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Promoting Teacher Learning Through Learning Study Discourse: The Case of Science Teachers in Singapore Yuen Sze Michelle Tan Samson Madera Nashon Ó The Association for Science Teacher Education, USA 2013 Abstract The potential of a theory of variation-framed learning study, a teacher professional development approach, to help teachers overcome curricular and pedagogical challenges associated with teaching new science curricula content was explored. With a group of Singapore teachers collaboratively planning and teaching new genetics content, phenomenographic analysis of data corpus from classroom observations, teacher meetings and interviews revealed teacher learning that man- ifested in the teachers’ experiences. These were captured as (1) increased degrees of student-centered pedagogy and challenges to teachers’ prior assumptions about science pedagogy, (2) increased awareness of possibilities and limitations of their beliefs about science pedagogy, and (3) emergence of new understandings about new curricular content and science pedagogy. The possibility of transformative and generative learning is also discussed. Keywords Curriculum Á Learning study Á Teacher beliefs Á Teacher learning Á Professional development Á Theory of variation Introduction The introduction of large-scale science curriculum reforms has often faced challenges (Davis 2003). With the rhetoric of these reforms recognizing that Y. S. M. Tan (&) Office of Education Research, National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Nanyang Walk, Singapore 637616, Singapore e-mail: [email protected] S. M. Nashon Department of Curriculum and Pedagogy, Faculty of Education, University of British Columbia, 2125 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada e-mail: [email protected] 123 J Sci Teacher Educ DOI 10.1007/s10972-013-9340-5

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Page 1: Promoting Teacher Learning Through Learning Study Discourse: The Case of Science Teachers in Singapore

Promoting Teacher Learning Through Learning StudyDiscourse: The Case of Science Teachers in Singapore

Yuen Sze Michelle Tan • Samson Madera Nashon

� The Association for Science Teacher Education, USA 2013

Abstract The potential of a theory of variation-framed learning study, a teacher

professional development approach, to help teachers overcome curricular and

pedagogical challenges associated with teaching new science curricula content was

explored. With a group of Singapore teachers collaboratively planning and teaching

new genetics content, phenomenographic analysis of data corpus from classroom

observations, teacher meetings and interviews revealed teacher learning that man-

ifested in the teachers’ experiences. These were captured as (1) increased degrees of

student-centered pedagogy and challenges to teachers’ prior assumptions about

science pedagogy, (2) increased awareness of possibilities and limitations of their

beliefs about science pedagogy, and (3) emergence of new understandings about

new curricular content and science pedagogy. The possibility of transformative and

generative learning is also discussed.

Keywords Curriculum � Learning study � Teacher beliefs � Teacher learning �Professional development � Theory of variation

Introduction

The introduction of large-scale science curriculum reforms has often faced

challenges (Davis 2003). With the rhetoric of these reforms recognizing that

Y. S. M. Tan (&)

Office of Education Research, National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University,

1 Nanyang Walk, Singapore 637616, Singapore

e-mail: [email protected]

S. M. Nashon

Department of Curriculum and Pedagogy, Faculty of Education, University of British Columbia,

2125 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada

e-mail: [email protected]

123

J Sci Teacher Educ

DOI 10.1007/s10972-013-9340-5

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teachers hold the key to change, research literature has shown how the successes of

these reforms depend on opportunities for teachers to adapt the curriculum for local

use, for collaboration and dialogues, and for professional development (Barab and

Luehmann 2003; Davis 2003; Peers et al. 2003). Research studies have also

highlighted how teachers’ interests, dispositions and beliefs can determine if the

learning outcomes stipulated in a science curriculum are achieved (Coenders et al.

2008; Haney et al. 2002).

An example of a teacher professional development (PD) program that has been

utilized to prepare teachers to enact new curriculum, and thus support the agendas of

educational reforms, is the learning study approach (Elliott 2012). Widely employed

in Hong Kong and Sweden, learning study promotes teacher research and

collaboration as a way for teachers to tackle curricular and pedagogical challenges

encountered in curriculum reforms. A review of literature suggests that research

studies have consistently highlighted how student and teacher learning were

enriched. However, there appears to be a paucity of studies focusing on teacher

beliefs and how they support curriculum reforms. Moreover, the teacher learning

mechanism accompanying this aspect of teacher PD is still relatively unexplored in

learning study literature.

Given the importance of teacher beliefs in supporting curriculum reform agendas,

the purpose of the study was to explore the influence of Singapore teachers’ beliefs

on enacting new curricular content. Furthermore, as an attempt to address the gap in

learning study literature, we also wanted to explore how the teachers’ beliefs

changed and in turn prepared them to deal with new curricular initiatives. Set in the

context of a Singapore learning study comprising of four Grade 9–10 biology

teachers, and premised on how shifts in teacher beliefs may constitute learning

(Pang 2006), we employed phenomenographic methods of analysis (Bowden and

Walsh 1994; Marton 1988) to capture the different ways the teachers experienced

their own learning. Focusing on teacher beliefs, the research question that guided

our study is: What is the nature of learning that manifest in a group of Singaporeteachers’ learning study experience of planning and enacting lessons focusing onnew Biology content?

In this learning study, the nature of teacher learning was captured as shifts in beliefs

and pedagogy. Therefore, beyond focusing on the nature of a new curriculum

(Schneider and Krajcik 2002), the results are significant in directing attention to a

possible PD approach that may increase the successes of curriculum reforms. This

approach provided teachers opportunities to adapt the curriculum as part of their own

research into their own classrooms, and promoted their collaboration and discussions

around the curriculum (Barab and Luehmann 2003; Davis 2003; Peers et al. 2003).

In addition, by framing shifts in teacher beliefs as instances of teacher learning, the

study contributes to teacher learning literature examining the relationships between

teacher beliefs and learning (e.g., Clarke and Hollingsworth 2002). As a consequence,

the often-perceived dichotomy between the two is dissolved. Furthermore, such a view

of learning discourages changing teachers’ beliefs merely for the sake of addressing

reform challenges. Rather, it encourages greater attention on how teachers can

transform potentially problematic contexts of curriculum reforms to contexts that

promote their own learning.

Y. S. M. Tan, S. M. Nashon

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Context of Study

In Singapore, a compulsory General Science curriculum is taught in Grade 7 and 8,

and students are offered different combinations of Chemistry, Physics and Biology

at upper grade levels. Determined by the streaming exercises implemented at lower

grade levels, students will sit for the high-stakes national examinations either at the

end of Grade 10 or 11. Incidentally, the prescribed science curricula are closely

aligned to these examinations.

To meet the changing demands in education and in Singapore, the nation-wide

science curricula are usually reviewed after 6 years of implementation. With every

new cycle, new content and educational initiatives may be included. The context of

this study is framed by the 2007 introduction of new molecular genetics content into

the Grade 9–10 Biology curriculum, which included the genetic processes of

transcription and translation. In view that teachers may be unfamiliar with new

aspects of the science curricula or lack prior experiences as students from which to

model teaching this particular aspect (Nashon 2005), this background prompted our

interest in how Singapore teachers coped with teaching new and unfamiliar

curriculum content.

The challenges of implementing this new curriculum are exacerbated by how

genetics is perceived as a difficult school topic (Gericke and Hagberg 2010).

Research studies have suggested various interventions, including conceptual change

strategies (Tsui and Treagust 2004) and the use of subtopics to address gaps in

student understandings (Lewis and Kattmann 2004). However, the limited use of

these interventions may be attributed to how they were formerly introduced in one-

off PD seminars. These kinds of PD formats are often ineffective in helping teachers

situate their own learning back into their teaching contexts (Wilson and Berne

1999). Thus, we seek alternatives to helping teachers work with prescribed

curricula, which included utilizing the allocated PD time in schools and teachers’

own classrooms as sites for PD.

Literature Review

Introduction to Learning Study

The learning study is a PD approach that encouraged teachers to collaboratively

plan, enact and evaluate student learning activities (Pang and Marton 2005, 2005).

The approach shares similar features with the Japanese lesson study (Lewis et al.

2009; Stigler and Hiebert 1999). These include the building of professional

communities through collaboration (Lieberman 2009), improving instruction and

developing teacher knowledge through classroom research (Pang and Lo 2012), and

examining student learning (Runesson et al. 2011). Both approaches are also

organized around an object of student learning: a capability that students are to

develop through research lessons. Thus, instead of focusing on content mastery,

lessons can be organized around longer-term and larger goals of student learning

(Lewis et al. 2006). Insofar as the features of the two approaches are concerned,

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learning study and lesson study are highly similar. This leads to how some

researchers would deem learning study as a variant of the lesson study (e.g., Pang

and Lo 2012).

A distinction between the two approaches resides in how learning study employs a

theoretical framework (Holmqvist 2011; Pang and Lo 2012). According to Pang and

Marton (2003), learning study has adapted the idea of combining the instrumental

and theory-oriented aspects of (teacher classroom) research in design experiments

(Collins 1992) to compensate for the lack of theoretical frame in lesson study.

Furthermore, the inclusion of a theory may shape the discourse differently. For

example, in a lesson study, teachers may focus on class activities and instructional

materials when examining what students are learning (see e.g., Fernandez et al. 2003;

Lewis et al. 2009). In a learning study, student learning and teacher acts may be

interpreted and discussed through a theoretical perspective instead (e.g., Lo et al.

2006; Pang and Lo 2012). Put simply, the differences in what teachers pay attention

to result in different learning experiences (Marton and Booth 1997).

According to Elmore (2002), there are two formats of PD: traditional and job-

embedded. Traditional PD format is a top-down model arising from policy

mandates where experts hold workshops, seminars, lectures, etc. (Elmore 2002) on

what they consider to be effective pedagogy or curriculum reform. On the other

hand, job-embedded PD locates training within the school or local context by utilizing,

for example, collaborative inquiry groups. In the group settings, teachers are encouraged

to participate in reforming curriculum and pedagogy in ways that are relevant and

beneficial to their own students (Elmore 2002). In our view, the learning study should be

a welcome hybrid of both formats, where the activities focus on teachers as agency for

change. The learning study resembles the job-embedded format because of its reliance

on an expert who is crucial in introducing the theory to the teachers (Elliott 2012).

Furthermore, consistent with literature on traditional PD format, the approach is

premised on how changing teachers’ practices requires longer time duration (Porter et al.

2000; Stein et al. 1999) and a variety of activities (Mazzerella 1980) to learn more about

their practice. On the other hand, like job-embedded format, learning study locates PD

within the school for purposes of creating ongoing communities (Hord 1997), and for

allowing teachers to do the talking, thinking and learning about their practice and student

work (Feiman-Nemser 2001).

Theory of Variation in Learning Study

Theory of variation is commonly employed in learning studies. Developed from

phenomenography, it provides a perspective of learning (Marton and Booth 1997):

what a learner pays attention to shapes how a phenomenon or the intended learning

could be experienced. Key to what could possibly be learnt (Runesson 2006),

learning is seen as the development of a capability to experience something in more

complex ways than before; as the increasing capacity to simultaneously discern

critical features (known as critical aspects) of the object of learning. For example, in

Pang and Lo’s study (2012), in order for students to develop the capability to

determine the factors affecting the rate of a chemical reaction, Grade 10 students

can deepen their understanding of the effect of volume on rate, that is, that the

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volume of a reactant will not affect the rate of a chemical reaction when the

concentration of acid remains unchanged.

Within the classroom contexts, theory of variation was further developed as a

pedagogical tool (Pang and Lo 2012) that guided teachers’ design of patterns ofvariation and invariance to enrich student learning (e.g., Holmqvist et al. 2007;

Runesson et al. 2011). These patterns directed students’ attention to critical aspects of

the object of learning that were varied, while other aspects were kept constant. In this

way, aspects that might have been taken-for-granted, or that the student was unaware of

in the past, can now be examined. In Pang and Lo’s (2012) study, one pattern of

variation and invariance used was to vary the concentration of hydrochloric acid while

keeping the mass of solid calcium carbonate and volume of hydrochloric acid invariant;

thus helping students to discern that if the volume of reactant remains unchanged, the

concentration level will affect the rate of chemical reaction. How learning study

promotes teacher learning has also been explored. For example, Holmqvist (2011)

illustrated teachers’ increased ability to analyze critical features of the object of student

learning, while Runesson et al. (2011) demonstrated teachers’ increased sensitivity to

student learning. Pang and Lo (2012) reported that teachers learnt to use theory of

variation to enhance student learning. How teachers’ conceptions of teaching

economics increased in complexity has also been reported (Pang 2006).

Theoretical Framework

Theory of variation was employed by the participating teachers to help organize,

implement and evaluate student learning experiences. The theory also provided the

perspectives to analyze teacher learning that manifested in their learning study

experience. With the object of teacher learning as the development of a capability to

enact teaching new genetics content in the Biology curriculum, teacher learning can

be framed as the building of teacher capacity to experience their own professional

practices in more complex ways than before; to pay attention to more aspects of

teaching and learning than was formerly possible. The nature of the differences

(Pang 2003) in how teachers learnt was also explored: structural and referential

aspects (Marton and Booth 1997) that represented the different ways teachers

experienced their own learning were examined. The structural aspect referred to

what teachers focused on and the referential aspect, the meanings teachers ascribed

to that particular way of experiencing.

Methods

Participants

Four Grade 9–10 biology teachers participated in the study (see Table 1, names are

pseudonyms). The school and the participants were selected based on their

availability. This school had an ongoing PD program to encourage teachers to work

collaboratively to improve their teaching practices; based on the subject and grade

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level/s taught, the school leaders assigned the teachers to teams. The school leaders

recognized that the school’s PD program might be limited in its effectiveness for

teacher learning due to its top-down format (Elmore 2002). Furthermore, all the

teachers were required to go through the same program and that left little room for

differentiation. Hence, in our view, the learning study was welcomed as an alternative

to the ongoing PD program, especially since it is a form of hybrid between traditional

PD and job-embedded PD format (Elmore 2002). The participating teachers belonged

to the same team and the weekly-allocated time of one hour was utilized to run the

learning study sessions. Each teacher taught four to five biology classes.

The Learning Study

The learning study extended over 22 weeks and comprised the following phases:

1. Pre-study phase. The study was introduced and teachers’ consent to participate in

the study was obtained. The teachers were interviewed; they were asked to share

what good biology teaching and learning is, and about their pedagogical

strategies. The teachers also filled up a questionnaire (Genetics Questionnaire)

that probed for their views on the important outcome/s of teaching genetics. Some

of the questions were adapted from previous studies (e.g., Koballa et al. 2005).

2. Planning phase I. Guided by theory of variation, the teachers collectively planned

the curricular flow, which comprised mapping and sequencing key genetic topics

in the new biology curriculum. The teachers also determined the object of student

learning, which is to develop students’ capability to understand and apply the

principles of the genetic processes of transcription and translation (new curricular

content) to real-life contexts, such as mutation.

3. Exploratory phase. In order to uncover students’ pre-understandings of genetics

content, pre-tests (n = 80) were administered for Chris, Amy and Pam’s Grade 10

classes. Kate’s students did not participate in the study because she was teaching

Grade 9. Fifteen students were also selected by the teachers to participate in

follow-up interviews that were conducted by the authors. The selection was based

on student’s responses that offered insights into how the learning study impacted

their learning experiences. For example, a student who used the analogy of a

superhero to describe mutation was selected because the teachers were interested

to further understand how she related the two aspects. Students were also selected

based on their potential to articulate their thoughts critically and honestly.

Table 1 Teaching experiences

of the participating teachersParticipant Number of years

teaching biology

(years)

Total number of

years in teaching

service (years)

Number of times

chosen topic has

been taught

Pam 3 3 0

Amy 3 3 1

Chris 5.5 14 1

Kate 7 15 1

Y. S. M. Tan, S. M. Nashon

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4. Planning phase II. Drawing from both pre-test results and interviews, as well as

from theory of variation, critical aspects of the object of student learning were

determined. These included the structural and functional aspects of genetic

biophysical entities (chromosomes, DNA and genes), as well as the relation-

ships between the two aspects. Patterns of variation were subsequently designed

based on these aspects. For example, a change in the nucleotide of the gene

(variation in structure) will result in a different mRNA being copied during

transcription (process kept invariant). The teachers hoped that this would help

draw students’ attention to how the structure of the gene affects the product of

the genetic process.

5. Research phase. Chris, Amy and Pam enacted the theory-guided research lessons

in their Grade 10 classes (n = 25, n = 27, n = 28, respectively). The teachers

were also encouraged to teach according to their own pedagogical styles. Chris

and Amy taught three lessons each (total of 3.5 and 4 h, respectively), while Amy

taught two lessons (total of 3 h). With one teacher enacting the research lesson, the

other teachers collected classroom data; the classroom observations focused on

what students learnt in relation to the teacher’s pedagogy. Student post-tests

(n = 80) were also administered, with the same students interviewed.

6. Reflection phase. Four weekly post-lesson discussions (each lasting about an

hour) were held concurrent to the research phase. The teachers discussed the

data collected and provided feedback to improve the design and delivery of

subsequent lessons. Collectively, they also documented good teaching practices

for future references. The teachers also wrote down short notes of their thoughts

and reflections after the final post-lesson discussion.

7. Post-study phase. Two sets of teacher interviews were conducted, with the latter

serving clarification and elaboration purposes. Collectively, the interviews

probed for the teachers’ experiences in the learning study, including what and

how they have learnt. The teachers also commented on changes in their

responses to the Genetics Questionnaire. The preliminary findings were

subsequently shared with the school leaders and through conferences.

Data Collection

The data set comprised audio–video recordings of all sessions (11 meetings and 4

post-lesson discussions) and research lessons (8 lessons, 10.5 h in total); written

descriptions of the research lessons and meeting notes; authors’ field notes; Genetics

Questionnaire, teacher reflective journal entries (from all four teachers) and

interviews (total of 12 transcripts, each lasting 1–1.5 h); and student pre- and post-

tests (n = 80 each) and interviews (n = 15 each).

Data Analysis

Employing phenomenographic methods of data analysis (Bowden and Walsh 1994;

Marton 1988), the variation in the ways teachers have experienced their own learning

were captured in the form of categories. Consistent with phenomenography, we

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focused on the teachers’ descriptions of their own experiences, which were captured

through the teacher interview data (audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim) and their

reflective journal entries. However, as consistent with phenomenography, the rest of

the data set were essential to provide the contextual understanding and to ensure

consistency in interpretations; the teacher transcripts and journal entries were

constantly checked against the other sources of data to ensure credibility of the

findings. For example, when teachers described an instance where they have learnt,

these were checked against the researchers’ field notes and the audio–video

recordings. Similarly, the pre- and post-tests were referred to whenever teachers

mentioned them. The analysis included:

Selection and Reduction of Data

The audio–video recordings of the meetings and research lessons were viewed

chronologically and alongside the reviewing of other data sources. This stimulated

recall and provided the contextual understanding for subsequent interpretation of

teacher transcripts and reflective journal entries. The research lessons were also

described, followed by a reiterative reading and marking of teacher interview

transcripts and journal entries.

Profile Development

Individual teacher profiles were developed through the construction of narrative

descriptions of teachers’ experiences. These descriptions were accompanied by marked

quotes/parts from the interview transcripts and journal entries. The interpretations were

triangulated with other data sources (Lincoln and Guba 1985), such as the authors’ field

notes and descriptions of the research lessons.

Construction of Categories

The teacher profiles, interview transcripts and journal entries were carefully read

alongside each other. Expressions/descriptions that had similar meanings were

grouped. This was aided by the search for recurring regularities in words, phrases,

common sequences and relationships (Lincoln and Guba 1985; Miles and Huberman

1994). Subsequently, themes and patterns that cut across the four profiles were

identified, forming the initial categories that described the teachers’ learning

experiences. These initial categories included ‘challenges to beliefs’, ‘deepening of

prior beliefs’ and ‘emergence of new insights’. The categories were further defined

by the differences in meanings between the groups, and by the structural and

referential aspects of the categories. For example, a review of the meetings (audio–

video recordings) and a further reading into the interview transcripts helped us to

tease out what ‘deepening of prior beliefs’ meant: the teachers gained insights when

they explored and reflected on the possibilities and limitations of their prior beliefs

about good teaching. However, these insights differed from those that the teachers

have not considered before, of which the latter were subsumed into the category

‘Emergence of new understandings about new curricular content and science

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pedagogy’. Similarly, the teachers’ focus on the links between topics (structural

aspect) and their increasing conviction that these links were important to teaching

(referential aspect) helped us further pinpoint that the beliefs were about science

pedagogy; the category was refined as ‘increased awareness of possibilities and

limitations of teachers’ beliefs about science pedagogy’. In avoiding judgments on

the ways teachers have learnt, the categories were not hierarchically ordered. This

differed from the usual practice in phenomenography.

Verification of Categories

The constructed categories were checked against other data sources. The descriptions

were adjusted and readjusted whenever necessary.

As demonstrated above, the multiple sources of data served as a source of

triangulation to establish credibility of the findings (Lincoln and Guba 1985). To

ensure reliability of the findings, the authors also regularly compared individual

analyses and engaged in in-depth discussions of the constructed categories; the

development of a collective interpretation of the data set entailed working together

to test concepts and opening one’s analysis to the scrutiny of others (Corbin and

Strauss 1990; Stake 1995). To ensure validity of the findings, attempts to collect

unbiased data included beginning the analysis only after the whole learning study

was completed, which prevented premature constructions of theoretical structures or

interpretations (Sandberg 2005).

Results and Discussion

Ways of Experiencing Teacher Learning

The outcome of the analysis resulted in capturing three ways the participating

teachers experienced their own learning. Whereas the discernment of the categories

was informed by an examination of all the data sets, this paper uses only select

excerpts to illustrate the categories. Presented below is the overall data analysis,

which included a phenomenographic analysis that focused on the teachers’ own

descriptions of their experiences; with the teachers’ descriptions triangulated with

the audio–video recordings, research meetings and field notes, and student

comments. Representative of the collective’s complex experiences, select excerpts

from teachers’ reflective journal entries and interview transcripts were included to

enrich the discussion. In view that the excerpts were taken out of the context of the

entire transcript, clarifications were provided in square brackets to reflect the

teachers’ interpretations.

1. Increased Degrees of Student-Centered Pedagogy and Challenges to Teachers’Prior Assumptions about Science Pedagogy. One of the ways teachers experienced

learning manifested as shifts away from predominantly teacher-centered teaching, and

towards an increasing degree of student-centered pedagogy. According to the

teachers, organizing the lessons around an object of student learning encouraged them

to focus on the development of a student capability—‘‘the thing we want to make sure

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that the kids get’’ (Excerpt 1). This allowed the teachers to move away from a

‘‘traditional way of thinking and designing our lessons’’ (Excerpt 1), where covering

curricular content in the syllabus was focused on (Excerpt 2). As was revealed in the

first set of teacher interviews, this aspect of the teachers’ learning study experience

supported what they believed good biology teaching was, that is, an increasing degree

of student-centered teaching. When prompted to share about their experiences of

dealing with an object of student learning, the teachers described them as follows:

(1) Kate: By being forced to sit down and ask ourselves ‘‘What is the thing we

want to make sure that the kids get?’’ We clarify and crystallize our

focus so much more… The learning point would have been talking

about a capability… It was a good learning point because you move

away from a very traditional way of thinking and designing our

lessons…Interviewer: So will you try to apply this in future?

Kate: I think definitely. I’m quite inspired by how we did it.

(2) Amy: In that sense that was always at the back of my mind, like, ‘‘What

was the main focus?’’ So even though I was covering the same

details…I try to draw it back to how we always want to help them

understand the links…Interviewer: So was this a new focus?

Amy: Yes, definitely. Because last year when I taught, it was more like

I followed very closely to the syllabus and the sequence. So that was

more of addressing what the syllabus wanted, and I just covered it in

that sense.

As illustrated above, focusing on the object of student learning empowered the

teachers to move away from an over-reliance on curricular content; away from

‘‘addressing what the syllabus wanted’’ (Excerpt 2). In gaining greater clarity on

what they wanted students to learn (Excerpt 1), the teachers centered their classroom

instruction on student learning. For example, Amy was more systematic in showing

how chromosomes, DNA and genes were structurally related by engaging students in

a discussion around them, and by using a video to show the unraveling of a DNA

strand and its coiling into a chromosome. In the post-study interview, she shared that

this differed from how she would have quickly run through the content as presented

in a diagram in the prescribed textbook; focusing on the delivery of the content rather

than how student could have learnt the content. The pre-tests results also showed

evidence of her students’ mastery of this aspect of learning genetics. Consequently,

extending these new experiences of focusing on student learning beyond the learning

study, the teachers also expressed their intentions to adopt a similar approach to

lesson planning in the future (see Excerpt 1 as well).

The increased degrees of student-centered pedagogy were often accompanied by

challenges to the teachers’ prior assumptions about science pedagogy. Evident in the

meetings and recorded in the field notes were the teachers’ assumption of student

learning: biology content taught in lower grade levels would necessarily translate to

students’ mastery of it. In this case, the teachers assumed that the students would

have a good grasp of the structure of DNA, chromosomes and genes because they

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were taught the content in Grade 7 and 8. The teachers’ views of teaching thus

resonated with what Goodson (1998) described as the transmission of knowledge,

and stood in contrast to research literature (Lewis and Kattmann 2004). In surfacing

gaps in students’ understandings, the pre-test results challenged the teachers’ view of

science pedagogy (Excerpt 3 & 4). As observed in the audio–video recordings and

field notes, Chris was adamant that an emphasis on the structural relationships

between the genetic biophysical entities was not necessary because the content has

been taught in Grade 7 and 8. However, in reviewing the pre-test results that revealed

students’ difficulties in describing the relationships between these entities, he

expressed how the pre-test scores were unexpected. Consequently, Chris ‘‘started

from almost entry level’’ (Excerpt 3) in his research lessons to teach this aspect of

genetics and addressed gaps in the students’ conceptions.

(3) Chris: The pre-test was very helpful. I didn’t expect the percentages to be

that low. So that means I have to pact my standard lower and then

start from almost entry level.

Interviewer: So did you address some of the conceptions that emerged from the

pre-tests?

Chris: Yeah… I spent more time on that.

(4) Pam: Last time, we used to do this subconsciously. You wouldn’t have a

pre-test to find out a certain percentage of people who have a certain

misconception. It’s probably verbal… Through this study, you have a

clearer understanding of what are some of their misconceptions… It

kind of showed that even though they learnt it [structural aspects of

genetic biophysical entities] in Sec. 1 and 2 [Secondary 1 and 2;

Grade 7 and 8], they are still very confused.

In view that it was not a common practice to use pre-test to uncover students’

pre-understandings (Excerpt 4), deliberately introducing the exploratory phase of

the learning study seemed to have increased teachers’ sensitivity to student learning.

Runesson et al. (2011) have also emphasized this aspect of teacher learning in the

learning study. The pre-tests also provided glimpses of how students ‘‘experience

genetics in everyday life’’ (Pam’s interview transcript) (see Excerpt 5 as well). This

allowed for what Goodson (1998) termed as an ‘‘alternative pedagogy’’ that

transcended transmission pedagogy: one that ‘‘sensitized the teacher to individual

processes and interests and positioned his response to these at the center of his

teaching’’ (p. 29). In this case, the teachers were sensitized to how students related

the object of student learning to their ‘‘everyday life’’, and have responded by

addressing students’ gaps and level of understandings in the research lessons.

Similarly, physical characteristics and mutants were used as entry points to Amy

and Pam’s lessons. These aspects constituted the ways students related genetics to

their ‘‘everyday life’’.

(5) Kate: When you look at this kind of pre-tests…you are trying to uncover what

their understanding is, right or wrong… It was like ‘‘What on earth does

she mean by this? Is this questionable? Does she mean something else?’’

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2. Increased awareness of possibilities and limitations of teachers’ beliefs aboutscience pedagogy. Teacher learning also manifested as an increased awareness of

the possibilities and limitations of the teachers’ beliefs about science pedagogy. At

the beginning of the study, the teachers expressed good biology learning as students

developing the capability to establish links between different concepts and topics.

The teachers believed that this could help students cope with large amounts of

biological ‘‘facts’’ (Excerpt 6). The teachers’ belief was similarly reflected in their

responses to the Genetics Questionnaire.

(6) Interviewer: So what is important in students learning biology?

Kate: I think the biggest thing for me is the linking and seeing the

patterns… The problem with a lot of our students is that for

biology, there’re a lot of facts and they really haven’t made sense

of the facts. So they are just at the level of trying to memorize it.

Despite the importance attributed to this aspect of student learning, the teachers’

attempts were often more implicit than signaled, especially since they ‘‘don’t tell the

students, but hopefully by the end of it, they will see… how things are linked’’

(Chris’ interview transcript). In contrast, the teachers were more intentional in

developing this capability in the research lessons through the patterns of variation

that were enacted. The patterns of variation were designed to encourage students to

(1) link the structural and functional aspects of genes, and (2) to understand how a

sequential variation of gene structure leads to mutation. As observed in the research

lessons, the patterns of variation were contextualized in case studies depicting real-

life mutations, such as sickle-cell anemia. The post-test results revealed that

students were better able to describe the phenomenon of mutation using the

principles in transcription and translation, and by attributing mutation to the changes

in gene structure. In contrast, as observed in the pre-tests, mutation was often

associated with superheroes and mutants, and was described as physical traits that

were abnormal. In being able to ‘‘see the students responding to the real-life

examples and case studies’’ (Excerpt 7), the teachers consequently deemed students

establishing links with real-life phenomenon as a more important outcome of

teaching genetics. For example, during the post-study interview, Chris changed his

response in the Genetics Questionnaire by ranking ‘‘encourage students to establish

links with real-life phenomenon that is related to genetics’’ as more important than

before; he believed that:

(7) Chris: …for biology to be real to them, they must see the links to real-life

phenomena… I think the more you see the students responding to the

real-life examples and case studies, that will tell me that it is a more

powerful tool to use in learning.

Interviewer: So what are these ‘‘real-life example/s’’?

Chris: The one that came to my mind, and we discussed, is the mutation

part.

Illustrated above are the teachers’ attempts to transcend the transmission

pedagogy by positioning the development of students’ capability to link biological

concepts and processes at the center of teaching (Goodson 1998). Extending

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learning beyond the learning study context, the teachers mentioned in the interviews

that theory of variation ‘‘is another tool in our toolbox we can use in future’’ (Kate’s

interview transcript), and have expressed their intentions to use similar case studies

and patterns of variation in their other classes.

3. Emergence of new understandings about new curricular content and sciencepedagogy. Through the learning study discourse, the teachers also gained new

understandings of new curricular content and science pedagogy. Formerly, the

teachers’ classroom instruction appeared to be centered on students’ mastery of

curricular content—as was suggested in their interviews (e.g., Excerpt 2) and

Genetics Questionnaire responses. In line with how their teaching would ‘‘focus on

the content first’’ (Chris’ interview transcript), the teachers likewise believed that

the outcome of teaching genetics can be expressed as student learning more content.

However, the post-study interviews revealed that apart from learning more content,

the teachers have gained an appreciation that the outcome of genetics can also be

expressed in terms of student learning content differently (Excerpt 8).

(8) Interviewer: Let’s take a look at the Genetics Questionnaire. Are there any

responses you would like to change?

Pam: ‘‘The outcome of genetics is expressed in terms of students

knowing more content or content differently’’—I think it’s a bit

of both now. I mean, they need to know more, definitely. But the

‘‘content differently’’ part, I think ‘‘yes!’’ Because, for example,

through the use of mutation, they learn more about the DNA

structure.

A further analysis suggests that the teachers’ development of this new

understanding may be attributed to the successes they experienced in incorporating

the topic of mutation into gene expression—‘‘to know that it works was important’’

(Pam’s interview transcript). According to the teachers, the patterns of variation

provided the students a different way of learning curricular content related to

mutation and gene expression. Phrased differently, the learning study offered

teachers opportunities to ‘‘explore possibilities’’ (Chris’ interview transcript) and

‘‘new ways to help students learn better’’ (Pam’s reflective journal entry). The

excerpt below illustrates how students have ‘‘learn better’’ and mastered the object

of student learning, which was achieved when Chris’ enacted the patterns of

variation through a word game.

(9) Interviewer: What aspect of Chris’ teaching did you find beneficial for your

learning?

Student: I guess it would have been the game…it taught us how each letter

plays a part in making a different word, and therefore each

nucleotide plays a part in making different proteins…how

mutations could occur because of the change in nucleotide

sequence… We understood mutation because Chris taught us

transcription and translation.

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In light of the above, it appears that the power to transform classroom practice

resides in the potential to shift the focus of classroom pedagogy from student

learning of more content to helping students develop capabilities to learn content

differently. In transcending a transmission pedagogy that largely focuses on content

mastery (Goodson 1998), the teachers also extended their own learning beyond the

learning study: different experiences of the learning study were documented as good

pedagogical practices to be incorporated into the teachers’ teaching practices. These

included the application of a theory to promote new ways of organizing student

learning activities, collaborative planning of lessons focusing on an object of

learning, using pre-tests to ascertain students’ pre-understandings, and the use of

systematic variations in teaching.

The Nature of Teacher Learning

The experiences of teacher learning manifested as changes in the teachers’ beliefs.

The shifts in beliefs can be characterized by challenges in the teachers’ assumptions

about science pedagogy that led to changes in classroom practices, an increased

awareness of the possibilities and limitations of existing beliefs, as well as the

gaining of new understandings about new curricular content and science pedagogy.

With the view that a phenomenographic analysis has both the potential to capture

the variation in ways of experiencing a particular phenomenon and to elucidate the

nature of a particular way of experiencing (Pang 2003), what the teachers learnt can

also be understood in terms of the structural and referential aspects. As illustrated in

Table 2, it appears that focusing on (1) the object of student learning, (2) student

pre-understandings, (3) skills students should develop, and (4) the outcomes of

students learning biology promoted the teachers’ reflection on broader ideas around

(1) what constituted good biology learning and teaching, (2) student learning

processes and (3) what was worth teaching.

In relation to supporting teacher learning, the teachers valued the opportunities

for collaboration. For example, the teachers constantly described collaboration as

being key to ‘‘widening their perspectives to promote different ways of thinking and

teaching’’ (Chris’ interview transcript). Similarly, as observed in the meetings, the

teachers were able to develop collective interpretations of how to teach the research

lessons by building on the individual ideas of team members. We believe that the

opportunities for teachers to explore and test out their beliefs through classroom

research—as afforded by the learning study—were also important. This assertion is

supported by the results presented above, which illustrated the importance of the

pre- and post-test results in shaping the teachers’ beliefs. The importance of

collaboration and teacher research in promoting teacher learning is consistent with

the findings of other learning studies and PD approaches (e.g., Lewis et al. 2009;

Pang and Lo 2012; Runesson et al. 2011).

Possibilities for Transformative and Generative Learning

The teachers’ experiences of teacher learning also suggest the possibility for

transformative and generative learning. According to Kincheloe and Steinberg

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(1998), transformative learning entails both teachers’ development of their ownknowledge and teacher empowerment. Underpinning their argument is that teachers

should be empowered to determine what is to be taught and learnt, and to be

knowledge producers in ways that free them from being ‘‘disempowered in their

role as information delivers, servants of knowledge and curricula produced

elsewhere’’ (Kincheloe and Steinberg 1998, p. 13).

With this view, the participating teachers’ shifts in beliefs about science

pedagogy signal the possibilities for their deeply held assumptions about schooling

to be transformed (Dunetz 2005). They also suggest the possibility for teachers’

beliefs to be developed as their own knowledge. In view that teacher knowledge is

created when ‘‘student-presented information collides with teacher experience’’

(Kincheloe and Steinberg 1998, p. 19), teacher knowledge may have been created

when the participating teachers were given opportunities to explore students’

understandings in the exploratory and research phases of the learning study. In the

same vein, it has been illustrated how the pre- and post-test results challenged and

deepened the teachers’ understandings of the possibilities and limitations of their

beliefs, and encouraged new understandings about science pedagogy to emerge.

We also begin seeing the glimpses of a transformative classroom when teachers

moved away from a ‘‘traditional way of thinking and designing our lessons’’

Table 2 Different ways teachers experienced their own learning

Different ways of experiencing

teacher learning

Structural aspect Referential aspect

Increased degrees of student-

centered pedagogy and challenges

to teachers’ prior assumptions

about science pedagogy

Object of student learning The development of student

capability constituting a new and

important focus for the design and

implementation of classroom

instruction

(What constitutes good teaching)

Student pre-

understandings of

genetics

Belief that enacted curriculum is

directly translatable to student

mastery of content knowledge

challenged

(The process of student learning)

Increased awareness of possibilities

and limitations of teachers’ beliefs

about science pedagogy

Links within and between

topics; real-life

examples and case

studies

Increasing conviction that

establishing links (1) within and

between topics, and (2) with real-

life genetic (biology) phenomenon

are pertinent to good biology

teaching and learning

(What constitutes good teaching and

learning)

Emergence of new understandings

about new curricular content and

science pedagogy

Outcomes of teaching

genetics as expressed in

terms of student

learning

New understandings that student

learning content differently is also

an important outcome of teaching

genetics and of student learning

(What is worth teaching, and what

constitutes good student learning)

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(Kate’s interview transcript). Avoiding the risk of perpetuating a transmission

pedagogy (Goodson 1998), the teachers demonstrated an increased sensitivity to

student learning. For example, they learned more about why students may have

learning difficulties through the exploratory phase, and have analyzed the object of

student learning by drawing from students’ prior understandings and experiences.

These experiences were also reported in previous learning studies (Holmqvist 2011;

Runesson et al. 2011). The teachers also centered their classroom instruction on

developing students’ capabilities, and focused on helping student learn content

differently as opposed to merely learning more content. All these reflected the

teachers’ empowerment to enact increased degrees of student-centered pedagogy.

Teacher empowerment was also evident in how the research lessons were more

aligned with the teachers’ convictions about good teaching and learning.

The teacher learning experiences captured in this study also suggest the potential of

generative learning. According to Holmqvist et al. 2007, generative learning can be

appreciated as the generation of future learning. In their view, generative learning can

be characterized as learning beyond the learning situation; the development of a ‘‘way

of seeing the object of student learning in forthcoming situations that deepens the

knowledge further’’ (p. 188). Thus, the learning experiences of the participating

teachers may be viewed as precursors for learning beyond the learning study context.

In order words, what is learnt in the learning study may be situated in teachers’ daily

teaching practices. Seen in this light, the value of generative learning also resides in

how the re-contextualization of learning into the teachers’ local contexts addresses the

ineffectiveness of one-off PD formats (Wilson and Berne 1999).

In the context of this study, instances suggesting the occurrences of generative

learning comprise: the teachers frequently expressing their intentions to adapt their

new experiences into their teaching practices. The experiences include focusing on

the object of student learning and determining the curricular flow. The teachers were

equally keen to employ the collaboratively planned patterns of variation in their

other classes. Similarly, theory of variation was viewed as ‘‘another tool in our

toolbox we can use in future’’ (Kate’s interview transcript). The teachers also

documented different experiences of the learning study as good practices they

would incorporate into their teaching.

With the results hinting at the possibility of transformative and generative

learning, further exploration is needed to elucidate the nature of this aspect of

teacher learning, and how teacher knowledge can be further developed in the

process.

Limitations of Study

The small sample size limits the generalizability of the study. In addition, only one

cycle of the learning study was implemented due to time constraints. As such, we

could not explore how the manifested shifts in teacher beliefs shaped subsequent

lessons and neither could the stability of the shifts be examined. In not being able to

carry out a second cycle, we suspect that valuable teacher learning opportunities

may have been lost; previous learning studies have illustrated how subsequent

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cycles of the learning study provided opportunities for gaps between theory of

variation and the research lessons to be addressed (Pang and Lo 2012), and have

promoted a better analysis of critical aspects of the object of student learning

(Holmqvist 2011). In our study, we would have hoped to further encourage teachers

to apply their learning beyond the current learning situation; thus exploring a way to

further deepen teacher knowledge and enhance teaching practice. Despite limited

generalizability and that only ‘snap-shots’ of teacher learning were captured, we

hope that by carefully describing the learning study and the teachers’ experiences,

others may gain insights in spite of the localized details. Without the intentions to

make broad generalizations, we have also made some suggestions in the next

section.

Concluding Remarks

The potential of transforming the challenges of curriculum reforms into contexts for

teacher learning has been suggested through this Singapore case of learning study.

While it is reasonable to expect teachers to struggle with any new curriculum

innovation, we propose that certain ways of perceiving curriculum reforms may be

helpful. For one, in spite of the challenges in introducing curriculum innovations, it

is possible for teachers to learn. Although this may seem straightforward, the

introduction of new curriculum may not always be perceived as an opportunity for

teacher PD (c.f. Schneider and Krajcik 2002). We propose viewing teacher beliefs

not only as reactions towards curricular innovations, but that the reshaping of these

beliefs also constitute teacher learning; teacher learning supported by collaboration,

teacher classroom research, and a theory-framed discourse that focuses on

enhancing student learning.

In practical terms, greater attention has to be paid to how we may promote

teacher learning in the context of curriculum reforms. In the view that time is

required for teacher beliefs to be explored and developed (Davis 2003), a greater

time lag between teachers’ exploration of new content and the formal implemen-

tation of new curriculum may be required. We are also compelled to deliberate over

the following: How do we cultivate the practice of reflexive awareness by

encouraging teachers to reflect on the relationships between their beliefs and science

pedagogy, to clarify their own goals of teaching, and to reconstruct their roles as

teachers (Kincheloe and Steinberg 1998)? How can such reflexive awareness lead to

greater teacher empowerment and transformations in the classroom?

Finally, by framing shifts in teacher beliefs as instances of teacher learning, we

may focus on what can be learnt in terms of what teachers are paying attention to

and the meanings ascribed to their beliefs. We may also ponder over how teacher

beliefs may be mobilized as part of their professional learning beyond a PD

program. Simultaneously, the knowledge teachers produced through experiencing

shifts in their beliefs, and how these shifts transform classroom practices and

permeate into the daily rhythms of school, still leave much to be explored.

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