles,and competencies they have mastered. Theseare the key elements of our leadership doctrineand provide a framework at all levels fordeveloping self, subordinates, and units. Theleadership factors and principles are discussedin Chapter 2; the competencies are discussed inAppendix A.

LEVELS OF LEADERSHIPThere is general agreement that leaders lead

in different ways at different organizationallevels. Junior-level leaders accomplish missionsand build teams primarily by using the directface-to-face leadership mode. In largerorganizations, the scope of missions broadensand leading is more complex. Senior-levelleaders and commanders provide vision,influence indirectly through layers of largeunits, build organizations, and createconditions that enable junior-level leaders toaccomplish tasks and missions.

Two modes of leadership cut across alllevels—direct and indirect. All leaders use bothmodes, but the following diagram shows howthe proportion of influence shifts frompredominantly the direct mode at junior levelsto predominantly the indirect mode at senior

levels. Do not try to use this diagram to putyourself or others in a particular category. Itsvalue is only to show how the mix of the twoleadership modes can vary at different levels.This manual focuses mainly on the directleadership mode.

SOURCES OFLEADERSHIP DOCTRINE

Five manuals contain our leadershipdoctrine. Each manual addresses specificleadership needs, supports our operationsdoctrine, and contributes to our Army’s abilityto fight or to deter aggression:

FM 22-100 tells leaders how to lead in a direct,face-to-face mode.FM 22-101 tells leaders how to conductleadership counseling.FM 22-102 tells leaders how to develop soldierteams at company level and below that canmeet the challenges of combat.FM 22-103 gives principles and a frameworkfor leading and commanding at senior levels.FM 25-100 provides expectations andstandards for leaders on training doctrine.

THE STRUCTUREThis manual presents a direct leadership

framework that complements our operationsdoctrine. Where possible, it relates the conceptsto the experiences of leaders of our Army in pastconflicts.

Part One of the manual discusses doctrinalfactors and principles of leadership as theyrelate to the leadership used from squad andsection through battalion and squadron levels.Part Two of the manual discusses leadership inaction, It tells what a leader must BE, KNOW,and DO by relating the concepts to pastconflicts and then discusses the payoff ofapplying sound leadership. Part Threediscusses special considerations of leadershipin battle: stress, leadership in continuousoperations, and the effects of weather, terrain,and high technology.

This manual presents the requirements forleading and points for you to consider whenassessing and developing yourself, yoursubordinates, and your unit. It is not intended totell you exactly how you should lead. You mustbe yourself and apply this leadership doctrine inthe situations you will face.

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PART ONELEADERSHIP IN PRINCIPLE

Our operations doctrine is leadership The mandate for competent military leadershipintensive. FM 100-5 states, “The most essential is simple and compelling; quality leadershipelement of combat power is competent and must exist throughout the force if the nation isconfident leadership. Leadership provides to have an army ready for combat. Just aspurpose, direction, and motivation in combat.” successful armies train as they intend to fight,

successful leaders lead in peace to be preparedfor war, The leadership doctrine in this manualcan help you—•

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Identify the leadership challenges that existacross the entire spectrum of conflict andprovide the means to meet those challenges.Learn what a leader must BE, KNOW, andDO to lead soldiers, teams, and units that canoperate effectively in all operationalsituations.Understand the special leadershiprequirements of combat.Find other sources of leadership informationto help you develop your leadership skills.

THE BATTLEFIELDCHALLENGE

In battle, you must inspire your soldiers to dothings against their natural will—possibly torisk their lives—to carry out missions for thegreater good of the unit, the Army, and thecountry. To lead soldiers in peace and in war,there are certain things you must BE, KNOWand DO.

Although some people seem to have a naturalability to lead others, most leadership skills donot come naturally. They are learned throughhard work and study. Studying and discussingthis manual and then putting the ideas intopractice can help you meet the challenge.

To make good decisions and take the rightactions under the stress of battle, you mustunderstand the demands that will be placed onyou, your superiors, and your subordinates.Once you have a clear picture of the battlefieldchallenges, you can set goals for yourself, yoursubordinates, and your unit to prepare forcombat. Without actually being in combat, youmust get a realistic picture of what battle is like.Studying military history can give you insightinto what combat has been like for past leadersand troops and help you relate the leadershipchallenges of the past to those of today.

The armies of some of our potential enemiesoutnumber us. They possess large numbers ofexcellent tanks, personnel carriers, artillerypieces, airplanes, and chemical and nuclearweapons. Our Army needs competent andconfident leaders who are bold, innovative, andwilling to take well-calculated risks within thecommander’s intent. Human nature has notchanged since man first engaged in war; leadersand soldiers in future battles will experience thesame fears and emotions felt in past battles.Leadership will continue to be the mostessential element of combat power, providingthe key to mission accomplishment, winningbattles, arid protecting the ideals of our nation.

To help you understand the demands ofbattle, this manual presents some actual casesof soldiers in combat. These cases illustratewhat you must strive to BE, KNOW, and DO tolead soldiers successfully in battle.

LEADERSHIP DEFINEDLeadership is the process of influencing

others to accomplish the mission by providingpurpose, direction, and motivation.

Providing PurposePurpose gives soldiers a reason why they

should do difficult things under dangerous,stressful circumstances. You must establishpriorities, explain the importance of missions,and focus soldiers on the task so that they willfunction in an efficient and a disciplinedmanner.

Providing DirectionDirection gives soldiers an orientation of

tasks to be accomplished based on the prioritiesset by the leader. The standards you establishand enforce will give your soldiers order; toughtraining will give them confidence inthemselves, their leaders, each other, and theirequipment.

THE BATTLEFIELD CHALLENGE:

Inspire soldiers to do things againsttheir natural will--to carry outmissions for the greater good of the unit, the Army, and the country.

Providing MotivationMotivation gives soldiers the will to do

everything they are capable of doing toaccomplish a mission; it causes soldiers to usetheir initiative when they see the need foraction. Motivate your soldiers by caring forthem, challenging them with interestingtraining, developing them into a cohesive team,rewarding successes, and giving them all the

1

responsibility they can handle. Effectiveleaders use both direct and indirect influence tolead. You will probably influence your soldiersmainly in a direct manner, but others above youin your chain of command will use more indirectmethods,

SUMMARYOur operations doctrine is leadership

intensive. Leadership is the most essentialelement of combat power. Leading effectively isnot a mystery and can be learned through self-study, education, training, and experience.Successful leaders prepare for war by training

2

and leading as they intend to fight. To prepareyour soldiers to operate effectively across theentire spectrum of conflict, there are certainthings you must BE, KNOW, and DO.

Leadership is the process of influencingothers to accomplish the mission by providingpurpose, direction, and motivation. Purposegives soldiers a reason why they should do dif-ficult things under dangerous, stressfulcircumstances. Direction shows what must bedone. Through motivation, leaders give soldiersthe will to do everything they are capable ofdoing to accomplish a mission. Effective leadersuse both direct and indirect influence to lead.

This chapter will help you understand thedoctrinal factors and principles of leadership,As you lead and train soldiers, this informationwill help you accomplish missions and care forsoldiers. The factors and principles are thefoundation for leadership action discussed inPart Two of this manual.

THE FACTORSOF LEADERSHIP

The four major factors of leadership arealways present and affect the actions you shouldtake and when you should take them. They arethe led, the leader, the situation, andcommunications.

The LedThe first major factor of leadership is those

soldiers you are responsible for leading. Allsoldiers should not be led in the same way. Forexample, a soldier with a new job or tasknormally needs closer supervision than a soldierwho is experienced at that same job or task. Asoldier with low confidence needs your supportand encouragement. A soldier who works hardand does what you know must be done deservesyour praise; a soldier who intentionally fails tofollow your guidance or meet clear standardsmay need to be reprimanded or punished. Youmust correctly assess your soldiers’ competence,motivation, and commitment so that you cantake the proper leadership actions at thecorrect time.

3

You must create a climate that encouragesyour subordinates to actively participate andwant to help you accomplish the mission. Keyingredients to develop this relationship aremutual trust, respect, and confidence.

The LeaderThe second major leadership factor is you—

the leader. You must have an honest under-standing of who you are, what you know, andwhat you can do. You must know your strengths,weaknesses, capabilities, and limitations sothat you can control and discipline yourself andlead your soldiers effectively. You must con-tinuously ensure that each soldier is treatedwith dignity and respect.

Assessing others may be easier than lookinghonestly at yourself. If you have difficultyassessing yourself, ask your leader what hewould like to see you change about the way youlead your soldiers or you support him. Do not puthim on the spot. Give him time to think ofspecific suggestions and then meet with him totalk about them. You can also seek the counselof your peers, or ask an experienced subordinatehow well he thinks you issue orders or provide

needed information. Consider all these points ofview and then work on improving yourself.

The SituationThe situation is the third major leadership

factor. All situations are different; leadershipactions that work in one situation may not workin another. To determine the best leadershipaction to take, first consider the availableresources and the factors of METT-T. Thenconsider the subordinate’s level of competence,motivation, and commitment to perform thetask or mission. In one situation, you may haveto closely supervise and direct a subordinate’swork. Another situation may require you toencourage and listen to ideas. In still another,you may need to both direct and encourage asoldier to ensure he can accomplish a task.Appendix B discusses styles of leadership inmore detail.

The situation also includes the timing ofactions. For example, confronting a subordinatemay be the correct decision, but if the con-frontation occurs too soon or too late, the resultsmay not be what you want. You must be skilledin identifying and thinking through the

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Interaction of the Factorssituation so that you can take the right action atthe right time. Appendix C contains ideas toconsider when you assume a leadershipposition.

What if you take the wrong action? Ithappens. We all make mistakes. Analyze thesituation again, take quick corrective action,and move on. Learn from your mistakes andthose of others.

CommunicationsCommunications, the fourth major leadership

factor, is the exchange of information and ideasfrom one person to another. Effective communi-cations occurs when others understand exactlywhat you are trying to tell them and when youunderstand precisely what they are trying to tellyou. You may communicate what you wantorally, or in writing, through physical actions,or through a combination of all of these. Youmust recognize that you communicatestandards by your example and by whatbehaviors you ignore, reward, and punish.

The way you communicate in different situ-ations is important. Your choice of words, toneof voice, and physical actions all combine toaffect soldiers. Leadership is more than settingthe example and bravely leading a charge. Theability to say the correct thing, at the appro-priate moment and in the right way, is also animportant part of leadership.

In peacetime you must create the kinds ofbonds that enable soldiers to follow you so thatthey will conduct themselves properly incombat. You must win their trust and confidencebefore, rather than after, combat hascommenced. An important element is to conveythe facts and requirements accurately withoutthe added confusion of your personal bias. Whatand how you communicate either builds orharms the strength of the relationship betweenyou and your soldiers. Discipline and cohesionin units come from these relationships.

Effective communications implies that yoursoldiers listen and understand you. Sincesoldiers listen to leaders who listen to them, youmust work hard at understanding exactly whatyour soldiers are saying to you. Good listening ishard work but you can learn. Do not interruptwhen others are speaking, Look at the personspeaking; listen to what is said and also to howit is said since emotions are an important part ofcommunications. If you listen to yoursubordinates, they will listen to you.

The four major leadership factors are alwayspresent but, in every situation, they affect eachother differently. The most important factor inone situation may have little importance inanother. You must constantly consider all fourfactors of leadership and choose the best courseof action. Mistakes happen when leaders fail toconsider all four leadership factors and see howthey affect each other and mission accomplish-ment. Self-assessment, study, and experiencewill improve your understanding of the fourmajor factors of leadership.

THE PRINCIPLES OF LEADERSHIPThe 11 principles of Army leadership are

excellent guidelines and provde the cornerstonefor action. They are universal and representfundamental truths that have stood the test oftime. Developed in a 1948 leadership study, theprinciples were first included in leadershipdoctrine in 1951. Use these principles to assessyourself and develop an action plan to improveyour ability to lead. Examples throughout thismanual give you ideas of how to apply theseprinciples. Here is an explanation of each of thel e a d e r s h i p p r i n c i p l e s .

PRINCIPLES OF LEADERSHIP

•Know yourself and seek self- improvement. •Be technically and tactically proficient. •See responsiblity and take responsibility for your actions. •Make sound and timely decisions.•Set the example. •Know your soldiers and look out for their well-being. •Keep your subordinates informed.•Develop a sense of resonsibility in your subordinate. •Ensure the task is understood, supervised, and accomplished. •Build the team. •Employ your unit accordance with its capabilities.

5

Know Yourself and Seek Self-Improvement

To know yourself, you have to understandwho you are and to know what your preferences,strengths, and weaknesses are, Knowing your-self allows you to take advantage of yourstrengths and work to overcome yourweaknesses. Seeking self-improvement meanscontinually developing your strengths andworking on overcoming your weaknesses. Thiswill increase your competence and theconfidence your soldiers have in your ability totrain and lead.

Be Technically andTactically Proficient

You are expected to be technically andtactically proficient at your job. This means thatyou can accomplish all tasks to standard thatare required to accomplish the wartime mission.In addition, you are responsible for trainingyour soldiers to do their jobs and for under-studying your leader in the event you mustassume those duties. You develop technical andtactical proficiency through a combination ofthe tactics, techniques, and procedures youlearn while attending formal schools(institutional training), in your day-to-day jobs(operational assignments), and fromprofessional reading and personal study(self-development).

Seek Responsibility and TakeResponsibility for Your Actions

Leading always involves responsibility. Youwant subordinates who can handle responsi-bility and help you perform your mission.Similarly, your leaders want you to take theinitiative within their stated intent. When yousee a problem or something that needs to befixed, do not wait for your leader to tell you toact. The example you set, whether positive ornegative, helps develop your subordinates. Ourwarfighting doctrine requires bold leaders at alllevels who exercise initiative, are resourceful,and take advantage of opportunities on thebattlefield that will lead to victory, When youmake mistakes, accept just criticism and takecorrective action. You must avoid evadingresponsibility by placing the blame on someoneelse. Your objective should be to build trustbetween you and your leaders as well as betweenyou and those you lead by seeking and acceptingresponsibility.

Make Sound and Timely DecisionsYou must be able to rapidly assess situations

and make sound decisions. If you delay or try to

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avoid making a decision, you may cause un-necessary casualties and fail to accomplish themission. Indecisive leaders create hesitancy,loss of confidence, and confusion. You must beable to anticipate and reason under the mosttrying conditions and quickly decide whatactions to take. Here are some guidelines to helpyou lead effectively:

Gather essential information before makingyour decisions.Announce decisions in time for your soldiersto react. Good decisions made at the right timeare better than the best decisions made toolate.Consider the short- and long-term effects of—your decisions.

Set the ExampleYour soldiers want and need you to be a role

model. This is a heavy responsibility, but youhave no choice. No aspect of leadership is morepowerful. If you expect courage, competence,candor, commitment, and integrity from yoursoldiers, you must demonstrate them. Yoursoldiers will imitate your behavior. You must sethigh, but attainable, standards, be willing to dowhat you require of your soldiers, and sharedangers and hardships with your soldiers. Yourpersonal example affects your soldiers morethan any amount of instruction or form ofdiscipline. You are their role model.

Know Your Soldiers andLook Out for Their Well-Being

You must know and care for your soldiers. It isnot enough to know their names and home-towns. You need to understand what makesthem “tick” and learn what is important to themin life. You need to commit time and effort tolisten to and learn about your soldiers. Whenyou show genuine concern for your troops, theytrust and respect you as a leader. Telling yoursubordinates you care about them has nomeaning unless they see you demonstratingcare. They assume that if you fail to care forthem in training, you will put little value ontheir lives in combat. Although slow to build,trust and respect can be destroyed quickly.

If your soldiers trust you, they will willinglywork to help you accomplish missions. They willnever want to let you down. You must care forthem by training them for the rigors of combat,taking care of their physical and safety needswhen possible, and disciplining and rewarding

fairly. The bonding that comes from caring foryour soldiers will sustain them and the unitduring the stress and chaos of combat.

Keep Your Subordinates InformedAmerican soldiers do best when they know

why they are doing something. Individualsoldiers have changed the outcome of battleusing initiative in the absence of orders.Keeping your subordinates informed helpsthem make decisions and execute plans withinyour intent, encourages initiative, improvesteamwork, and enhances morale, Your sub-ordinates look for logic in your orders andquestion things that do not make sense. Theyexpect you to keep them informed and, whenpossible, explain reasons for your orders.

Develop A Sense of Responsibilityin Your Subordinates

Your subordinates will feel a sense of prideand responsibility when they successfullyaccomplish a new task you have given them.Delegation indicates you trust your sub-ordinates and will make them want even moreresponsibility. As a leader, you are a teacherand responsible for developing yoursubordinates. Give them challenges andopportunities you feel they can handle. Givethem more responsibility when they show youthey are ready. Their initiative will amaze you.

Ensure the Task is Understood,Supervised, and Accomplished

Your soldiers must understand what youexpect from them. They need to know what youwant done, what the standard is, and when youwant it done. They need to know if you want atask accomplished in a specific way. Super-vising lets you know if your soldiers understandyour orders; it shows your interest in them andin mission accomplishment. Oversupervisioncauses resentmentcauses frustration.

When soldiers arethem what you wantwant it done. Letperformance. Accept

and undersupervision

learning new tasks, telldone and show how youthem try. Watch theirperformance that meets

your standards; reward performance thatexceeds your standards; correct performancethat does not meet your standards. Determine

the cause of the poor performance and takeappropriate action. 1 When you hold subordinatesaccountable to you for their performance, theyrealize they are responsible for accomplishingmissions as individuals and as teams.

Build the TeamWarfighting is a team activity. YOU must

develop a team spirit among your soldiers thatmotivates them to go willingly and confidentlyinto combat in a quick transition from peace towar. Your soldiers need confidence in yourabilities to lead them and in their abilities toperform as members of the team. You must trainand cross train your soldiers until they areconfident in the team’s technical and tacticalabilities. Your unit becomes a team only whenyour soldiers trust and respect you and eachother as trained professionals and see theimportance of their contributions to the unit.

Employ Your Unit in Accordancewith Its Capabilities

Your unit has capabilities and limitations.You are responsible to recognize both of thesefactors. Your soldiers will gain satisfactionfrom performing tasks that are reasonable andchallenging but will be frustrated if tasks aretoo easy, unrealistic, or unattainable. Althoughthe available resources may constrain theprogram you would like to implement, you mustcontinually ensure your soldiers’ training isdemanding. Apply the battle focus process tonarrow the training program and reduce thenumber of vital tasks essential to missionaccomplishment. Talk to your leader; decidewhich tasks are essential to accomplish yourwarfighting mission and ensure your unitachieves Army standards on those selected.Battle focus is a recognition that a unit cannotattain proficiency to standard on every task,whether due to time or other resource con-straints. Do your best in other areas to includeusing innovative training techniques andrelooking the conditions under which thetraining is being conducted, but do not lowerstandards simply because your unit appearsunable to meet them. Your challenge as a leaderis to attain, sustain, and enforce high standardsof combat readiness through tough, realisticmultiechelon combined arms training designedto develop and challenge each soldier and unit.

1 Kenneth H. Blanchard and Keith L. Kettler, “A Situational Approach to Leader Development.”

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SUMMARYThe factors and principles of leadership will

help you accomplish missions and care forsoldiers. They are the foundation for leadershipaction.

The factors of leadership are always presentand affect what you should do and when youshould do it. Soldiers should not all be led in thesame way. You must correctly assess soldiers’competence, commitment, and motivation sothat you can take the right leadership actions.As a leader, you must know who you are, whatyou know, and what you can do so that you candiscipline yourself and lead soldiers effectively.Every leadership situation is unique. What

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worked in one situation may not work inanother. You must be able to look at everysituation and determine what action to take.You influence by what you say, write, and, mostimportantly, do. What and how you communic-ate will either strengthen or weaken therelationship between you and your subordinates.

The principles of leadership were developedby leaders many years ago to train and developtheir subordinates. The principles have stoodthe test of time and the foremost test—the battle-field. Use the principles to assess how youmeasure up in each area and then develop a planto improve your ability to lead soldiers.

PART TWO

LEADERSHIP IN ACTION

You can learn about the human dimension of during combat engagements. As you read eachwarfighting by studying past battles. To lead in account, think about answers to these questions:combat, you must be competent and courageous, •demonstrate initiative, understand human •nature, consistently set the example, and inspireothers. This chapter provides examples ofeffective combat leaders who demonstratedthese characteristics. •

•PAST BATTLES

The following selected accounts of history •illustrate the human side of warfighting bydescribing how leaders led their subordinates

How did the leader accomplish the mission?How did the leader in each case inspiresoldiers to willingly face the stress anddanger of battle?What was the key factor that led to victory?What did the leader do prior to battle toprepare himself and his soldiers?How do the actions of these leadersdemonstrate the leadership factors andprinciples discussed in Chapter 2?

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SUMMARYColonel Chamberlain, Lieutenant Chandler,

Staff Sergeant Savage, and Captain Fincherunderstood the human dimension ofwarfighting. Each demonstrated his tacticaland technical proficiency and used initiative toexploit opportunities for success by taking well-calculated risks within his commander’s intent.The orders these men issued were effectivelycommunicated and influenced theirsubordinates to accomplish the mission byproviding purpose, direction, and motivation.

The historical records are full of combatactions that cite examples of superb leadershipand soldiers rising well above the normal call ofduty to accomplish the assigned mission. Ineach of the accounts selected for this chapter,

the leader led by example from the front, not bycoercion and fear, We need leaders like the oneswho were highlighted and we can develop themin our schools and units. You can becomeleaders like those discussed, and you can trainyour subordinates in similar fashion. This isyour challenge and responsibility.

These accounts of history should have raisedmany questions in your mind about the humandimension of warfighting. How can you developyourself as a leader? Why do soldiers fight?What builds cohesion and discipline andmotivates soldiers to fight bravely against greatodds? What beliefs, values, character,knowledge, and skills must you have to leadsoldiers successfully in combat?

As a leader, you are responsible for under-standing and directly transmitting the Army’svalues to your soldiers. These values are thefoundation for service to the nation. Since theArmy’s purpose is to protect the nation and itsvalues, the Army’s ethic must be consistent withnational will and values. The oath you tookpledged you “to support and defend the Consti-tution of the United States.” Taken withoutreservation and regardless of personal sacrifice,this oath is formal and public recognition ofyour commitment to a professional ethic.

This chapter describes what a leader must BEby discussing beliefs, values, and norms;character; and the professional Army ethic. ltalso discusses ethical responsibilitiesethical decision-making process.

and an

BELIEFS, VALUES

,

AND NORMSBeliefs

Beliefs are assumptions or convictions youhold as true about some thing, concept, orperson. They can range from the very deep-

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seated beliefs you hold concerning such thingsas religion and the fundamentals upon whichthis country was established to recent ex-periences which have affected your perceptionof a particular person, concept, or thing. Onesoldier may believe that duty simply meansputting in time from “8 to 5.” Another maybelieve that duty is selflessly serving yourcountry, your unit, and the soldiers of your unit.

You have beliefs about human nature—whatmakes people tick. We usually cannot prove ourbeliefs, but we think and feel that they are true.For example, some people believe that a car issimply a means of transportation. Othersbelieve a car is a status symbol. There areleaders who believe that rewards and punish-ment are the only way to motivate soldiers. Incontrast, other leaders believe that rewards andpunishment should be used only in exceptionalcases.

The important point to recognize is thatpeople generally behave in accord with theirbeliefs. The beliefs of a leader impact directly onthe leadership climate, cohesion, discipline,training, and combat effectiveness of a unit.

ValuesValues are attitudes about the worth or

importance of people, concepts, or things.Values influence your behavior because you usethem to decide between alternatives. Forexample, you may place value on such things astruth, money, friendships, justice, humanrights, or selflessness.

Your values will influence your priorities.Strong values are what you put first, defendmost, and want least to give up. Individualvalues can and will conflict at times, If you in-correctly reported a patrol checkpoint, do youhave the moral courage to correct the reporteven if you know your leader will never discoveryou sent the incorrect report? In this situation,your values on truth and self-interest willcollide. What you value the most will guide youractions.’ In this example, the proper course ofaction is obvious. There are times, however,when the right course of action is not so clear.

The four individual values that all soldiers(leaders and led) are expected to possess arecourage, candor, competence, and commitment.These four values are considered essential forbuilding the trust which must exist for a unit tooperate at peak efficiency.

Courage comes in two forms. Physicalcourage is overcoming fears of bodily harm anddoing your duty. Moral courage is overcomingfears of other than bodily harm while doingwhat ought to be done.

Moral courage is as important as physicalcourage. It is the courage to stand firm on yourvalues, your moral principles, and your con-victions. You show moral courage when you dosomething based on one of your values or moralprinciples, knowing that the action may not bein your best interest. It takes special courage tosupport unpopular decisions and to make itdifficult for others to do the wrong thing. Othersmay encourage you to embrace a “slightly”unethical solution as the easiest or mostconvenient method. Do not ease the way forothers to do wrong; stand up for your beliefs andwhat you know is right. Do not compromise yourprofessional ethic or your individual values andmoral principles. If you believe you are rightafter sober and considered judgment, hold yourposition.

Candor is being frank, open, honest, andsincere with your soldiers, seniors, and peers. Itis an expression of personal integrity. If handledproperly, disagreeing with others andpresenting your point of view are not wrong.Remember these three important points:(1) select the right time and place to offer yourcriticism or advice; (2) do not criticize a planwithout giving a constructive alternative;(3) recognize that when your leader has made thefinal decision, you must end your discussion andsupport legal and proper orders even if you donot personally agree with them. There is oftenno time in combat to verify reports or to questionthe accuracy of information. Consequences aretoo important, and time is too short tocommunicate anything but the truth. Candor isequally important in peacetime. Demand it fromyour subordinates and expect it from your peersand superiors. Candor expresses personalintegrity.

The beliefs of a leader impactdirectly on the leadership climate,cohesion, discipline, training, andcomabt effectiveness of a unit.

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Competence is proficiency in requiredprofessional knowledge, judgment, and skills.Each leader must have it to train and to developa cohesive, disciplined unit with all the requiredindividual and collective skills to win on thebattlefield. Competence builds confidence inone’s self and one’s unit; both are crucialelements of morale, courage, and, ultimately,success on the battlefield.

Commitment means the dedication to carryout all unit missions and to serve the values ofthe country, the Army, and the unit. This isshown by doing your best to contribute to theArmy, to train and develop your unit, and tohelp your soldiers develop professionally andpersonally.

NormsNorms are the rules or laws normally based

on agreed-upon beliefs and values that membersof a group follow to live in harmony. Norms canfall into one of two categories.

Formal norms are official standards or lawsthat govern behavior. Traffic signals, theUniform Code of Military Justice, and theGeneva Conventions are formal norms thatdirect the behavior of American soldiers. Theydictate what actions are required or forbidden.Uniform regulations, safety codes, and unitSOPs are also formal norms.

Informal norms are unwritten rules orstandards that govern the behavior of groupmembers, In the Korean Combat Patrol account,Lieutenant Chandler stressed the informalnorm that casualties were never left by the restof the patrol. At the root of this norm was ashared value about the importance of caring foreach other. The soldiers found comfort inknowing they would be cared for if they becamecasualties.

Importance ofBeliefs, Values, and Norms

Beliefs, values, and norms guide the actions ofindividuals and groups. They are like a trafficcontrol system; they are signals givingdirection, meaning, and purpose to our lives.

Examples abound of soldiers throughouthistory who sacrificed their lives to save friendsor help their unit accomplish a mission. Thesebrave, selfless actions include blocking ex-ploding grenades, personally taking out enemyfighting positions, and manning key positions

to protect a withdrawal. Beliefs and valuesmotivate this kind of heroic self-sacrifice. Themotivating force may be the soldier’s belief inthe importance of retaining his personal honor,of saving a buddy, of helping the unit, of servinga cause, or a combination of these.

Your soldiers will fight for you if they believethat the best chance for survival for themselvesand their buddies is to do their job as part of ateam. They will be more effective if they believein themselves, in the unit, in you, and in thecause they are fighting for.

Individual values, beliefs, and attitudes areshaped by past experiences involving suchthings as family, school, work, and socialrelationships. Leaders must understand theimportance of nurturing and shaping beliefsand values in their subordinates because theyare fundamental motivating factors.

InfluencingBeliefs, Values, and Norms

As a leader, you have the power to influencethe beliefs and values of your soldiers by settingthe example; by recognizing behavior thatsupports professional beliefs, values, andnorms; and by planning, executing, andassessing tough, realistic individual andcollective training.

Tough training does not mean training inwhich leaders haze or yell at troops in an effortto cause artificial stress, This merely creates anantagonistic atmosphere of “us against them. ”This kind of leadership does not succeed incombat, so why practice bad habits. Toughtraining occurs when leaders and soldiersmutualIy experience realistic, exhaustingconditions that prepare both, as a team, for thestress of combat,

Captain Herren, B Company commander,was concerned about the operation in the IaDrang Valley because his men had gone withoutsleep the night before while performing anothermission. He could only trust that the traininghis unit had received would enable them to over-come the lack of rest and that their fatiguewould have little effect on their fighting ability.Training that simulates such conditions istough.

During a field exercise, you could plan for anall night road march, a few hours rest, then asimulated battle that is demanding on leaders

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and soldiers. This kind of training buildscohesion—positive respect and trust amongsoldiers and between leaders and soldiers. Itbuilds a feeling of shared hardships andteamwork. It contributes to the respect andcomradeship that help you influence beliefs andvalues of soldiers.

Tough training conducted to standards willteach your soldiers to do things as individualsand as a team that they did not believe possible.It will give your soldiers confidence in them-selves, in each other, and in you. If properlyexplained, it will help each soldier understandthe linkage and the importance of his ability toperform individual tasks properly in support ofthe unit’s collective mission.

As a leader, you must respect your soldiersand must earn their respect if you are to in-fluence their beliefs and values. Subordinateswill always respect your rank, but they will basetheir genuine respect on your demonstratedcharacter, knowledge, and professional skills.

Once your soldiers respect you and want yourapproval, you can guide them to demonstrateunselfish concern for the unit and for othersoldiers. They will become concerned withexcellence in everything that relates to combatreadiness if this is the value you demonstrate. Ifyour soldiers respect and admire you, they wantto be like you, and they naturally tend to adoptyour professional beliefs and values as theirown. You can reinforce this behavior withpositive feedback and by praising them forthings they do that support duty, cohesiveness,discipline, good training, and good mainte-nance. Praise, however, can be cheapened,either by overuse or when it is not sincere.

CHARACTERCharacter describes a person’s inner strength

and is the link between values and behaviors. Asoldier of character does what he believes right,regardless of the danger or circumstances. Asoldier’s behavior shows his character. In toughsituations, leadership takes self-discipline,determination, initiative, compassion, andcourage.

There is no simple formula for success in allthe situations you may face. The key is toremain flexible and attempt to gather as manyfacts as the circumstances will allow before you

must make a decision. When dealing withothers, every situation has two sides; listen toboth. The way you handle problems depends onthe interaction of the factors of leadership (theled, the leader, the situation, andcommunications).

Character can be strong or weak. A personwith strong character recognizes what he wantsand has the drive, energy, self-discipline,willpower, and courage to get it. A person withweak character does not know what is neededand lacks purpose, willpower, self-discipline,and courage.

A person who can admit when he is wrong isexhibiting strong character. Some believe thatapologizing is a sign of weakness and causes aleader to lose power. Quite the contrary,admitting when you have made a mistake takeshumility and moral courage. We are all humanand make mistakes. Although placing blame onsomeone or something else when a mistake ismade may be tempting, it indicates weakcharacter, which your soldiers will readilyrecognize.

We need leaders of strong and honorablecharacter who support the values of loyalty tothe nation, the Army, and the unit; duty; selflessservice; and integrity. In this manual a soldierof character means a person with strong andhonorable character.

Importance of CharacterYour soldiers assess your character as they

watch your day-to-day actions. They know ifyou are open and honest with them. They seewhether you are indecisive, lazy, or selfish.They will quickly determine whether you knowand enforce the Army standards. Your soldiers’perceptions of your actions combine to form acontinuing assessment of your character.

Soldiers want to be led by leaders who providestrength, inspiration, and guidance and willhelp them become winners. Whether or not theyare willing to trust their lives to a leader dependson their assessment of that leader’s courage,competence, and commitment.

Future wars will be won by leaders withstrong and honorable character. When mentallypreparing for the stress of combat, it is good toknow that ordinary people in past wars haveshown that kind of character. An inspiringexample of such a soldier follows.

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If we go to war again, many of our soldiers andunits may find themselves in situations similarto York’s. How will they behave? Will they riseto the occasion as York did? Will they have thenecessary character and skills? The answers tothese questions will depend on whether leadershave developed in their soldiers the requiredbeliefs, values, character, knowledge, and skills.

Today’s soldiers have as much potential asSergeant York did. They too can servecourageously under stressful circumstances ifthey are trained and led properly. Base yourtraining program on building the motivation,confidence, and competence your subordinateswill need on the battlefield.

Character BuildingBuilding character demands the honesty to

determine your own character weaknesses.Have you demonstrated the self-discipline andwill on which strong and honorable character isbased? How have you handled the toughsituations? Sometimes you are the best judge ofyour strengths and weaknesses. Other timesyou may have blind spots that keep you fromseeing your own weaknesses.

You must be open to feedback and advice.However, you must take the responsibility forcontinually building and strengthening yourcharacter. Others can help, but they cannot do itfor you. To build strong and honorablecharacter, you should—

Assess the present strength of your valuesand character.Determine what values you want to promote.Seek out missions and situations that supportdeveloping such character.Select a role model who demonstrates thevalues and character you are trying to develop.

You build strong and honorable character byhard work, study, and challenging experiences.You must develop habits that force you tocontinually develop your mind and character.The better you understand yourself, the easier itis to exercise your will and self-discipline, andthe more you strengthen your character.

The character you want to instill in yoursoldiers, and should attempt to exhibit in thedaily example you set, should be consistent withthe values of courage, candor, competence, andcommitment. For this reason, leading andtraining soldiers well must begin with their

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induction into the service. When they begintheir Army training, individuals are preparedfor change, and since most want to do well, theyare willing to adopt the stressed Army values.All leaders need a good program for integratingnew soldiers into their unit. As a leader, youmust teach and demonstrate the right valuesand norms of working, training, and living.

Changing Characterof Problem Soldiers

How much can you change the character of aproblem soldier? What if a soldier comes froman environment where the parents themselvesset a bad example or the soldier received littleeducation? What about a soldier from aneighborhood where accepted conduct is lyingand stealing. These norms became instilled asvalues while he was growing up. Lying toauthority, “getting over,” “shamming,” andtaking advantage of “the system” are normalbehavior to this soldier. He is undependable andirresponsible; he lacks self-discipline. Can thissoldier change? What is your responsibility tothis soldier?

You must understand human nature. There isgood and bad in everyone. A leader must bringout the good in each soldier. You may be able toeliminate counterproductive beliefs, values, andbehaviors and help a soldier develop characterif he wants to change. Many soldiers want toimprove, but they need discipline, organization,a good role model, and a positive set of beliefs,values, and habits to pattern themselves after.You, as a leader, must both demonstrate byexample and assist in establishing theconditions for that individual which willencourage the change.

You will not be able to influence the beliefs,values, and character of all your soldiers, butyou can influence most soldiers. Your job is tomake good soldiers out of all the people in yourunit, even the problem soldiers.

Gaining the respect of soldiers is important. Arespected leader influences soldiers by teaching,coaching, counseling, training, disciplining,and setting a good example. If a soldier does notadopt soldierly values and behavior after youand the rest of the chain of command have doneyour best, eliminate him from the Army so thathe cannot disrupt discipline and cohesion inyour unit. Respected and successful leaderscreate a leadership climate that causes most

soldiers to develop the right professional valuesand character. Leaders can often changesoldiers’ motivation from self-interest to selflessservice to their unit and nation.

You have another major responsibility indeveloping character. You must give yoursoldiers confidence that they can develop theircharacter. Convince your soldiers that you areon their side, helping them. Their belief that yousincerely care about them and want them todevelop the correct values and behavior(because that is right for them) helps give themconfidence to become able soldiers with strongand honorable character.

THE PROFESSIONALARMY ETHIC

The doctrinal statement of the professionalArmy ethic is in FM 100-1. The ethic sets themoral context for service to the nation andinspires the sense of purpose necessary topreserve the nation, even by using military force.From the ideals of the Constitution to the harshrealities of the battlefield, the four elements ofthe professional Army ethic contain the valuesthat guide the way you must lead.

Loyalty to the Nation,the Army, and the Unit

The oath every soldier takes requires loyaltyto the nation and involves an obligation tosupport and defend the Constitution. Loyalty tothe Army means supporting the military andcivilian chain of command. Loyalty to unitexpresses both the obligation between thosewho lead and the led and the sharedcommitment among soldiers for one another.

American military professionals do not fightto force our political system on others or to gainpower or wealth. Professional soldiers areprotectors of the ideals of America, willing tofight for these ideals so that others can live in afree and just society. To do this, they must beexperts at leading soldiers in battle. The militaryleader who deeply values loyalty to the nationsees himself as a person who will always do hisbest to defend American ideals.

Your unit is your piece of the Army’s action,your day-to-day part of the Army. By con-tributing to your unit’s mission and combatreadiness, you contribute to the defense of thenation. The unit is your family, your team.Loyalty to the unit means that you place theunit’s needs and goals ahead of your own.

Lieutenant Herrick demonstrated his totaldedication and loyalty to his nation, Army, andunit as he continued to direct his perimeterdefense in the Ia Drang Valley until he died ofhis wounds. Similarly, Staff Sergeant Savage,in this same engagement, continued to place hissoldiers’ needs ahead of his personal safety ashe called in supporting fires and directed theperimeter defense until friendly relief was ableto link up.

DutyA duty is a legal or moral obligation to do

what should be done without being told to do it.Duty means accomplishing all assigned tasksto the fullest of your ability.

Duty requires willingness to accept fullresponsibility for your actions and for yoursoldiers’ performance. It also requires a leaderto take the initiative and anticipaterequirements based on the situation. CaptainFincher superbly demonstrated these qualitieswhen he alerted his platoons in anticipation of anew mission and provided timely guidance onactions to be taken. As a professional, yourresponsibility is to do your duty to the best ofyour ability.

If you lie or tell a half-truth to make your unitlook good, you may think you are doing yourduty and being loyal to your leader and unit. Infact, you are being dishonorable and unethical,neglecting your duty to the Army and the nation.A leader cannot truly do his duty without beinghonorable.

Selfless ServiceYou may have to put the nation’s welfare and

mission accomplishment ahead of the personalsafety of you and your troops. You must resistthe temptation to put self-gain, personaladvantage, and self-interests ahead of what is

F O U R E L E M E N T S O FTHE PROFESSIONAL ARMY ETHICS

• L o y a l t y . • D u t y . • Self less service. • I n t e g r i t y .

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best for the nation, the Army, or your unit.Selfless service is necessary to develop teamwork, and military service demands thewillingness to sacrifice.

As a leader, you must be the greatest servantin your unit. Your rank and position are notpersonal rewards, You earn them so that youcan serve your subordinates, your unit, and yournation.

Lieutenant Chandler and the men selected forthe combat patrol in Korea recognized theinherent dangers in the mission they were aboutto undertake. His soldiers were ready to be ledinto combat by him because he had earned theirconfidence in earlier actions. He prepared adetailed plan, ensured the tasks were understood,and personally supervised preparation.Throughout the conduct of the patrol, he put themission and welfare of his soldiers ahead of hispersonal safety.

IntegrityIntegrity is woven through the fabric of the

professional Army ethic. It means being honestand upright, avoiding deception, and living thevalues you suggest for your subordinates.Integrity demands that you act according to theother values of the Army ethic. You must beabsolutely sincere, honest, and candid andavoid deceptive behavior. Integrity is the basisfor the trust and confidence that must existamong members of the Army. Further, you mustdemonstrate integrity in your personal life. Ifyou compromise your personal integrity, youbreak the bonds of trust between you, yoursoldiers, and your leaders.

ETHICALRESPONSIBILITIES

Ethics are principles or standards that guideprofessionals to do the moral or right thing—what ought to be done.

As a leader, you have three general ethicalresponsibilities. First, you must be a good rolemodel. Second, you must develop yoursubordinates ethically. Finally, you must leadin such a way that you avoid putting yoursubordinates into ethical dilemmas.

Be A Role ModelWhether you like it or not, you are on display

at all times. Your actions say much more thanyour words, Subordinates will watch you

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carefully and imitate your behavior. You mustaccept the obligation to be a worthy role modeland you cannot ignore the effect your behaviorhas on others, You must be willing to do whatyou require of your soldiers and share thedangers and hardships.

Colonel Chamberlain was a respected rolemodel who inspired his soldiers. His selflessness,kindness, compassion, and respect for otherswere evident in the way he led.

Develop Your SubordinatesEthically

You must shape the values and beliefs of yoursoldiers to support the values of the nation, theArmy, and the unit. You develop yoursubordinates by personal contact and byteaching them how to reason clearly aboutethical matters, You need to be honest withthem and talk through possible solutions todifficult problems. When you make a decisionthat has an ethical component, share yourthought process with your subordinates whentime permits, They will respect you for caringenough to discuss your personal thoughts withthem, and they will learn from you. Beingsensitive to the ethical elements of soldiering isa big part of developing your soldiers.

Your goal is to develop a shared ethicalperspective so that your soldiers will actproperly in the confusion and uncertainty ofcombat. Unless they have learned how to thinkclearly through ethical situations, they may nothave the moral strength to do what is right.

Avoid Creating Ethical Dilemmasfor Your Subordinates

Since your soldiers will want to please you, donot ask them to do things that will cause them tobehave unethically to please you. Here are someexamples that can get you in trouble:

I don’t care how you get it done—just do it!There is no excuse for failure!Can do!Zero Defects.Covering up errors to look good.Telling superiors what they want to hear.Making reports say what your leader wants tosee,Setting goals that are impossible to reach(missions without resources),Loyalty up—not down.

These examples may seem as though theywould never be a problem for you. Do notassume this is true for others. Learn to giveorders and lead without creating these kinds ofdilemmas for your soldiers.

AN ETHICAL DECISION-MAKINGPROCESS

Regardless of the source of pressure to actunethically, you usually know in your heart theright thing to do. The real question is whetheryou have the character to live by soundprofessional values when under pressure. If youhave the right beliefs and values, the thing to doin most situations will be clear and you will do it.Sometimes you will find yourself in complexsituations where the right ethical choice isunclear. True ethical dilemmas exist when twoor more deeply held values collide. In suchsituations, using a decision-making process canhelp you identify the course of action that willresult in the greatest moral good.

Following are the steps of’ an ethical decision-making process to help you think throughethical dilemmas:

Step 1. Interpret the situation. What is theethical dilemma?

Step 2. Analyze all the factors and forces thatrelate to the dilemma.

Step 3. Choose the course of action you believewill best serve the nation.

Step 4. Implement the course of action you havechosen.

The ethical decision-making process startswhen you confront a problem and continuesuntil you develop and implement a solution. Theprocess helps you analyze the problem, identifyinfluencing forces, develop possible courses ofaction, assess them, and decide on a course ofaction.

Forces that InfluenceDecision Making

A var ie ty of forces in f luence the e th ica ldecision-making process. The factors and forcesy o u s h o u l d c o n s i d e r w i l l d e p e n d o n t h edilemma. Here are some probable ones:

L a w s , o r d e r s , a n d r e g u l a t i o n s — f o r m a ls t a n d a r d s c o n t a i n e d i n l a w s , p o l i c i e s ,regulations, and legal and proper orders thatguide behavior and decision making.Basic national values—values established indocuments , such as the Cons t i tu t ion andD e c l a r a t i o n o f I n d e p e n d e n c e , a n d i ntradit ions that provide the foundation forrequired behavior of all Americans.

Tradit ional Army values—values the Armyestablishes as standards of required behaviorfor all soldiers, They are loyalty to the nation,the Army, and the unit; duty; selfless service;integrity; courage; competence; candor; andcommitment.U n i t o p e r a t i n g v a l u e s — v a l u e s a c t u a l l yfunctioning in your unit that produce thes t a n d a r d s g o v e r n i n g d a y - t o - d a y b e h a v i o r . Unit operating values are often the same astradit ional Army values, There are t imes,

however, w h e n t h e y a r e n o t . C o n s i d e rs i t u a t i o n s i n v o l v i n g c a r e e r i s m , a l t e r e dt r a i n i n g a n d m a i n t e n a n c e r e c o r d s ,equipment borrowed from another unit for aninspection, or “eyewash” instead of truth.

Your va lues—your ideas and be l ie fs tha tinfluence your behavior.

Inst i tut ional pressures—elements of Armypol ic ies , p rocedures , and opera t ions , andother aspects which influence your behavior.

T h e s e s i x f o r c e s m a y n o t b e t h e o n l yImportant forces that you should identify andconsider. Since ethics is a part of leadership,your dec is ion-making process shouLd aLsoconsider the four factors of leadership (the led,the leader, the situation, and communications).

The ethical decision-making process can helpyou th ink th rough an e th ica l d i lemma andarrive at a course of action. Once you haveanalyzed all the factors and forces involved,look at the values in conflict and determine thecourse of action that seems best for the nation.

Complex Ethical DilemmasIt may seem that the ethical decision-making

process is too mechanical. You may think you donot need it if you have strong will and moralcourage. Normally, the “right” alternative isclear. The ethical decision-making process is forthe complex dilemmas that haunt leaders whenno clear best choice is evident. Here is anexample of one leader’s ethical di lemma incombat.

3 2

33

&.*” *lJ ””, .. – . ’ .-,,,.-,, .“ ,-, A,, ,,, ,U ,1, r,<, r,, r.c. rm. rn% J— . . . . .

This situation was a true ethical dilemma forthis leader. He felt bound to be loyal to both hisleaders and his followers. There is no “right”answer or “school solution” to this situation.Different leaders would come to differentconclusions after analyzing all the factors andforces that relate to the situation, The importantpoint is that using the ethical decision-makingprocess can help you identify all the options andthen eliminate ones that will not serve thenation well. If you ever find yourself in anethical dilemma, think through the ethicaldecision-making process and the concept of thehighest moral good.

Tough leadership decisions do not alwayshave happy endings. Some may praise yourdecision while others find fault with your logic.You may not always be rewarded for integrityand candor. The point is that you have to livewith yourself. Before you can gain the respect ofothers, you must respect yourself. You gainhonor and keep it by doing your duty in anethical way, having the character to act by theprofessional Army ethic.

SUMMARYYour ability to lead flows from your individual

beliefs, values, and character. Your ability toinspire soldiers to do the brave and right thing—things they may not think they are capable of

34

performing—is influenced by the example youset.

Beliefs, values, and norms have greatmotivating power. Respected leaders of strongand honorable character are able to influencethe beliefs, values, and norms of their soldiers.As a professional, you are sworn to use yourpower for the good of the country, the Army, andthose you lead.

The professional Army ethic contains thevalues that guide the way leaders should carryout their professional responsibilities. Theelements of the professional Army ethic areloyalty to the nation, the Army, and the unit;duty; selfless service; and integrity.

As a leader, you have ethical responsibilities.You must be a worthy role model, developsubordinates ethically, and avoid creatingethical dilemmas for subordinates.

When faced with a situation where the rightethical choice is unclear, consider all the forcesand factors that relate to the situation and thenselect a course of action that best serves theideals of the nation. The ethical decision-making process is a way to resolve thosedilemmas.

Fundamental to what leaders must BE are themoral strength and courage necessary to makehard decisions and to give soldiers the will tofight and the ability to win.

A leader must learn before he leads. You needto KNOW (understand) standards, yourself,human nature, your job, and your unit to be aneffective leader. This knowledge will give you astrong foundation for what you must BE andwhat you must DO. Keep in mind as you readthis chapter that knowledge is far more thanmemorizing information. Knowledge is theunderstanding of information.

K N O W S T A N D A R DYou will need to meet and enforce the

standards of behavior you expect from yoursoldiers. The Army has already established

standards in many areas, Regulations, laws,ARTEP mission training plans, soldier trainingpublications, field and training manuals,general defense plans, and SOPS all containstandards. Your role is often to take existingstandards and translate them into goals thatyour soldiers understand and believe in.

Standards define acceptable performance,control behavior, and influence actions. Youmust communicate standards clearly andensure they are understood and attained.

You must set and enforce high standards inall areas that relate to specific training missions

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and tasks critical to wartime missionaccomplishment. Here is a word of caution,however. Sometimes leaders have a particulararea of interest or expertise into which they putso much of the unit’s energy that otherstandards are not met. You and your soldiershave only so much time and energy; use thistime and energy to meet the standards in a11areas.

If your soldiers do not meet your standards,analyze the situation and decide on a course ofaction for handling the situation. Decide if yourstandards are realistic. What are the demandsof combat.? What makes good common sense? Ask your leaders an respected peers; listen totheir ideas. Adjust your standards if necessary,but do not change them if they are correct. Askyourself these questions:

• Did your subordinates understand what wasexpected?• Did you provide the resources, authority,training, and direction your subordinatesneeded?• Did your subordinates know how to do whatwas expected?• Were your subordinates motivated to do whatwas expected?

The answers to these questions will guideyour actions. Your subordinates may need moretraining, supervision, or counseling. You may

need to explain the standard better so that yoursubordinates understand it and its importance.

If standards are not met and counseling isappropriate, do not become arrogant or abusive.w h e n y o u c o u n s e l , e x p l a i n w h a t t h esubordinate d id wrong and why it isunacceptable in terms of’ standards. Explainhow to improve performance. E’ecus on thespecific behavior you want to change. Do notdegrade his feelings of self-worth. How youcounsel affects the future behavior and attitudeof your soldiers. Your manner can increaserespect for you or it can cause deep feelings ofresentment, hostility, and injustice. FM 22-101is devoted entirely to leadership counseling.

All leaders want their soldiers to do well.Soldiers also want to do well. Poor performancefrustrates soldiers and leaders and may causeanger. In these situations, you may be temptedto work off your frustrations by yelling atsoldiers, threat t’ning them, or otherwiseverbally abusing them. You are in an officialposition of authority over soldiers and mustkeep yourself in check while reprimanding orcounseling. You must maintain the r ightbalance of military firmness and appreciationof human dignity.

Here is a true example of how one leader incombat set standards and ensured they weremet.

KNOW YOURSELF“Know thyself."l To lead others successfully,

you must know about people and human nature.Before you can understand other people,however, you must know yourself.

Using Chapter 4 as a guide to self-evaluation,you can better understand yourself, yourpersonality, and your strengths andweaknesses. Are you an analytical person wholikes to work objectively with facts or are youintuitive, preferring to rely on your instinctsand feelings as you gather information to makedecisions? How sensitive are you to the feelingsof other people? Do you tend to be a loner or areyou outgoing and able to relate easily to otherpeople? Do you like a planned, orderly way oflife or a flexible, spontaneous one?

Everyone has preferences, strengths, andweaknesses. Crucial to your development asa leader is knowing yourself so that you canmaximize your strengths and work to improveyour weaknesses.

As a leader, you must realize you are threepeople: who you are, who you think you are, andwho others think you are. In some cases, there isa close relationship between and among thethree “you’s.” In other cases, the relationship isnot close at all. Here are some questions you canask yourself

. . . YOUR MUST REALIZE YOU A R E T H R E E P E O P L E •Who you are. •Who you think you are. • Who others think you are.

How do I establish priorities?Am I reliable?How well do I listen to others?Do soldiers fear me, or trust, like, and respectme?Do I show others I enjoy what I am doing?Am I a delegator or a “micromanager”?Am I an optimist or a pessimist?Am I selfless or self-serving?Am I a decision maker or a “decision ducker”?Am I competent at my job?2

Do I lead by example?Do I allow standards to slip when I am tired?Your seniors, peers, and subordinates will

give you honest feedback if you ask for it and areopen to it. Candid feedback can help you betterunderstand yourself. If you know yourself andtry to improve, you have a foundation forknowing your job and your soldiers.

1 Inscription over the entrance to P1ato’s Academy.

K N O W H U M A N N A T U R E S. L. A. Marshall said that the starting point

for understanding war is the understanding ofhuman nature. This is a fundamental truth. Asa leader, you need the support of followers,peers, seniors, and other people outside of yourorganization to accomplish your mission. Youmust be able to motivate all these people tosupport you. To understand and motivate troopsand to develop a cohesive, disciplined, well-trained unit, you must understand humannature.

People behave according to certain principlesof human nature that govern behavior in warjust as in peace. The stresses of war mayunleash certain fears that have been suppressedin peace. War, however, does not change humannature. Since all humans react according tothese principles, it is important that youunderstand the human dimension ofwarfighting.

Human nature is the common set of qualitiesshared by all human beings. Chapter 4examined some of these qualities—beliefs,values, and character-of individuals. Thefollowing discusses some basic aspects ofhuman nature that you should consider as aleader. You must understand how these aspectsaffect the behavior of people under stress beforeyou can become a skilled, inspirational leader.

Potential for Goodand Bad Behavior

All people have the potential for good and badbehavior. One of your most important jobs is tosuppress the bad, bring out the good, and directthat good behavior toward accomplishing theunit’s mission. Most people want to do the rightthing, but unfortunately, many lack the moralfiber or character to do the right thing undertemptation or stress. You must realize this andknow the conditions that bring out the good andthe bad in people. You can then encourage thegood and suppress the bad. The followingexample illustrates this point.

2Perry M. Smith, Taking Charge, A Practical Guide for Leaders, pp 95-111.

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War can bring out the worstin human nature. reduce their inhibitions against war crimes.There are examples in war of people committing Your task is to understand the effect stress canhorrible atrocities, such as murdering disarmedprisoners and innocent civilians. You mustexercise self-discipline to bring out the good andsuppress the bad in your subordinates.

Why do such war crimes occur? MostAmericans despise crime, violence, andespecially killing. However, on the battlefield,soldier’s desire for safety and survival willincrease their willingness to kill. Most soldiersdo not want to cause unnecessary suffering, butthe stress of war and the emotion and anger thatcome with fatigue, fear, or loss of comrades can

have on behavior and lead your soldiers by yourexample so that they know you will neverapprove or tolerate behavior that is a war crime.Every war has taught us that the leader’sbehavior is the single most important factor inpreventing war crimes.

Some people believe atrocities are inevitablein war and nothing can be done about them. It istrue that human nature, allowed to run itscourse under certain conditions of war, canproduce atrocities. However, it is also true thatleaders can prevent atrocities. In nearly every

39

case in past wars where atrocities haveoccurred, a competent leader could haveprevented them. If the leader had controlled hisown emotions, set the correct example, andgiven appropriate orders, the atrocities wouldnot have been committed. A leader who valuesthe American ideals of truth, justice, freedom,and human dignity does not condone atrocities.You must control yourself and your soldiers, nomatter how difficult the situation. You mustnever forget that you are responsible for yoursubordinate’s performance and accountablewith them for their actions.

FearFear is a natural human emotion caused by

anticipation or awareness of danger. Interviewswith seasoned World War II combat veteransindicated they primarily feared death andmaiming; veterans with little combatexperience were usually more afraid of lettingtheir buddies down or being thought a coward.Over half of the combat veterans admitted tobeing “paralyzed” by fear at least once. It will benatural for you and your soldiers to feel fear ifplaced in a dangerous situation. If you feel fearand know your soldiers are experiencing it aswell, let them know how you feel and that youare confident in the unit’s ability.

Earlier in this manual you read how theunexpected bayonet charge and devastatingsurprise fire by the 20th Maine caused ColonelOates’ Alabama regiments to panic at LittleRound Top. The following illustrates soldiers’fear in war.

During operations following the Battle ofAntietam, the men of the 20th Maine felt thefear of battle for the first time. On 20 September1862, the Union Army began followingConfederate units across the Potomac River. Asthe men heard the sounds of fighting across theriver, “the imminence of personal death beganto develop its involuntary, uncontrollablephysiological reactions—the too-fast, too-hardpounding of the heart, the dry knotting of thestomach, and a general shakiness. ”3 Before thefight at Little Round Top, the men of the 20thMaine felt “blood beating harder and fasterthrough the arteries; lungs seeming to dilatedeep down, reaching for more oxygen; stomach

3 John J. Pullen, The Twentieth Maine, p 27.lPullen, p 115.

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and intestines shrinking and stopping allmovement, and tension rising to the point whereit could shake a man like the passage of apowerful electric current.”4

Fear causes definite physical reactions. Youcan see it in the eyes and sense it in theshakiness of a person. Fear is an emotion thatoccurs naturally before or during battle. What isimportant is how a person handles fear, and thisdepends on courage, competence, confidence,and strength of character.

Courage is not the absence of fear. It is theability to put fear aside and act as you believeyou should. Courage is strength of willovercoming instincts and fear. Competence andbelief in one’s ability to succeed are powerfulagents in counteracting fear. A soldier feels fearin direct proportion to his beliefs that he mayfail. As a leader, you can counteract fear bybuilding competence, motivation, andconfidence in your soldiers.

Train your soldiers and teams in peacetime asthey will fight in wartime. Tough, realistic, andchallenging training willbuild courage andconfidence, bolster morale, and instill the will tofight and win.

Prepare your soldiers for the fears of battle.Learn about the carnage and confusion of thebattlefield by reading books about war and bydiscussing the details of past battles. Talk aboutwhy some units panic and other cohesive unitshave the discipline to overcome fear and holdtogether. Discuss the isolation soldiers feel onthe battlefield when under fire. Without propertraining and confidence, this isolation cancause paralyzing fear.

Keep your soldiers active before battle if theydo not need rest. Positive action conquers fear.You and your troops can overcome fear; soldiershave been doing it for centuries. Get yoursoldiers to think about the mission, each other,how to perform their duties, and what to do invarious situations. If they force themselves tokeep their minds on the task at hand, on theircomrades, and on the unit, fear will not have achance to take over. They must think positivelyand take positive action.

Do not push your soldiers unnecessarilybecause fatigue drains courage. Try to givethem adequate food, water, rest, and protectionfrom the weather. In the words of S. L. A.Marshall:

In battle, whatever wears out themuscles reacts on the mind andwhatever impairs the mind drainsphysical strength. Tired men take frightmore easily. Frightened men swiftlytire. . . . Half of control during battlecomes from the commander’s avoidinguseless expenditure of the physicalresources of his men while takingaction to break the hold of fear. . . . Asa man becomes dehydrated duringsummer fighting, his courage flows outthrough his pores, along with hismuscular strength. He loses the will tofight or to take constructive action.5

Keep your soldiers informed of anyinformation you have that will give them peaceof mind. Do not allow rumors to start or spread.Get the facts and talk straight with yoursubordinates. Use the chain of command andthe NCO support channel and quickly pass oninformation your soldiers need. This is one ofthe time-tested principles of leadership; it isfundamental to building trust and reducingfear.

Emotions That Contribute to FearDepression, sadness, and feelings of

hopelessness and lack of self-worth aredangerous emotions that breed fear and lead tocombat ineffectiveness and panic. You can havean important influence on these emotions.Control them in yourself by exercising self-discipline. Sense these emotions in yoursoldiers, and take actions to control them.

Attack the emotions that contribute to fear bysetting a positive, cheerful example and bytalking with soldiers. Give your soldiers a senseof confidence, purpose, meaning, and self--respect. Often, sitting down and talking with asoldier who is depressed or scared is enough. Ifyou have a soldier’s confidence, he will tell youthe causes of his fear. Sometimes, all it takes is

for you to say “I understand. It is natural todoubt yourself and have the emotions that youare feeling. But you’re a good soldier. I knowyou; you will do fine. I have confidence in YOU. ”Words like these inspire confidence and showthat you sincerely care about the soldier.

KNOW YOUR JOB Technical Knowledge

Technical knowledge is the knowledgerequired to perform all tasks and functionsrelated to your position, including the ability tooperate and maintain all assigned equipment.You should strive to learn how to use yourequipment in the most effective manner tosupport your mission accomplishment.Additionally, you must be able to train yoursubordinates on all job tasks and items ofequipment.

To obtain this knowledge, study and workhard in schools and in your unit. Individualstudy of Army manuals and publications is alsoinvaluable for acquiring such expertise. Do notbe afraid to ask your seniors, peers, andsubordinates to help you learn. If your technicalknowledge is deficient on a particular system,admit it and take immediate action to correctthe deficiency. Any attempt to bluff your waythrough a situation will only result in your lossof personal credibility and could result in anaccident or injury, if a soldier follows badadvice.

Specialist Lose, the medical aidmansupporting Sergeant Savage’s platoon inVietnam, used his technical competence andprofessionalism to save at least six lives. Hecalmly reassured wounded soldiers,administered competent first air to thewounded, and demonstrated initiative by usingtoilet tissue packets to bandage wounds afterrunning out of first-aid packets.

Tactical KnowledgeTactical knowledge is the ability to employ

your soldiers and their equipment. Combatarms leaders work directly to gain anadvantage over the enemy while combatsupport and combat service support leadersprovide the necessary support for thatemployment. The Army recognizes nineprinciples of war. You must understand these

5S.L.A. Marshall, The Soldier’s Load and the Mobility of a Nation, pp 46-47.

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principles and consider their applicability toyour situation:• Objective. Direct every military operation

towards a clearly defined, decisive, andattainable objective.

Offensive. Seize, retain, and exploit theinitiative.Mass. Concentrate combat power at thedecisive place and time.Economy of force. Allocate minimumessential combat power to secondary efforts.Maneuver. Place the enemy in a position ofdisadvantage through the flexibleapplication of combat power.Unity of command. For every objective,ensure unity of effort under one responsiblecommander.Security. Never permit the enemy to acquirean unexpected advantage.Surprise. Strike the enemy at a time, at aplace, or in a manner for which he isunprepared,Simplicity. Prepare clear, uncomplicatedplans and clear, concise orders to ensurethorough understanding.Today’s technology and warfighting doctrine

have made tactics more complex than in thepast, yet the fundamental principles continue toapply at all levels. In addition to understandingthe Army’s warfighting doctrine and tactics,your tactical knowledge will not be completeunless you also understand the doctrine andtactics of potential enemies.

KNOW YOUR UNITTactical and technical knowledge is crucial

but, by itself, will not make you an effectiveleader, You must couple it with knowledge ofyourself and your unit—your team. GeneralOmar Bradley said:

The greatest leader in the world couldnever win a campaign unless heunderstood the men he had to lead.

To build a disciplined, cohesive team, youmust know your unit. What are your unit’slimitations and capabilities? You must clearlyunderstand discipline and cohesion. In effectiveunits, soldiers know themselves and each otherwell. They care about each other; share mutualtrust, respect, confidence, and understanding;and work as a disciplined team.

DisciplineDisciplined soldiers are orderly, obedient,

controlled, and dependable. They do their dutypromptly and effectively in response to orders,or even in the absence of orders. The forces thatdrive a disciplined unit come from within thatunit. These forces are the values, character, andwill of the leaders and troops,

A unit’s character reflects the character of itsleaders and its troops. If the soldiers havediscipline, courage, and initiative and thinkcreatively, the unit develops a personality—acharacter— with these elements as itsfoundation.

Self-discipline means forcing yourself to doyour duty—what you ought to do—regardless ofstress, exhaustion, or other conditions. Adisciplined unit forces itself to do its duty inevery situation. In a disciplined unit, soldiershave the self-confidence and initiative needed totake decisive actions, at the right time, that willhelp the unit accomplish the mission.

Your soldiers will take pride in being amember of a unit with disciplined proficiency.Disciplined proficiency is more than justcompetency. It comes from realistic trainingand cross training, and from leaders who careenough to coach and teach their soldiers. Itoccurs when soldiers are so proficient andmotivated that they want to focus all theirenergy on the mission. They willingly give ofthemselves to make the unit better. Morale ishigh because each soldier knows that what he isdoing is important and contributes toaccomplishing an important mission,

Recall from Chapter 4 that beliefs and valuesinfluence soldiers’ behavior. That is why aleader must understand how to influence thedevelopment of beliefs and values.

CohesionCohesion represents the commitment of

soldiers of all ranks to each other andstrengthens their willingness to fight andsacrifice personal safety. It is a product of thebonding of soldiers with each other and thebonding of leaders and subordinates. Cohesionrequires strong bonds of mutual respect, trust,confidence, and understanding within units.Cohesive units function smoothly and performmissions well under stress.

Battle data from four divisions in World WarH show that battle fatigue rates were muchlower in cohesive units than in noncohesive

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units. Early in the North African Campaign,battle fatigue casualties from noncohesive unitstotaled 40 to 45 percent of those wounded inaction. The conclusion is evident, You need todevelop cohesion prior to combat and maintainit during combat.6

Caring is essential to cohesion among allsoldiers and leaders in a unit. A soldier’s beliefthat his leaders and buddies care for him, andwill always do their best to help him, increaseshis desire to fight to protect his fellow soldiers.This bonding is the basis for the cohesionneeded on the battlefield.

The following quotations by Ardant du Picq, aFrench military writer, give some perspectiveon cohesion:

A wise organization [or leader] ensuresthat the personnel of combat groupschanges as little as possible, so thatcomrades in peacetime maneuvers shallbe comrades in war. 7

Four brave men who do not know eachother will not dare to attack a lion. Fourless brave, but knowing each otherwell, sure of their reliability andconsequently of mutual aid, will attackresolutely. 8

In other words, cohesion actually buildssoldiers’ confidence, morale, courage, and willto fight. This has the following implications forleaders:• Do not continually reassign subordinate

leaders and soldiers to different jobs andsquads simply because one squad temporarilyhas fewer members than the other squads. Donot continually reassign drivers or they willnot take pride in their vehicles. Do not rotatemore experienced people into “softer” jobs asa reward for good service. Assign units(squads or platoons), not collections ofindividuals, to accomplish tasks. Bonds ofrespect, trust, confidence, and understandingtake time to develop. When people or leadersare shifted, bonds are broken and new onesmust be built.

• Put your soldiers through tough and realistictraining that requires them to do things they

Tactical and technical knowledge by itself will not make an effective leader.

An effective leader must clearlyunderstand discipline and cohesion.

Disciplined soldiers are orderly,obedient, controlled, and dependable.

Cohesion represents the commitmentof soldiers to each other and theirwillingness to fight and sacrificepersona l sa fe ty . ‘ Department of the Army Pamphlet 350-2, p i.

7Ardant du Picq, Battle Studies, p 96.8Ardant du Picq, p 110.

•

•

•

do not believe they can do as individuals or asa unit. As they go through the training, theymust help each other learn and developthrough the after-action review process.Resolve interpersonal conflicts to restorerespect , confidence, and candidcommunications between soldiers. Brokenbonds between unit members cause the unit todeteriorate and become unable to functionunder stress.Make garrison training interesting and asrealistic as possible so that it does not becomemonotonous and destroy morale.Keep unit members working as a team towarda common purpose that supports the mission.This principle applies to all training—details,maintenance, and administration.Unit cohesion is an important factor in

peacetime and in combat. Cohesive units undergood leadership will work together to ensurethat training is properly planned, executed, andassessed with the objective of maintaining thehighest possible readiness standards.

Unit cohesion is an important factor in peace-time and in combat. Cohesive units under goodleadership will work together to ensure thattraining is properly planned, executed, andassessed with the objective of maintaining thehighest possible readiness standards.

Unit cohesion cannot be developed andmaintained without strong leadership, andsmall-unit leadership is the key. Good leadershipensures that the energy in the cohesive unit isused effectively and efficiently toward ac-complishing unit objectives. FM 22-102 is anexcellent source of additional information ondeveloping and maintaining unit cohesion.

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SUMMARYTo be an effective leader, you must KNOW how

the four factors of leadership affect each otherand what standards your soldiers and units mustmeet to accomplish your warfighting mission.You must understand human nature and becompletely familiar with your job and your unit.Most of all, you must be keenly aware of yourown strengths and weaknesses.

Implementing our warfighting doctrinerequires you to be a competent and confident

cohesive unit. You must be able to operateindependently within your commander’s intentand be willing to take well-calculated risks thathave a high chance of ending with success onthe battlefield.

You must learn how to make a group ofordinary soldiers into an extraordinary team.You do this by caring for your soldiers andby building trust, suppressing the potentialfor bad behavior, and bringing out the

leader capable of building a disciplined and potential for good behavior.

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Leaders can lose battles, but only soldiers can their probability of winning. Leaders must alsowin them. Having the right values, beliefs, provide purpose, direction, and motivation tocharacter, ethics, and knowledge is necessary meet the demands of combat. The requirementsbut does not ensure success on the battlefield. are the same whether you lead a combat unit, aSoldiers must be properly trained, equipped, combat support unit, or a combat serviceand employed (led) by their leaders to enhance support unit.

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PROVIDING PURPOSEPurpose gives soldiers a reason why they

should do dangerous things under stressfulcircumstances. It focuses soldiers’ attention andeffort on the task or mission at hand, enablingthem to operate in a disciplined manner in yourabsence, Soldiers can best relate to a task ormission if they know the ultimate purpose oftheir actions. Baron Friedrich von Steubencame to the United States in 1778, at GeneralWashington’s request. His mission was to helpdevelop organization, control, discipline, andteamwork in the revolutionary force. He saidthat American soldiers do best when they knowwhy they are doing something. Thisobservation of over 200 years ago remains valid,

The likely violence of modern war could resultin mass casualties. Small groups of soldiers arelikely to be isolated from their units. They willexperience great stress from continuous dayand night operations and from violentengagements with enemy forces, More thanever, success on the battlefield will depend onindividual soldiers’ determination and personalinitiative, The nature both of the battlefield andof American soldiers demands that yoursubordinates understand the significance ofeach mission.

You must teach your subordinates how tothink creatively and solve problems while understress. On the battlefield, soldiers must have aclear concept of the objective; they must clearlyunderstand your intent. They must have thecritical information that the next higherheadquarters can supply about the mission,enemy, terrain, troops, and the time available.Then, when you are not available orcommunications with headquarters is cut off,your soldiers will be able to use theirunderstanding of your intent and theirinitiative to accomplish the mission. To preparefor combat, train in situations where yoursubordinates must take actions without yourhelp or direction. Follow up with an after-actionreview. Discuss the results and make this alearning experience for both you and yoursubordinates.

You must communicate your intent so thatyour soldiers are able to understand the desiredoutcome clearly. Keep in mind that this can onlyhappen if you explain what you want to happenin clear, concise, and complete terms.Communications are only effective if yoursoldiers listen and understand your intent.

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PROVIDING DIRECTIONYour thinking skills are often referred to as

directional skills because you set the direction ororientation of actions when you state what mustbe done in an established priority. Directionalso establishes the relationship betweenofficers and NCOs (see Appendix D). Thedirection you give your soldiers is often based onguidance from your leader. The key point toremember is that you must listen to your leader,support your leader, and help your leaderaccomplish the mission, recognizing that yourmission is normally a subset of your leader’smission. Leaders provide direction by—•••••••

Knowing and maintaining standards.Setting goals.Planning.Making decisions and solving problems.Supervising and evaluating.Teaching, coaching, and counseling.Training.

Knowing andMaintaining Standards

The Army has established standards for allmilitary activities. You as a leader have tworesponsibilities: first is to know the standards;and second, to enforce the established standard.You must assist subordinate leaders byexplaining the standards that apply to yourorganization, giving them the authority toenforce the standards, and hold themaccountable for ensuring they and their soldiersachieve the standards. Your soldiers willquickly recognize whether you know andenforce standards; it sets the direction for yourunit.

Setting GoalsGoal setting is a critical part of leadership,

The ultimate goal is to ensure that every soldierand unit is properly trained, motivated, andprepared to win in war. Achieving this objectivewill normally require that you and yoursubordinates jointly establish and developgoals. When developing goals for your unit,remember several key points:••

•

•

Goals should be realistic and attainable.Goals should lead to improved combatreadiness.Subordinates should be involved in the goal-setting process.You must develop a program to achieve eachgoal.

PlanningPlanning is as essential for success in

peacetime training as it is for combatoperations. Planning is usually based onguidance or a mission you receive from yourleader or higher headquarters. With thisguidance or mission, you can start planningusing the backward planning process. Firstdetermine what the end result of the training orcombat operations must be; then workbackward, step by step. If you use commonsense and experience, this process will help youeliminate problems, organize time, and identifydetails. Backward planning is a skill, and likeother skills, you can develop it with practice.The steps in backward planning are—

Determine the basics: what, how, and when.Identify tasks you want to accomplish andestablish a sequence for them,Develop a schedule to accomplish the tasksyou have identified. Start with-the last task tobe accomplished and work back to the presenttime.When time allows, soliciting help from your

subordinates is useful. If handled properly, youcan accomplish several objectivessimultaneously, to include: improvecommunications which can be beneficial inimproving cohesion and discipline; providemotivation for the soldiers involved; andprovide a clearer picture of the broaderperspective of unit goals and objectives.

Involving your subordinates in planningshows that you recognize and appreciate theirabilities. Recognition and appreciation from arespected leader are powerful motivating forces.Your subordinates’ ideas can help you develop abetter plan; their participation in the planningprocess gives them a personal interest in seeingthe plan succeed.

Making Decisions andSolving Problems

In combat and in training, youcomplicated problems and have

will faceto make

decisions with less information than you wouldlike. Here is a problem-solving process that canhelp you:

Recognize and define the problem.Gather facts and make assumptions.Develop possible solutions.Analyze and compare the possible solutions.Select the best solution.

The problem-solving process is continuous.Time available, urgency of the situation, andyour judgment will affect your approach todecision making. When time is scarce, you musttake actions to ensure a timely decision. A gooddecision made in time to implement is betterthan the best decision made too late.

After you have objectively and logicallyanalyzed the possible courses of action in asituation using all available information,consider your intuitions and emotions. Theproblem-solving process is not a purelyobjective, rational mathematical formula. Thehuman mind does not work that way, especiallyunder stress. The mind is both rational andintuitive. Your intuition tells you what “feels”right or wrong. Your intuition flows from yourinstincts and your experience.

Since the problem-solving process is athought process, it is both rational andintuitive. However, do not make the mistake ofmaking decisions guided totally by emotions orintuitions and immediately doing what feelsright. This is a prescription for disaster. First,follow the problem-solving process as rationallyand objectively as possible. Gather information;then develop, analyze, and compare courses ofaction. Consider your intuition or hunches, youremotions, and your values. Try to identify a“best” course of action that is logical and likelyto succeed and that also feels right in terms ofyour intuition, values, and character.

Finally, make your decision, plan, and takeaction. If you expect success, you must makehigh-quality decisions that your troops acceptand support. When time permits, involve yoursoldiers in decision making if they haveinformation or experience that will lead to thebest decision or plan. This develops yoursubordinates and creates an open, trusting bondbetween you and them,

Supervising and EvaluatingSupervising means keeping a grasp on the

situation and ensuring that plans and policiesare implemented properly, Supervision includesgiving instructions and continuouslyinspecting the accomplishment of a task. Thereis a narrow band of proper supervision. On oneside of the band lies oversupervision; on theother side, undersupervision. Oversupervisionstifles initiative, breeds resentment, and lowersmorale and motivation. Undersupervision,

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however, can lead to frustrat ion,miscommunications, lack of coordination,disorganization, and the perception that you donot care. This perception can lead toresentment, low morale, and poor motivation.

The right level of supervision will depend onthe task being performed and the person doingit. Here are some questions to ask yourself:

What is the experience level of thesubordinate?HOW competent is the subordinate at thistask?How confident is the subordinate about hisability to do this task?How motivated is the subordinate to performthis task?

.

All soldiers benefit from appropriatesupervision by leaders with more knowledgeand experience.

Supervision has a major effect on buildingtrust within your unit. Ensure your subordinatesunderstand how and why you intend to superviseas part of your leadership or commandphilosophy. They can adjust to many styles ofsupervision once they understand that you arechecking to ensure tasks are understood, to keepcommunications open, to teach, and to learnyourself.

Evaluating is part of supervising andincludes looking at the way soldiers accomplisha task, checking firsthand, and inspecting. Youneed a routine system for checking the thingsthat are important to mission accomplishment,cohesion, discipline, morale, and unit effective-ness. Checking is such a simple word andconcept. It is obvious that leaders must check,but human nature can cause us to fail to checkthe most simple things that can lead to bigdisasters. You will hear some people say” Worryabout the little things and the big things willtake care of themselves.” Others say “Worryabout the big, important things and don’t sweatthe small stuff.” Both are poor guides. First, beconcerned about the big things; that is whereyou exercise your thinking or directional skills.Next, check the little things that make the majorthings happen. Use your judgment andexperience to ensure you do not undersuperviseor oversupervise.

Teaching, Coaching, and CounselingTeaching and counseling are fundamental

responsibilities of every leader. Counseling

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alone is so important that FM 22-101 is devotedentirely to the subject. Use it. Study it. Learnhow to fulfill your teaching and counselingresponsibilities.

Teaching involves creating the conditions sothat someone can learn and develop. Toinfluence the competence and confidence ofyour subordinates, you must be a skilledteacher. Coaching, counseling, rewarding, andtaking appropriate disciplinary measures areall parts of teaching. You must be a good teacherif you are going to plan and conduct effectivetraining and help your subordinates developprofessionally and personally,

Understanding how people learn isfundamental to being a good teacher. Peoplelearn—• By the example of others.• By forming a picture in their minds of what

they are trying to learn.• By gaining and understanding necessary

information.• By application or practice.

Learning requires certain importantconditions. One condition is that the person bemotivated to learn. It is difficult to teachsomeone who has no motivation to learn or feelsno need to learn what you are teaching.

How do you convince the person he needswhat you want to teach? You show the personthat what you are trying to teach will make hima more competent soldier, better able to do hisduty and survive on the battlefield. Useexamples to show the person the importance ofwhat you are teaching. The next condition oflearning is to involve the student in the process.Keep your soldiers’ attention by activelyinvolving their minds and emotions in thelearning process. Have your subordinatesparticipate, either through discussion orthrough active practice of skill.

Hand in hand with your responsibilities as ateacher are your responsibilities as a coach andcounselor. It is critically important that youcounsel all your soldiers frequently on theirstrengths and weaknesses and on any problemsyou may be able to help them with.Developmental leadership assessment (seeAppendix E) can help you improve yoursubordinates’ leadership effectiveness.

Soldiers often think counseling is negative,equating it to getting chewed out or being told

they are doing something wrong. This is not afull picture of what counseling means. Learnhow you can use counseling as a positive tool tohelp your soldiers prepare for futureresponsibilities.

Counseling is talking with a person in a waywhich helps that person solve a problem, correctperformance, or improve good performance.Counseling is a leadership skill that is aparticular form of coaching and teaching. Itrequires thinking skills, such as identifying theproblem, analyzing the factors and forcesinfluencing the behavior of the soldier beingcounseled, and planning and organizing thecounseling session. It requires understandinghuman nature—what causes a soldier to behavein a certain way and what is required to changehis behavior. Counseling requires listeningskills to learn about the situation and thesoldier. It also requires judgment about when tolet the soldier make his own decisions and whenyou should make them for him, and when to beflexible and when to be unyielding.

Just as there are no easy answers for exactlywhat to do in leadership situations, there are noeasy answers for exactly what to do in specificcounseling situations. When you see that asubordinate needs counseling, prepare yourselfby reviewing the problem-solving process andstudying FM 22-101.

As a leader you want to teach soldiers newvalues, knowledge, or skills that will changebehavior. You also want to help them becomebetter soldiers through your counseling.

TrainingQuality training must be your top priority-it

is the cornerstone of total Army readiness.Lieutenant General A. S. Collins, Jr., in his bookCommon Sense Training, said:

The essential characteristics of a goodarmy are that it be well trained and welldisciplined These two characteristics areapparent in every unit achievement,whether in peace or war. Disciplinederives and flows from training andserves to emphasize a fundamental pointessential to a philosophy of training,. thattraining is all encompassing. Trainingpermeates everything a militaryorganization does.

Training must develop soldiers who aredisciplined, physically tough, and highlymotivated. Because soldiers spend the majorityof their time in training, you play an especiallyimportant role in developing soldiers who areskilled in their jobs. The standards that guidetraining must reflect the requirements of thebattlefield. Train your soldiers on every taskcritical to wartime mission accomplishment.

Effective training is the key to sustaining acombat-ready Army and reducing human-erroraccidents. Training to standard producesskilled, disciplined soldiers who acceptresponsibility for the safety of themselves andothers and for the protection of Armyequipment. Good training—••

••

•

•

•

Strengthens the morale of each soldier.Builds mutual trust and respect between theleader and the led.Concentrates on warfighting skills.Is performance-oriented and has realisticobjectives.Follows Army doctrine and standardizesactions.Means learning from mistakes and allowingfor growth.Means strong subordinate development.You must plan training so that your soldiers

are challenged and learn. Some leaders findconducting training is threatening andembarrassing. When they present boringinstruction, their soldiers balk at repetitivetraining on skills they have already mastered.When the leader discovers he has nothing else toteach, he reacts with defensiveness and revertsback to using his position power. He accusesgood soldiers of having poor attitudes and triesto order soldiers to act interested in monotonoustraining. The result of this scenario is strongunity among soldiers but disrespect for theleader.

PROVIDING MOTIVATIONMotivation is the cause of action. It gives

soldiers the will to do what you know must bedone to accomplish the mission.

If your subordinates have confidence inthemselves, each other, the unit, and you, andsupport the cause, they will be sincerelymotivated. Training them to fight and win as acohesive, disciplined team will have a valuablemotivating effect. Knowledge and skill combatfear and increase confidence. Confidence is a

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potent motivating force, It gives rise to morale,courage, and the will to fight.

You must keep abroad point of view on humannature and motivation. Do not allow yourself tohold the narrow view that soldiers are onlymotivated by fear of their leaders. It is equallydangerous to believe the opposite—that allsoldiers are motivated to work hard and do theright thing.

You can motivate your subordinates by—• Serving as the ethical standard bearer.• Developing cohesive soldier teams.• Rewarding and punishing.

Ethical Standard BearerYour soldiers need you to be the example they

can compare to their own behavior. They wantto have a leader to look up to. They want todepend on you to provide the moral force thevalues of our society demand. Your soldierswant you to be good at your job, but they alsowant you to be decent and honorable. By beingthe ethical standard bearer, you motivate yoursoldiers and help them to develop the self- discipline and will to fight courageously and todo the right and brave thing, regardless ofdanger.

Cohesive Soldier TeamsCaring for your soldiers, and working hard to

make soldiering meaningful for them, developcohesive soldier teams. It takes a lot of work toproperly teach, coach, counsel, and train yoursubordinates, but this creates the bonds thatlead to cohesion, trust, and mutual respect. Asoldier in a cohesive soldier team is confident inhis peers, his leaders, and his equipment andtraining. He will willingly fight to destroy theenemy and keep himself and his buddies alive.

Rewards and PunishmentThe hope of reward and the fear of punishment

greatly affect soldiers’ behavior. If you havebeen rewarded with a pat on the back for doingsomething well or punished with a reprimandfor unsatisfactory performance, you know howit felt and how it changed your future behavior.Rewards and punishments have differentpurposes. Rewards promote desired behavior;punishments reduce undesired behavior. If usedproperly, rewards and punishments can changethe behavior of your soldiers.

Praise, recognition, a medal, a certificate, or aletter of commendation means a great deal to asoldier. Napoleon marveled at the motivationalpower of a small piece of ribbon. He once saidthat if he had enough ribbon, he could conquerthe world. Rewards are visible evidence to thesoldier that his leader, his unit, and his countryappreciate his courage or hard work. Well- chosen rewards normally increase motivation”to keep working for more recognition, Hereare some ideas on applying this principle:

Obtain recommendations from the chain ofcommand and NCO support channel onrewards, awards, and schooling.Choose a reward valued by the personreceiving it.Use the established awards system ofcertificates, medals, letters of commendation,driver and mechanic badges, and safetyawards.Choose rewards that appeal to a soldier’spersonal pride; they will have the mostmotivational power. Praise before peers isoften more powerful than a three-day pass.Present awards at an appropriate unitceremony so that others can see hard work isrewarded.Reward promptly the desired behavior of anindividual or group.Stand up for your good soldiers when theyneed help.Give lots of verbal praise. If a soldier is tryingto learn the right values, character,knowledge, and skills, encourage him—evenif he is still falling short. Do not reward hisfailure, but reward his honest diligent effort todo the right thing. That recognition willreinforce his efforts and motivate him to doeven better. Be aware, however, that givingtoo much praise, or giving it whenundeserved, cheapens its motivating value.Develop awards and ways of recognizinggood performance that motivate the largegroup of average people who make up themajority of your unit. There is nothing wrongwith rewarding the majority of your soldiers ifthey exceed a standard.Promote people who work and study hard,influence others to achieve unit standards,and show the capability for increasedresponsibility.Recognize soldiers who meet standards andimprove their performance. Every soldierdoes not have the ability to be the “soldier ofthe quarter” or earn a perfect score on theAPFT.

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At the same time, you must also punishsoldiers who just do not try or intentionally failto meet your standards or follow your guidance.You do this because you want to changebehavior and show others what they can expectif they choose to perform in a similar manner.Soldiers learn from the results of others’mistakes. Seeing what happens to a person whois unwilling or unmotivated to meet standardscan have the same influence on behavior asfirsthand experience.

Here are some principles you shouldunderstand about punishing:

Let the soldier know you are upset about thebehavior and not about him. Let him knowyou care about him as a person but expectmore from him.Make sure your soldiers know you will tellthem how they are doing.Do not punish soldiers who are unable toperform a task. Punish those unwilling orunmotivated to succeed.Punish in private as soon as possible after theundesirable behavior, Do not humiliate asoldier in front of others.Ensure that soldiers being punishedunderstand exactly what behavior led to thepunishment . -

•

•

•

Ensure that punishment is neither excessivenor unreasonable. It is not only the severity ofpunishment that restrains soldiers but alsothe certainty of it.Do not hold a grudge after punishing. When apunishment is over . . . it is over.Never lose control of your temper.

S U M M A R Y You must provide purpose, direction, and

motivation to meet the demands of combat.Purpose gives soldiers a reason why they shoulddo difficult things under dangerous, stressfulcircumstances. Direction shows what must bedone. Motivation gives soldiers the will to doeverything they are capable of doing toaccomplish a mission.

Some people say “behavior is believable.”Your behavior sets the example for yoursubordinates. Saying all the right words andhaving all the right values and knowledge willhave no meaning to others if not reinforced byyour actions. Your actions are what soldiers,peers, and leaders see. Actions give life topurpose, direction, and motivation to see unitsthrough the tough demands of combat. Actionstell what must be done and why it is important;actions inspire others to follow and fightbravely.

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This chapter discusses the payoff forapplying the fundamentals discussed in thismanual. That payoff is in leaders and soldierswho are prepared for war. It is in an Army thathas the competence, confidence, motivation,and will to win on the battlefield.

RESULTS OF EFFECTIVELEADERSHIP

If you apply the principles discussed in thismanual and strive to BE the kind of leaderdescribed in Chapter 4, KNOW the thingsdiscussed in Chapter 5, and DO the thingsdiscussed in Chapter 6, you can developordinary soldiers who are willing and capable ofdoing extraordinary things in combat.

The chart that follows gives some examples ofwhat a leader must BE, KNOW, and DO, Whendeveloping your subordinates, identify the skill,knowledge, or attitude you want to change. Ifperformance does not meet standards, use yourexperience to develop an appropriate actionplan to close the gap. Use the BE, KNOW, DOframework to help you determine if you want tochange a skill, a knowledge, or an attitude.

Your success as a leader in combat willdepend on your ability to get soldiers to dothings that are against their nature. Soldiersare used to certain creature comforts, such asbeing well fed, warm, dry, and safe. They expectthese things and depend on leaders to take careof them. In training and in combat, soldiers

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have to sacrifice most creature comforts andsome or all assurances of personal safety. Intraining you must motivate your soldiers to dophysically demanding tasks with little sleepand in all weather conditions to prepare themfor the rigors of combat, You owe it to them andto the nation to mentally and physically preparethem for the hardships they will have to endureon the battlefield. This requires expertleadership; it is what you, as a leader, have beencharged to do.

WILL AND WINNING INBATTLE

Will is normally used in the leadershipcontext to express determination or persistence.The normal manifestation of will is anindividual demonstrating extraordinarymental discipline to accomplish an exceptionalphysical feat. We often use expressions such as“gutting it out” when referring to a particularlydifficult task.

Your job as a leader goes beyond teachingyour soldiers how to fight and survive; you mustalso develop their will to fight and win. Somepeople call this the “winning spirit” or “warriorspirit. ” It is the ability to forge victory out of thechaos of battle—to overcome fear, hunger,deprivation, and fatigue. The soldier who canovercome these physical factors and continue to

apply his skill and knowledge learned in trainingwill ultimately have the ability to overcome anyopponent in combat. As a leader, your ability togive your soldiers this will to win starts with theexample you set, the attitudes you express, theexpectations you establish, and the standardsyou enforce.

You can, and must, develop this kind of will inyourself and your soldiers. It takes personalcommitment from you to take this responsibilityseriously and to lead with determination andwill. Building strength of will in yourself andyour soldiers is not something that is just goodto do; success on the battlefield demands it!

SUMMARYThe value of the fundamental leadership

doctrine found in this manual is to help youprepare yourself and your soldiers for war.Success as a combat leader hinges on yourability to get soldiers to do things that areagainst their nature. This is your challenge andit requires expert leadership.

The ultimate test of a leader’s or soldier’s willmay be in a combat situation with the outcomeresulting in who wins or loses—who lives ordies. Building strength of will or the “winningspirit” is not a frivolous training phrase, but anabsolute requirement for success in war.

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The intensity of war is so demanding thatstress in combat requires special attention. Thischapter will tell you about stress in combat—how it affects you and your soldiers and whatyou can do to prepare for and treat it.

THE HUMAN SIDE OFWARFIGHTING

In World War H and Korea, the averagecasualty ratio was one battle fatigue victim forevery four or five WIA. In extremely difficult

battles, the ratio commonly reached 1 to 3 andoccasionally 1 to 2. At battalion and companylevels, units in desperate situations have had asmany casualties from battle fatigue as fromenemy weapons. Stress in Army operations is socritical that FM 26-2 is devoted entirely to thissubject.

The old saying “everybody is afraid incombat” seems obvious, but the concept is worthconsidering. Here is one past leader’sdescriptions of the human side of warfighting.

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Here is another combat veteran’s account of the intensity of combat.

STRESS IN BATTLEStress is the body’s response to a demand

placed on it. The demands may be physical(cold, injury, disease) or mental (fear, conflict,pressure). Stress also occurs when soldiers thinkthey cannot meet the demands they expect toface. Sometimes soldiers overestimate thedifficulty of a task or mission and sometimesthey underestimate their abilities. Use yourexperience and influence to give yoursubordinates a better appreciation of themission requirements and confidence in theiractual abilities.

Stress is usually thought of as a destructiveforce that harms performance. This is onlypartially correct. If the level of stress is not toohigh, it can be positive and enhanceperformance. It can actually help soldiers meetand overcome unpleasant or painful situations.It can also be the positive force that motivatessoldiers to act selflessly and heroically incombat.

Stress can reduce soldier performance,however, if its intensity is great enough. Foryou, stress is only a problem when it adverselyaffects performance. High stress reducescombat strength by lowering soldierperformance and increasing battlefield stresscasualties.

It is just as normal for leaders to experiencefear as it is for younger soldiers, so do not feelyou must hide it from your subordinates. Tellyour subordinates that you also experience fearwhen you think about what you may see or haveto do, but do not let fear keep you fromperforming your leadership duties. You mustdiscipline yourself and be the example of whatto do when one is afraid. Leaders who cannotcontrol themselves or become indecisive causetheir soldiers to lose confidence. Your soldiersmust be confident in your leadership to succeedin combat. Soldiers who lack confidence in theirleaders are reluctant to respond promptly andappropriately to orders. Loss of trust isdevastating to morale, reducing performance onthe battlefield and further increasing stress.

BATTLE FATIGUEBattle fatigue is a psychoneurotic reaction

that can develop in an individual from stress ina combat environment. Every individual has adifferent capacity to cope personally withtraumatic stress whether it is a result of anexternal physical factor such as an enemy

threat or an internal factor such as guilt. Mentaland physical fitness helps soldiers endurestress, but fear and other unpleasant feelingswill naturally be present before, during, andafter combat. It is impossible for you as a leaderto determine in advance either your personalresistance or that of your soldiers to succumb tobattle fatigue. There are indicators of battlefatigue that you as a leader must recognize.

Indicators of Battle FatigueIndicators of battle fatigue may differ from

soldier to soldier. You must constantly watch forthese indicators and take steps to helpindividuals before they become combatineffective. Recognize that while most soldiersexhibit some of these signs during periods ofextreme stress, they can remain effective. Theindicators of battle fatigue include—●

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Tension: aches, pains, trembling, and fidgeting.Jumpiness at sudden sounds or movement.Cold sweat: dry mouth, pale skin, eyes hard tofocus.Pounding heart: may feel dizzy or light-headed.Feeling out of breath.Upset stomach: may throw up.Diarrhea or constipation: frequent urination.Fatigue: feel tired, drained; takes an effort tomove.Distant, haunted (“1000-yard”) stare.Anxiety: keyed up, worrying, expecting theworst.Irritability: swearing, complaining, easilybothered.Difficulty paying attention, rememberingdetails.Difficulty thinking, speaking, communicating.Trouble sleeping, awakened by bad dreams.Grief: tearful, crying for dead or woundedbuddies.Feeling bad about mistakes or what had to bedone.Anger: feeling let down by leaders or others inunit.Beginning to lose confidence in self and unit.

Protection From Battle FatigueThere are actions you can take to protect you

and your soldiers from battle fatigue. Ensureyour soldiers know what they are capable ofdoing. Tough, demanding, realistic trainingwill increase their confidence in self, the unit,

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their leadership, and equipment. Keep yoursubordinates informed on the situation and donot allow your soldiers to exaggerate theenemy’s capabilities or the difficulty ofupcoming missions. Use the after-action reviewprocess after every mission to learn things thatwill help the unit in the future and to keep yoursoldiers informed and involved. Help yoursoldiers talk through their problems whenthings are tough at home or in the unit. Developand enforce a sleep plan to provide eachindividual opportunity to rest. Remember thatleaders too need sleep so that they can makesound, timely decisions.

The sustained stress of fighting and waitingto fight wears soldiers down mentally andphysically; it can lead to battle fatigue. Thoughless visible, but equally dangerous, soldiers’ethical sensitivities may degenerate. Past warcrimes are a frightening reminder of the need forour soldiers to sustain the ethical norms of oursociety. “Stand downs,” such as moving a unitto an area of lower risk or resting the unit forabout 48 hours, can significantly reduce themost serious effects of sustained stress.Although you may lack the authority to decidewhen your unit will stand down, you have amoral responsibility to advise your leader whenyour unit needs this rest.

Casualties will be sustained during combatoperations which will require replacementsoldiers. You must welcome new members intoyour unit and get to know them quickly. Newsoldiers have the added stress of beingunfamiliar with you as a leader and the othersoldiers in the unit. It is your responsibility toteach them as quickly as possible how the unitoperates and to help them feel a part of the team.

Treating Battle FatiguePerhaps the most powerful thing you can do

for your soldiers in tough situations is to lookcalm and in control. Your soldiers will key onyour behavior and focus on the unit’s immediatemission. Your soldiers should expect to continuetheir duties. Have them focus on a well-learnedtask or drill and follow the SOP. Think ofyourselves succeeding; talk about it. Take a deepbreath and shrug your shoulders to reducetension; have your soldiers do the same.

Remember that battle fatigue is normal. Talkabout it; make sure your soldiers understand itand are able to recognize it in themselves and

others. Stay in touch with your soldiers; keeptalking to them. When there are rumors, get thefacts; do not jump to conclusions. Reduce yoursoldiers’ anxiety and increase their peace ofmind by keeping them informed.

When the tactical situation and safety permit,ensure you and your soldiers—●

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sleep.Drink plenty of fluids.Continue to eat normal portions of food.Continue to conduct training.Clean up (wash, shave, change).Talk about what happened; put things inperspective; clear up misunderstandings; talkabout lessons learned.Share grief; talk out personal worries; talkwith the chaplain.Keep busy when not resting (do recreationalactivities, equipment maintenance, et cetera).

If you have a soldier whose battle fatiguesigns do not improve after resting, tell yourleader or medic.

Sometimes you may have to send a soldier tothe rear or to a medical unit to get more rest. Ifthis happens, let the soldier know the team iscounting on him to come back quickly. Do not lethim feel ashamed about his need for rest or timeto recover from battle fatigue. Welcome himback and expect him to do his full share when hereturns.

Don’t be surprised or worried if some battlefatigue signs (as jumpiness and bad dreams)continue awhile after soldiers come out ofcombat. Help your soldiers understand this isnormal human behavior.

S U M M A R Y The intensity of combat is so demanding that

even the most fit can temporarily becomeunable to function because of stress. Stress isthe body’s response to a demand placed on it. Itis usually thought of as destructive, but it can bepositive and enhance performance if itsintensity is not too high.

Negative reactions to the extreme stresses ofthe battlefield are called battle fatigue. Battlefatigue is entirely normal and may berecognized by leaders who know the indicatorsto watch for.

Since soldiers watch their leaders closely forsigns of panic or loss of confidence, you must

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look and sound as calm as possible. Talk about You can protect soldiers from battle fatigue bybattle fatigue and teach your soldiers what keeping them in good physical condition and bysymptoms to watch for in themselves and ensuring they have adequate sleep, food, water,others. The symptoms of battle fatigue will shelter, hygiene, and sanitation. Leaders canusually go away after rest but medical units also suffer from battle fatigue; you mustthat are located in the rear may have to treat take care of yourself the same way you takesevere cases. care of your subordinates.

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Weather, terrain, and the day-night cycleform the basic setting for all militaryoperations. This setting, coupled with high-technology equipment, affects the firepower,maneuver, protection, and leadership of units inbattle, You must also recognize the effectscombat itself has on soldiers and units. Thedanger, destruction, and confusion of combat;the effects weapons and obstacles have onterrain; and the chaos associated with theunexpected all cause simple things to become

difficult. This chapter will help you understandthe effect of the combat environment onsoldiers, equipment, and weapons.

WEATHER AND TERRAINWeather affects soldiers, equipment,

operations, and the ability to maneuver onterrain. Temperature extremes, wind, rain,snow, fog, mud, and dust all combine in VariOUSways to affect soldier efficiency and limit theuse of weapons and equipment.

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Leading soldiers is more difficult in badweather and in difficult terrain. The time andeffort you need to care for soldiers increase inbad weather. You must think about cold and hotweather injuries. Security of positions andfighting formations are harder to maintain andsuccessful operations require more planning.You must rehearse simple plans when possibleand then execute aggressively.

CONTINUOUS OPERATIONSContinuous land combat is a reality. Our

potential enemy’s doctrine calls for rapidadvance, deep penetration, relentless attack,and the bypassing of strongly defended points.The battlefield may not have a clearly definedforward line and could reach a depth exceeding100 kilometers. The demands of continuousoperations compound the normal battle stressessoldiers must cope with. The expected effects ofthese demands are so significant that FM 22-9 isdevoted entirely to soldier performance incontinuous operations.

FM 22-9 points out that the adverse conditionsassociated with continuous operations willdegrade the fighting performance of you andyour soldiers. These conditions do not respectmilitary rank or position. Because of yourleadership responsibilities, performingcontinuously without rest will exhaust yousooner than it will your troops. You may be thefirst battle fatigue casualty. Force yourself torest.

Soldier PerformanceContinuous operations can reduce critical

human abilities as a result, of sleep loss. Manypredictable effects occur as a result ofinsufficient sleep which you must be aware ofand take into consideration. You and yoursoldiers will—

Be less alert.Be slow to make sense of things you see orhear.Start to see things that are not there.Be unable to concentrate, perform complexoperations, or readily understandinstructions.Be unable to remember events clearly.Begin to skip routine tasks.Have difficulty deciding what to say, and howto say it.Experience mood changes and becomeirritable, depressed, or apathetic.

LeadershipExpectations about future warfare point to a

tremendous challenge during the first few daysor weeks. Extended periods of continuousground combat operations reduce soldierperformance, adding to the problems caused bycasualties and illness. There are actions you cantake to slow down the rate of performancedecline. You cannot use these actionshaphazardly or selectively; their effectivenessin wartime depends on sound planning,execution, and assessment of training prior tocommencing combat operations.

Lead Your Unit. The single most importantelement to sustained unit excellence is theleadership you provide. Successful preparationdepends on applying the kind of fundamentalleadership described in this manual. You mustplan for the well-being of your soldiers and yourunit and know when and how to shift yourleadership style to meet the situation. Thedirections you give should be simple, clear, andcomplete. Recognize that if your soldiers aretired you may have to repeat orders anddirections, double-check yourself and others,and be prepared to spend more time reassuringsoldiers to restore their confidence.

All soldiers must learn to cope with theadverse conditions of continuous operations. Inall training and combat plans, consider thehuman need for you and your soldiers to sleep.Encourage, not discourage, sleeping when theopportunity arises. Severe problems developafter several days if you and your soldierscannot get at least three hours of sleep everyday. Ideally, these three hours should becontinuous; however, the tactical situation maymake this impossible. Taking catnaps at everyopportunity, even for brief periods, is the besttechnique for reducing the effects of sleep loss.Falling asleep quickly and waking up quicklyand alert are skills that improve with practice.

Build Cohesion. Although enduring the strainof combat builds cohesive soldier teams, youmust build cohesion before battle so that yourunit can fight, defeat the enemy, and stand thestrain of prolonged combat. One of yourprimary peacetime responsibilities is to createthe trust and strong bonds with and amongsoldiers that will sustain them, and you, inbattle. You must constantly stress bonding,learning, training, teaching, coaching, caring,and teamwork because they lead to cohesion.

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Your goal is to develop the full potential of everysoldier in your unit so that individually orcollectively they could continue and completethe mission in your absence.

Develop Confidence. Withstanding theadverse conditions of continuous operations iseasier when soldiers are optimistic andconfident. Confidence gives your soldiers thedeep-seated belief the unit can and willaccomplish the mission, no matter howunfavorable the odds. Confident, cohesive unitswithstand adverse conditions far better thanother units do.

You cannot order confidence. Soldiers developconfidence through realistic training andsimulated combat experiences that make themoptimistic about themselves, their equipment,their unit, and their leaders.

Train Your Unit. Effective training improvesthe performance of soldiers and units. Well-trained soldiers and units can better resist theadverse effects of continuous operations.Training also improves soldiers’ ability tomaintain self-control and to think whenexhausted. Therefore, preparing for continuousoperations requires carefully designed trainingplans and vigorous assessment of progresstoward standards. Practicing continuousoperations helps everyone recognize theproblems that arise and learn how to cope. Astraining progresses, the unit demonstrates itsability to achieve extraordinary results. Makinga reasonable sleep plan is easier if you havecross trained your subordinates. You willprobably never have enough people to setup twofull shifts for every job, so cross training willallow a person to sleep a few hours whilesomeone else performs his job. Tough trainingexperiences furnish convincing evidence theunit is combat ready and help develop awinning attitude.

Develop a Physically Fit Unit. You mustdevelop the physical fitness of your soldiers.Physical strength and endurance improve theirability to “bounce back” from exhaustion. Fitsoldiers can call upon their minds and bodies toperform strenuous activity for extended periodsand return to normal effectiveness after arelatively short period of rest.

Develop a Winning Attitude. Finding betterand easier ways to perform important tasks in

continuous operations is a leadership challenge.You must reassure your soldiers that they, theirunit, and their country will prevail. Remindsoldiers they must depend on one another.Winning depends on all soldiers workingtogether to perform beyond what they believepossible until the mission has beenaccomplished.

SIX ACTIONS A LEADER MUSTTAKE TO DEFEAT BATTLESTRESSES ARE:

••••••

Lead your unit.Build cohesion.Develop confidence.Train your unit.Develop a physically fit unit.Develop a winning attitude.

H I G H T E C H N O L O G Y Technology has brought great change to

waging war. With night vision devices, armiescan now fight in darkness and fog, conditionsthat have traditionally forced lulls in battle.Further, violence and confusion on thebattlefield will be greater than ever because ofthe potential to fight under NBC conditions, thesophistication of electronic warfarecapabilities, and the increased use of smoke asan obscurant. Every one of these advances intechnology has an accompanying effect onsoldiers—the human side of warfighting.

Electronic WarfareSince our command and control systems

depend heavily on radios and radar, the enemywill certainly try to destroy them or disrupt theiruse at critical times. Because tactical radiosproduce electronic signals that can be detected,the enemy may identify the location of radiotransmissions coming from tactical operationscenters and then attack with air strikes,artillery, or land forces. Our tactics and SOPwill help cope with the enemy’s electronicwarfare efforts, buteffect on soldierscommunications willtransmit or receive

you must recognize theand leaders. Disruptedmake it more difficult tobattlefield intelligence,

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process calls for fire, or request resupply andmedical evacuation. These restraints will causea feeling of isolation on the battlefield that canlead to panic. You must recognize this as factand make your tactical training in electronicwarfare as realistic as possible. Train underelectronic warfare conditions so that yoursoldiers will know what to expect. Teach yoursoldiers how to defend your unit from electronicwarfare, and ensure they are confident in yourability to lead them. Follow up with an after-action review. Discuss the results and make thisa learning experience for you and yoursubordinates.

New Weapons on The BattlefieldEmerging technology may develop weapons

for the future battlefield that are moredevastating than any used in previous wars.Directed-energy weapons could become anentirely new class of tactical weapons usingpowerful energy beams to detonateammunition, destroy vehicle electronicsystems, and disrupt communications.Exposure to directed-energy weapons could alsolead to disorientation, blindness, brain damage,or even death. Because the technology is stillbeing developed, it is too early to predict theiruse or exact destructive power. One thing iscertain. If directed-energy weapons are used,they will have an impact on the human side ofwarfighting and make the demands on leaderseven greater.

NBC WarfareThe threat of NBC warfare will be a major

source of stress. Fear of the unknown andknowledge of the lethality of NBC weaponscause significant psychological stress. Sinceunsupported rumors aggravate this stress, youmust ensure accurate information passesthrough the chain of command to every soldier.

You cannot wait for war to prepare. Likewise,you cannot wait for the enemy to use NBCweapons to prepare to defend yourselves. Youmust be a leader of strong will and prepareyourself and your troops to operate under NBCconditions. To prepare for NBC warfare, youmust—• Talk with your soldiers. Tell them what to

expect from you and their equipment. Tellthem what you expect from them.

• Develop procedures so that you can recognizeeach other while in MOPP gear. For example,

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

have soldiers wear name tags or colored tapemarking that will not damage the protectivesuit,Keep plans simple. Follow SOPS and well-rehearsed drills.Enforce a sleep and rest program to protectfrom exhaustion.Ensure soldiers drink plenty of water toprotect from dehydration.Learn to pace yourself and to delegate. Do notallow you or your troops to become casualtiesof physical exhaustion.Discipline yourself to give calm patientleadership. Your troops will certainly panic ifthey sense panic in your voice or actions.Promote physical fitness for endurance toprotect you and your soldiers from earlyexhaustion.Train in MOPP gear to gain confidence andexperience.

Command and Control. Command andcontrol suffers significantly under NBCconditions because activities, such as directingfire, maneuvering, operating equipment, andreading maps, take longer and are moredifficult. Because MOPP gear impairsnavigational abilities, leaders can easilybecome disoriented. The result of these factorsand the increased physical exhaustion thataccompanies extended wear of the MOPP gearcan cause irritability and frustration in leaders;simultaneously, the soldiers’ confidence in theirleaders can deteriorate rapidly.

Communications. Protective masks makeface-to-face communications difficult; facialexpressions, voice tone, and physical actionscan be misunderstood. Soldiers and leaderseven have difficulty recognizing one anothersince everybody looks about the same in MOPPgear. When radio operators are wearingprotective masks, the number and length ofradio t ransmiss ions increase andtransmissions are difficult to understand.

Combat Power. The nature of battle changesdramatically under NBC conditions.Operations take longer or require more troops tocomplete successfully. Firing rates decrease forindividual and crew-served weapons. Soldiersand crews often use terrain less effectively forcover and concealment, and the possibilityincreases of soldiers accidentally firing atfriendly personnel.

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Units rely more on indirect fire. Calls for firetake longer, and locating targets accurately ismore difficult. The time required to process firemissions and deliver effective indirect firesincreases accordingly.

Human and Physiological Considerations.In MOPP gear, soldiers tend to omit, or poorlycomplete, tasks such as camouflage andmaintenance. This is especially true after sixhours in MOPP4. Every task requires more timeand effort to complete. Fatigue, frustration,dehydration, and less effective leadershipcontribute to lower overall performance underNBC conditions. Soldiers in MOPP geardehydrate without realizing it and fail to drinkadequate fluids to rehydrate their bodies.Eating is not possible while in protective masksand physical endurance suffers.

SUMMARYThe environment of future combat operations

will probably place greater stress on soldiersthan in past wars. Our potential enemy’sdoctrine and equipment indicate an intent tofight around the clock and advance rapidly.Technology has also created the capability todisrupt radio and radar use and locatecommand posts where radio transmissionsoriginate. Future technology will create otheroffensive weapons that are more devastating

than any used in previous wars. The effects ofthis technology on soldiers can be great.

After long periods of continuous operationsand sleep loss, the ability to think and reasonsuffers. You must take actions to reduce the rateof performance decline. You will need to repeatinstructions, give simple directions, and double-check yourself and others. You must developsoldiers’ confidence through tough trainingthat simulates combat conditions. Ensure youand your subordinates get as much sleep as thetactical situation permits; severe problemsdevelop after several days if soldiers getless than three hours of sleep each day.

Since the enemy may use NBC weapons, youmust train your soldiers to perform the missionunder simulated NBC conditions. Commandand control suffers significantly because ofexhaustion and leader behavior changes.Communicating is difficult when wearingMOPP gear and soldiers and leaders havedifficulty recognizing each other. Soldiers andcrews use terrain much less effectively for coverand concealment, and land navigation andorientation are more difficult.

In peacetime, you must train under simulatedcombat conditions, develop SOP, and practicesleep discipline. Talk with your soldiers and letthem know what they can expect from theirequipment and what you will expect from them.

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APPENDIX AL e a d e r s h i p C o m p e t e n c i e s

The leadership factors and principles addressedin Chapter 2 are the basis for the Army’sleadership education and training framework.This education and training must take place ina logical order, build on past experience andtraining, and have a warfighting focus. Thenine leadership competencies provide aframework for leadership development andassessment. They establish broad categrories ofskills, knowledge, anti attitudes that defineleader behavior. They are areas where leadersmust be competent.

The leadership competencies were developedin 1976 from a study of leaders from the rank of’corporal to that of general officer. The studyidentified nine functions all leaders mustperform if an organization is to operateeffectively. Although all leaders exercise thecompetencies, their application depends on theleader’s position in the organization. Forexample, the amount and detail of supervision asquad leader normally gives to his soldierswould be inappropriate fo r a ba t t a l ionCommander t o g i v e t o h i s c o m p a n y

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commanders. Like the principles of leadership,the competencies are not simply a list tomemorize. Use them to assess yourself and yoursubordinates and develop an action plan toimprove your ability to lead.

COMMUNICATIONSCommunications is the exchange of

information and ideas from one person toanother. Effective communications occurswhen others understand exactly what you aretrying to tell them and when you understandexactly what they are trying to tell you. Youcommunicate to direct, influence, coordinate,encourage, supervise, train, teach, coach, andcounsel. You need to be able to understand andthink through a problem and translate that ideain a clear, concise, measured fashion. Yourmessage should be easy to understand, serve thepurpose, and be appropriate for your audience.This competency is addressed further inChapter 2 of this manual.

SUPERVISIONYou must control, direct, evaluate, coordinate,

and plan the efforts of subordinates so that youcan ensure the task is accomplished.Supervision ensures the efficient use of materieland equipment and the effectiveness ofoperational procedures. It includes establishinggoals and evaluating skills. Supervising letsyou know if your orders are understood andshows your interest in soldiers and the mission.Remember that oversupervision causesresentment and undersupervision causesfrustration. By considering your soldiers’competence, motivation, and commitment toperform a task, you can judge the amount ofsupervision needed. This competency isdiscussed further in Chapters 5 and 6 of thismanual.

TEACHING AND COUNSELINGTeaching and counseling refer to improving

performance by overcoming problems,increasing knowledge, or gaining newperspectives and skills. Teaching your soldiersis the only way you can truly prepare them tosucceed and survive in combat. You must take adirect hand in your soldiers’ professional andpersonal development. Counseling is especiallyimportant in the Army. Because of the Army’smission, leaders must be concerned with theentire scope of soldiers’ well-being. Personal

counseling should adopt a problem-solving,rather than an advising, approach. You alsoneed the judgment to refer a situation to yourleader, the chaplain, or a service agency if it isbeyond your ability to handle. You will, ofcourse, follow up on this action. Performancecounseling focuses on soldiers’ behavior as itrelates to duty performance. Militarycounseling is discussed further in Chapter 6 ofthis manual, and FM 22-101 is devoted entirelyto the subject.

SOLDIER TEAMDEVELOPMENT

You must create strong bonds between youand your soldiers so that your unit functions asa team. Since combat is a team activity,cohesive soldier teams are a battlefieldrequirement. You must take care of your soldiersand conserve and build their spirit, endurance,skill, and confidence to face the inevitablehardships and sacrifices of combat. Theeffectiveness of a cohesive, disciplined unit isbuilt on bonds of mutual trust, respect, andconfidence. Good leaders recognize how peers,seniors, and subordinates work together toproduce successes. Soldier team development issignificant in training and orienting soldiers tonew tasks and units, You can help new soldiersbecome committed members of the organizationif you work hard at making them members ofyour team. This competency is discussed furtherin FM 22-102 and Chapter 6 of this manual.

TECHNICAL AND TACTICALPROFICIENCY

You must know your job. You must be able totrain your soldiers, maintain and employ yourequipment, and provide combat power to helpwin battles. You will gain technical proficiencyin formal Army training programs, self-study,and on-the-job experience, You have to knowyour job so that you can train your soldiers,employ your weapons systems, and help yourleader employ your unit. Tactical competencerequires you to know warfighting doctrine sothat you can understand your leader’s intentand help win battles by understanding themission, enemy, terrain, troops, and timeavailable. Technical proficiency and tacticalproficiency are difficult to separate. Thiscompetency is discussed in detail in Chapter 5 ofthis manual.

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DECISION MAKINGDecision making refers to skills you need to

make choices and solve problems, Your goal isto make high-quality decisions your soldiersaccept and execute quickly. Further, it isimportant that decisions be made at the lowestorganizational level where information issufficient. Like planning, decision making is anexcellent way for you to develop your leadershipteam. Include subordinates in the decision-making process if time is available and if theyshare your goals and have information that willhelp produce high-quality decisions. Decisionmaking is discussed further in Chapter 6 of thismanual.

PLANNINGPlanning is intended to support a course of

action so that an organization can meet anobjective. It involves forecasting, setting goalsand objectives, developing strategies,establishing priorities, delegating, sequencingand timing, organizing, budgeting, andstandardizing procedures. Soldiers like to haveorder in their lives, so they depend on you tokeep them informed and to plan training andoperations to ensure success. Including yoursubordinate leaders in the planning process isan excellent way for you to develop your leader-ship team. Remember, one of your tasks is toprepare your subordinates to replace you, ifnecessary. Planning is discussed further inChapter 6 of this manual.

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USE OF AVAILABLE SYSTEMSYou must be familiar with techniques,

methods, and tools that will give you and yoursoldiers the edge. Use of available systemsliterally means that you know how to usecomputers, analytical techniques, and othermodern technological means that are availableto manage information and to help you and yoursoldiers better perform the mission. Thiscompetency may vary dependent upon yourleadership position. You must recognize,however, that understanding computertechnological advances is important. You mustuse every available system or technique thatwill benefit the planning, execution, andassessment of training,

PROFESSIONAL ETHICSMilitary ethics includes loyalty to the nation,

the Army, and your unit; duty; selfless service;and integrity. This leadership competencyrelates to your responsibility to behave in amanner consistent with the professional Armyethic and to set the example for yoursubordinates.

As a leader, you must learn to be sensitive tothe ethical elements of situations you face, aswell as to your orders, plans, and policies. Youmust learn to use an informed, rational decision-making process to reason through and resolveethical dilemmas and then teach yoursubordinates to do the same. Profession al ethicsis discussed further in Chapter 4 of this manual.

APPENDIX BLeadership Styles

Leadership style is the personal manner andapproach of leading (providing purpose,direction, and motivation). It is the way leadersdirectly interact with their subordinates.

Effective leaders are flexible in the way theyinteract with subordinates. They deal withsubordinates differently, changing the waythey interact as a subordinate develops or as thesituation or mission changes. Your manner andapproach of leading will obviously depend onyour training, education, experience, and viewof the world. You have to be yourself, yet flexibleenough to adjust to the people you lead and tothe missions you are assigned.

Some say they admire a certain leaderbecause he always seems to know exactly whatto do in a particular situation, Or they admire aleader who knows just the right words to say atthe right time to ensure the mission isaccomplished and soldiers are cared for.Experience has taught you that you should notdeal with all people the same. For example, youknow it is not effective to deal with a new soldierthe same as you would deal with an experiencedtank commander or section chief.

For years, when people talked aboutleadership styles, they thought about twoextremes—an autocratic style and a democraticstyle. Autocratic leaders used their legitimateauthority and the power of their position to getresults while democratic leaders used theirpersonality to persuade, and involvedsubordinates in solving problems and makingdecisions. Thinking like this fails to considerthe possibility of a leader using different stylesand being flexible enough to be autocratic attimes and democratic at other times, or tocombine the two extreme styles at still othertimes.

There are three basic styles of militaryleadership—directing, participating, anddelegating.

DIRECTING STYLEA leader is using the directing leadership style

when he tells subordinates what he wants done,how he wants it done, where he wants it done,

and when he wants it done and then supervisesclosely to ensure they follow his directions. Thisstyle is clearly appropriate in many situations.When time is short and you alone know whatneeds to be done and how to do it, this style is thebest way to accomplish the mission. Whenleading subordinates who lack experience orcompetence at a task, you need to direct theirbehavior using this style. They will not resentyour close supervision. You will be giving themwhat they need and want. In fact, askinginexperienced subordinates to help you solvecomplex problems or plan an operation would befrustrating for them.

If a leader announces that the unit willconduct day and night land navigation trainingover an 8-kilometer course in full field uniform,he is using the directing style of leadership. Hedid not ask for any information orrecommendations before making andannouncing the decision.

Some people think that a leader is using thedirecting style when he yells, uses demeaninglanguage, or threatens and intimidatessubordinates. This is not the directing style. It issimply an abusive, unprofessional way to treatsubordinates.

PARTICIPATING STYLEA leader is using the participating style when

he involves subordinates in determining whatto do and how to do it. The leader asks forinformation and recommendations; however,he still makes the decisions, He simply getsadvice from subordinates before making thedecision. This style is appropriate for manyleadership situations. If your subordinates havesome competence and support your goals,allowing them to participate can be a powerfulteam-building process. It will build theirconfidence and increase their support for thefinal plan if they help develop it.

If a leader asks subordinates to recommendthe location and course layout for the landnavigation training before making his finalplans, he is using the participating style ofleadership. He still makes the decision but

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considers information and recommendationsfrom his subordinates first.

Do not be concerned that asking asubordinate for advice or using a subordinate’sgood plan or idea shows weakness. The oppositeis true; it is a sign of strength that yoursubordinates will respect. On the other hand,you are responsible for the quality of your plansand decisions. If you believe an idea one of yoursubordinates offers is not a good one, you mustreject the idea and do what you believe is right,regardless of pressure to do otherwise.

DELEGATING STYLEA leader is using the delegating style when he

delegates problem-solving and decision-makingauthority to a subordinate or to a group ofsubordinates. This style is appropriate whendealing with mature subordinates who supportyour goals and are competent and motivated toperform the task delegated. While you arealways accountable to your leader for the resultsof any task you delegate, you must hold yoursubordinates accountable to you for theiractions and performance.

If a leader tasks an experienced andmotivated subordinate to plan, organize, andrun the land navigation training, he is using thedelegating style of leadership.

Some things are appropriate to delegate;others are not. The key is to release yoursubordinates’ problem-solving potential whileyou determine what problems they should solveand help them learn to solve them.

CHOOSING A STYLEChoosing the correct style of leadership

requires you to understand the four factors ofleadership (Chapter 2). You (the leader) mustsize up every situation and subordinate (the led)carefully to choose the right style. Consider howcompetent, motivated, and committed those youlead are at the task (the situation) you wantperformed. Have they done it before? Were theysuccessful? Will they need your supervision,direction, or encouragement to accomplish themission to standards? The answers to thesequestions will help you choose the bestleadership style and manner to communicate sothat your soldiers will understand your intentand want to help you accomplish the mission.

As a leader you want to develop and train yoursubordinates so that you can confidently

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delegate tasks to them. The delegating style isthe most efficient of the three leadership styles.It requires the least amount of your time andenergy to interact, direct, and communicatewith your subordinates. Because it is the mostefficient style, it is in your best interest to use thedelegating style with as many of yoursubordinates and as much of the time aspossible. But before you can use the delegatingleadership style, you must train and developyour subordinates.

An inexperienced subordinate needs yourdirection. You must tell him what needs to bedone and how to do it. After he gains somecompetence, and if he is motivated and sharesyour goals, you can reduce the amount ofsupervision you give to him. Encourage him,ask him for advice, and allow him to participatein helping you make plans and decisions. Withtime, experience, and your skillful leadership,this person will gain even more competence andbecome even more motivated and committed tohelping the unit accomplish its missions. Whenyou have trained and developed a subordinateto this level of competence and commitment, usethe delegating style of leadership.

As missions change or as new tasks areassigned, you will need to continue to be flexiblein the leadership style you use. Even though youhave successfully used the delegatingleadership style with a subordinate, you mayneed to temporarily return to the directing styleof leadership if you give him an unfamiliar, or anew, task. Because the soldier is unfamiliarwith the task, you will need to tell him what to doand how to do it. As the subordinate gainscompetence, confidence, and motivation in thisnew task, you can gradually shift your styleagain to the participating or delegating style.By assessing the leadership needs of yoursubordinates, you can determine whatleadership style to use.

Do not confuse emotion or anger with styles ofleadership. A company commander frustratedwith a poor maintenance program in his unitmight angrily say to his platoon leaders, “Thestate of maintenance in this unit is terrible! I donot have the answers, but you are going todevelop a plan to fix it, Nobody is leaving thisoffice until you all develop a plan and agree onit!” He is using a delegating style becauseafter he identifies the problem,his platoon leaders complete freedomthe plan,

he givesto develop

Another leader might announce that the unitwill observe the unit’s organization day with abarbecue followed by three hours of athleticsand recreation. This is an example of thedirecting style since the leader makes thedecision without asking for advice orrecommendations.

There is no one best leadership style. Whatworks in one situation may not work in another.You must develop the flexibility to use all threestyles; further, you must develop the judgmentto choose the style that best meets the situationand the needs of the subordinate.

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APPENDIX CAssuming A Leadership Position

Assuming a leadership position is one of thespecial leadership situations you will face.Everything discussed in this manual aboutwhat you must BE, KNOW, and DO is relevantto assuming a leadership position.

DIRECTING INITIAL EFFORTSWhen assuming a leadership position, you

should consider the four factors of leadership(Chapter .2). Direct your initial efforts—• To determine what is expected of your

organization.• To determine who your immediate leader is

and what he expects of you.• To determine the level of competence and the

strengths and weaknesses of yoursubordinates.

• To identify the key people outside of yourorganization whose willing support you needto accomplish the mission.

CHOOSING THE BESTLEADERSHIP STYLE

Do not fall into the trap of believing that sometechniques always work, such as observing for aweek or two and then making changes or goinginto an organization “like a lion” and thenbecoming “like a lamb.” Such beliefs will causeyou to miss the benefits of the thought processused to select the appropriate leadership style(directing, participating, or delegating). Thebest strategy in one situation can be exactly thewrong strategy in another situation. Forexample, you would use a different leadershipstyle when taking over a well-trained andproficient organization than when replacing aleader relieved for inefficiency or inability todiscipline or train.

As a leader, you must always establish andenforce standards and provide purpose,direction, and motivation for your soldiers.When assuming a leadership position, you mustassess the readiness of the organization toperform its mission and then develop a strategyto provide what the organization needs. Youshould use the leadership style that your

experience tells you is most appropriate afteryou have assessed the unit’s level ofcompetence, motivation, and commitment toaccomplish the mission. In fact, you willprobably use all three styles with differentsubordinates or in different situations. Yourstyle will need to change when new missions arereceived, new soldiers and leaders are assigned,or the competence, motivation, or commitmentof your soldiers changes.

When you assume a leadership position, talkto your leader, your peers, and key people suchas the chaplain and the sergeant major. Seekclear answers to the following questions:• What is the organization’s mission’?• How does this mission fit in with the mission

of the next higher organization?• What functions am I responsible for, such as

training, maintenance, and administration’?• What are the standards the organization

must meet?• What resources are available to help the

organization accomplish the mission’?• What is the current state of morale’?• Who reports directly to me ?• What are the strengths and weaknesses of my

key subordinates and the unit?• Who are the key people outside of the

organization who support missionaccomplishment? What are their strengthsand weaknesses?Be sure you ask these questions at the right

time, of the right person, and in the rightmanner. Answers to these questions, and othersthat flow from them, should give you theinformation you need to correctly assess thesituation and select the right leadershipstrategy. You must also remain flexible enoughto adapt your leadership style as youcontinually assess the competence, motivation,”and commitment of your subordinates and theorganization.

Sharing your leadership or commandphilosophy with your subordinates will make

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your transition more efficient. Your your promise of how you intend to lead andsubordinates will appreciate the chance to see interact with your subordinates. Commandhow you intend to lead and welcome the chance philosophies at company level and higher areto ask questions. Your leadership philosophy is often written when the situation permits,

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APPENDIX D Officer and Noncommissioned

Officer Relationships

An important part of effective leadership isthe ability of commissioned and warrantofficers to work together with NCOs. To developeffective working relationships, both mustknow the similarities and differences in theirrespective roles, duties, and responsibilities.

Since officers and NCOs share the samegoal—to accomplish their unit’s mission—it isevident their responsibilities overlap and mustbe shared. Much discussion, however, concernswho is really responsible for what. What is“officer business, ” and what is “NCObusiness”?

TRADITIONS AND LAWSThe complementary relationship and mutual

respect between officers and NCOs aretraditions in the US Army. Since the Army’sbeginning in 1775, officer and NCO duties havebeen separate but necessarily related.Traditions, functions, and laws determine theparticular duties of officers and NCOs.

Commissions are legal instruments by whichthe President appoints and exercises directcontrol over qualified people to act as his legalagents and help him carry out his duties. TheArmy retains this “direct-agent” relationshipwith the President through its commissionedofficers. It is the basis for commissionedofficers’ legal authority and placement inpositions of authority in Army organizations,Warrant officers are appointed by the Secretaryof the Army. Public Law provides forcommissioning chief warrant officers, and theirauthority comes from the same source as othercommissioned officers. NCOs do not deriveauthority from commissions. Rather, officersdelegate the authority NCOs need to get themission accomplished. NCOs serve as agentsfor officers.

OFFICER AND NCORESPONSIBILITIES

No sharp, definitive lines separate officer andNCO responsibilities. In general, commandersset the overall policies and standards. officers

lead NCOs and help them carry out theirresponsibilities. Officers cannot simply say,“That’s sergeants’ business, ” nor should theydo NCOs’ work for them. Officers must giveNCOs the guidance, resources, assistance, andsupervision necessary for them to do theirduties. By the same token, NCOs areresponsible for assisting and advising officersin carrying out their duties. Missions demandthat officers and NCOs work together andadvise, assist, and learn from one another.

In a unit, officers and NCOs must determinethe best division of responsibilities and tasks ofeach by considering the mission, the situation,and individual abilities and personalities. Thefollowing chart has general responsibilities forofficers and NC OS.

COMMUNICATIONSThe Army has but one chain of command. The

NCO support channel parallels and reinforcesit. Both are means of communication andcontrol. For the chain of command to workefficiently, the NCO support channel mustoperate effectively.

The battalion or higher-level NCO supportchannel begins with the CSM and ends withsection chiefs, squad leaders, or team leaders.Between these points are intermediate levelssuch as first sergeants and platoon sergeants.

NCOs use the support channel to passinformation, issue orders, and accomplishroutine, but important, missions. Most often,they use it to put policies and procedures intoeffect and to enforce standards of performance,training, appearance, and conduct.

In addition to conducting normal operations,NCOs advise commanders on individual soldierproficiency and training needed to ensure unitreadiness. Commanders are then free to plan,make decisions, and program future trainingand operations. Although a commander usuallyconsults with his first sergeant or CSM beforegiving orders to the chain of command, this doesnot mean these NCOs are in the chain of

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command. Senior NCOs must know what authority when they fill positions requiring theinstructions are being issued in order tosupervise the NCO support channel effectively.

Officers and NCOs at all levels mustcontinually communicate with one another.Whether the information or tasks begin in thechain of command or in the NCO supportchannel, informing counterparts preventsduplicating, or issuing conflicting, orders.

Besides the chain of command and the NCOsupport channel, most units at battalion leveland above have staff and technical channels.For example, a battalion staff has S1, S2, S;1,and S4 sections.

AUTHORITYAuthority is the legitimate power of leaders to

direct subordinates or to take action within thescope of their responsibility. Legal authoritybegins with the Constitution. It dividesauthority for the military betweenand the President. Congress has theto make laws to govern the Army; thehas the authority to command theCommander in Chief.

CongressauthorityPresidentArmy as

Command AuthorityCommand authority can come from

regulations or laws, but it primarily originateswith the President. Leaders have command

direction and control of other members of theArmy. That authority is restricted, however, tothe soldiers and facilities in their own units.

Command authority is not limited tocommissioned and warrant officers,Commanders are leaders who direct and controlsoldiers as an official part of their duties. Suchleaders have the inherent authority to issueorders, carry out the unit mission, and care forsoldiers, unless contrary to law or regulation.

Enlisted soldiers can have commandauthority. Tank commanders, squad leaders,platoon sergeants, and dining facilitymanagers all use command authority to directand control.

General Military AuthorityGeneral military authority is the authority

extended to all soldiers to take action. It originatesin oaths of office, law, rank structure, tradition,and regulation. For example, the UCMJ givesauthority to “commissioned officers, warrantofficers, petty officers, and noncommissionedofficers to quell quarrels, frays, disorders . . .and to apprehend personnel . . . who take part. ”Leaders may exercise general military authorityover soldiers from different units. When anNC O of one battalion stops a soldier fromanother to give instruction on military courtesy,he is exercising general military authority.

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Delegation of AuthorityJust as it is impossible for Congress and the

President to participate in every facet of thearmed forces, it is impractical for commissionedofficers to handle every action directly. To meetthe organization’s goals, they must delegateauthority to NC OS.

AccountabilityWhen you are responsible for something, you

are liable, or accountable, for the outcome. Youmust answer for either an action or an omission.Responsibilities fall into two categories:individual and command.

Soldiers have individual responsibilities.They are responsible for their own actions.Nobody gives or delegates individualresponsibilities. Soldiers assume them whenthey take their oath of enlistment.

Command responsibilities refer to collectiveor organizational accountability and includehow well units perform their missions. Forexample, the platoon sergeant is responsible forall the tasks and missions assigned to hisplatoon, as directed by the platoon leader. Thesergeant of the guard is responsible for allactivities related to guard duty.

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APPENDIX E

Developmental Leadership Assessment

Developmental leadership assessment is aprocess used to improve a person’s ability tolead. It involves comparing performance to astandard or performance indicator, givingfeedback, and developing a plan to improveleadership performance. It is an essentialelement of your leader developmentresponsibilities. Just as you need your leaders’coaching, your subordinates need your help toimprove their leadership performance.

You have two leadership assessmentresponsibilities. First, assess your ownleadership performance. Identify yourstrengths and weaknesses and work to improveyourself. Second, assess your subordinates’leadership performance, give them feedback,and help them overcome their weaknesses.

THE LEADERSHIPASSESSMENT PROCESS

The goal of leadership assessment is todevelop competent and confident leaders.Leadership assessment should be a positive,useful experience that does not confuse,intimidate, or negatively impact on leaders. Itshould be conducted as follows:●

●

●

●

●

l

Decide what leadership skill, knowledge, orattitude you want to assess.Make a plan to observe the leadershipperformance.Observe the leadership performance andrecord your observations.Compare the leadership performance youobserved to a standard or performanceindicator. (Performance standards orindicators must be based on the nineleadership competencies discussed inAppendix A.)Decide if the leadership performance youobserved exceeds, meets, or is below thestandard or performance indicator.Give the person leadership performancefeedback. (FM 22-101 can help you learn togive useful and accurate feedback yoursubordinates will accept.)

• Help the person develop an action plan toimprove leadership performance.Normally, leadership assessment will not

lead to improved performance unless it includesan action plan designed to change undesirableperformance and reinforce desirableperformance. The leader and the subordinatemust—• Design the action plan together.• Agree on the actions necessary to improve

leadership performance.• Review the action plan frequently to see if the

subordinate is making progress and todetermine if the plan needs to be changed.Naturally, when assessing your own

leadership performance you have to modify thesteps. First, examine your performance in aparticular situation. Then, compare yourperformance to a leadership standard orperformance indicator. Finally, decide how youcan improve your leadership performance, ifappropriate. You may want to discuss your self-assessment with your leaders, peers,subordinates, and others.

FEEDBACK SOURCESA complete and accurate leadership

assessment includes feedback from these sixsources:• The person himself.• Leaders.• Peers.• Subordinates.• Close friends and family members.• Trained leadership assessors. Some service

school instructors have received specialleadership assessment training.It will not always be possible to get feedback

from all of these sources, but each of them cangive valuable information about a person’sleadership performance. If you can get feedbackfrom all six sources, you will have a completepicture of the person’s leadership performance.

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References

REQUIRED PUBLICATIONS: Required publications are sources that usersmust read in order to understand or to comply with this publication.

FIELD MANUALS (FMs):100-1 The Army100-5 Operations

RELATED PUBLICATIONS: Related publications are sources of additionalinformation, They are not required in order to understand thispublication.

ARMY REGULATIONS (ARs):600-20 Army Command Policy600-100 Army Leadership

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY PAMPHLET (DA PAM):600-25 US Army Noncommissioned Officer Professional Guide

FIELD MANUALS (FMs):3-1 NBC Protection3-100 NBC Operations22-9 Soldier Performance in Continuous Operations22-101 Leadership Counseling22-102 Soldier Team Developrnent22-103 Leadership and Command at Senior Levels25-2 Unit Training Management25-3 Training in Units25-100 Training the Force26-2 Management of Stress in Army Operations101-5 Staff Organization and Operations

TRAINING CIRCULARS (TCs):22-9-1 leader Developrnent Program, Military Professionalism (Platoon/

Squad Instruction)22-9-2 Leader Development Program, Military Professionalism

(Company/Battery Instruction)22-9-3 Leader Development Program, Military Professionalism (Battalion

Instruction)

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OTHER PUBLICATIONS:Albright, John, John A. Cash, and Allan W. Sandstrum. Seven Firefights.

Washington, D. C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970.Ardant du Picq, Charles Jean Jacques Joseph. Battle Studies: Ancient and

Modern. Trans. Colonel John W. Greely and Major Robert C. Cotton.Harrisburg, PA: Military Service Publishing Co., 1947.

Blanchard, Kenneth H., and Keith L. Kettler. “A Situational Approach toLeader Development.” Student Text 22-3, USA Command and General StaffCollege, Fort Leavenworth, KS, 1987.

Draper, Edward S., and John J. Lombardi. Combined Arms in a Nuclear/Chemical Environment Force Development Testing and Experimentation:Summary Evaluation Report, Phase I, U.S. Army Chemical School,Fort McClellan, AL, 1986.

Fussell, Paul. The Boy Scout Handbook and Other Observations. New Yorkand Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982.

Garland, Albert N., ed. Infantry in Vietnam: Small Unit Actions in the EarlyDays: 196,5-66. Nashville: The Battery Press, 1967.

Gugeler, Russell A. Combat Actions in Korea. Washington, D. C.: U.S.Government Printing Office, 1984.

“Heroes: One Day’s Work.” Time, 11 September 1964, p 26.Jacobs, Bruce. Heroes of the Army: The Medal of Honor and Its Winners.

New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 1956.Marshall, S. L. A. The Soldier’s Load and the Mobility of a Nation, Quantico,

VA: The Marine Corps Association, 1980.Pullen, John J. The Twentieth Maine. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott CO., 1957;

Dayton, OH: Press of Morningside Bookshop, 1980.Puryear, Edgar F., Jr. Nineteen Stars. Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1971.Smith, Perry M. Taking Charge: A Practical Guide for Leaders. Washington,

D. C.: National Defense University Press, 1986.Wallace, Willard M. Soul of the Lion. New York: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1960.

SUGGESTED READINGS: Suggested readings are significant works foradditional study and reflection on leadership and on the militaryprofession.

Associates, Department of Behavioral Sciences and Leadership, USMA.Leadership in Organizations. Garden City Park, NY: Avery PublishingGroup Inc., 1988.

Bass, Bernard M. Stogdill’s Handbook of Leadership. New York: Free Press,1981.

Bass, Bernard M. Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectations.New York: Free Press, 1985.

Bennis, Warren, and Burt Nanus. Leaders: The Strategies for Taking Charge.New York: Harper and Row, 1985.

Blanchard, Kenneth H., Patricia Zigarmi, and Drea Zigarmi. Leadership andthe One Minute Manager. New York: Morrow, 1985.

Burns, James MacGregor. Leadership. New York: Harper and Row, 1978.Chamberlain, Joshua Lawrence. The Passing of the Armies. Dayton, OH:

Press of Morningside Bookshop, 1981.Clarke, Bruce C. Guidelines for the Leader and the Commander. Harrisburg,

PA: Stackpole Books, 1973.

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Clausewitz, Carl von. On War. Ed. and trans. Michael Howard and Peter Paret.Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976.

Collins, Arthur S., Jr. Common Sense Training. San Rafael, CA: Presidio Press,1978.

Crane, Stephen. The Red Badge of Courage. Logan, IA: Perfection Form, 1979.Forester, C. S. Rifleman Dodd. Garden City, NY: Sun Dial Press, 1944.Gabriel, Richard A. To Serve with Honor: A Treatise on Military Ethics and the

Way of the Soldier.Holmes, Richard. Acts of War: The Behavior of Men in Battle. New York: Free

Press, 1985.Keegan, John. The Face of Battle. New York: Viking Press, 1976.Kellett, Anthony. Combat Motivation: The Behavior of Soldiers in Battle.

Boston: Kluwer-Nijhoff Publishing, 1982.MacDonald, Charles B. The Battle of the Huertgen Forest. New York: J. P.

Lippincott Co., 1963.Malone, Dandridge M. Small Unit Leadership: A Commonsense Approach.

San Francisco: Presidio Press, 1983.Marshall, S. L. A. Men Against Fire. Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1947.Myrer, Anton. Once an Eagle. New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1970.Newman, Aubrey S. Follow Me. San Francisco: Presidio Press, 1981.Norton, Oliver Willcox. The Attack and Defense of Little Round Top. Dayton,

OH: Press of Morningside Bookshop, 1978.Nye, Roger H. The Challenge of Command. New York: Avery Publishing

Group, Inc., 1986.Peters, Thomas J., and Nancy Austin. A Passion for Excellence, The Leadership

Difference. New York: Random House, 1985.Pullen, John J. The Twentieth Maine. Philadelphia: J. R. Lippincott Co., 1957;

Dayton, OH: Press of Morningside Bookshop, 1980.Sajer, Guy. The Forgotten Soldier. New York: Harper and Row, 1971.Shaara, Michael. The Killer Angels. New York: Ballantine Books, 1974.Smith, Perry M. Taking Charge.” A Practical Guide for Leaders. Wash D. C.:

National Defense University Press, 1986.Stockdale, James B. A Vietnam Experience: Ten Years of Reflection. Stanford,

CA: Hoover Press, 1984.Taylor, Robert L. and William E. Rosenbach. Military Leadership In Pursuit of

Excellence, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1984.Truscott, L. K., ,Jr. Command Missions, New York: E. P. Dutton and Co., 1954.Wakin, Malham M., ed. War, Morality, and the Military Profession. Boulder,

CO: Westview, 1979.Walzer, Michael. Just and Unjust Wars. New York: Basic Books Inc., 1977.Waterman, Robert H., and Thomas J. Peters. In Search of Excellence.

New York: Harper and Row, 1982.

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