A STUDY ON PERFORMANCE OF BRICKS

PRODUCING FROM SOLID WASTE

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

in

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Submitted by

R.DHANABAL (01108111012)

D.GANESAN (01108111024)

R.KOKILA (01108111040)

T.SUJI (01108111098)

Under the Guidance of

Mr. V.RAJAGOPALAN, M.E.,

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

ANNA UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY TIRUCHIRAPPALLI

TIRUCHIRAPPALLI - 620 024

APRIL 2012

1

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the work entitled “A STUDY ON PERFORMANCE OF BRICKS

PRODUCING FROM SOLID WASTE” is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement

for the award of the degree in B.E ., Anna University of Technology Tiruchirappalli, is a record

of the my own work carried out by me during the academic year 2011 – 2012 under the

supervision and guidance of Mr. V.RAJAGOPALAN,M.E., Research supervisor, Department of

Civil Engineering, Anna University of Technology Tiruchirappalli. The extent and source of

information are derived from the existing literature and have been indicated through the

dissertation at the appropriate places. The matter embodied in this work is original and has not

been submitted for the award of any other degree or diploma, either in this or any other

University.

R.DHANABAL D.GANESAN

(01108111012) (01108111024)

R.KOKILA T.SUJI

(01108111040) (01108111098)

I certify that the declaration made above by the candidate is true

(Mr. V.RAJAGOPALAN, ME.,)

Assistant Professor,

Department of Civil Engineering,

Anna University of Technology Tiruchirappalli,

Tiruchirappalli– 620 024.

2

ANNA UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY TIRUCHIRAPPALLI

TIRUCHIRAPPALLI - 620 024

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the dissertation entitled “A STUDY ON PERFORMANCE OF

BRICKS PRODUCING FROM SOLID WASTE” a bonafide work carried out by Mr.

R.DHANABAL(01108111012), Mr. D.GANESAN (01108111024), Ms.

R.KOKILA(01108111040), Ms. T.SUJI (01108111098).Under my direct supervision is

submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of Bachelor of

Engineering in Civil Engineering to Anna University of Technology Tiruchirappalli,

Tiruchirappalli – 620 024. No part of the dissertation has been submitted for any degree/diploma

or any other academic award anywhere before.

SIGNATURE

Mr. V.RAJAGOPALAN, ME.,

SUPERVISOR

Forwarded by,

SIGNATURE

Dr. R.ILANGOVAN ME,Phd.,

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

Examined on:

Internal Examiner External Examiner

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AKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is our privilege and honor to extend our sincere gratitude to our Professor and Head of

the Department, Dr. P. RAJESH PRASANNA Department of Civil Engineering for providing all

the necessary facilities to do this project.

We wish to express our whole hearted thanks to Dr.R.ILANGOVAN, Assistant

Professor, Department of Civil Engineering.

We express our whole hearted gratitude to our guide Mr. V.RAJAGOPALAN, M.E.,

Assistant Professor in Civil Engineering for encouraging us, providing indispensable guidance

and patient perusal at each and every step of the work.

We express our special and sincere thanks to Dr. VISWANATHAN., M. Sc., Ph.D.

Assistant Professor of Physics Department, for his valuable suggestions during initial stages of

this project work.

We adorn our sincere thanks and gratefulness to our beloved staff members for

emboldening us to reach our achievement.

We are very grateful to OUR BELOVED PARENTS, all of classmates and friends for

their constant support to make this project work a success.

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ABSTRACT

Utilization of industrial, municipal, agricultural and other waste products in the industry

has been the focus of research for economical, environmental, and technical reasons. Sugar-cane

bagasse is a fibrous waste-product of the sugar refining industry. The 80% of bagasse is mixed

with 20% of coal, which is burned in boilers for theproduction of electrical energy. This waste-

product is causing serious environmental pollution. Granite processing industry generates a large

amount of wastes mainly in the form of powder during sawing and polishing processes,

which pollute and damage the environment. The chemical composition of bagasse ash and

granite waste was characterized by using X-Ray Diffraction method and compared with clay.

The objective of this research is to utilize bagasse ash and granite waste in the manufacturing of

bricks. Mixtures were prepared with 0, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 % wastes of total weight of clay.

The produced bricks are tested for mechanical properties such as compressive strength, tensile

strength and water absorption according to the requirements of the Indian Standard Codes. The

result shows that bagasse ash and granite waste 20% is optimum percentage to be used in the

manufacturing of conventional bricks. It is found that these bricks are better than traditional

bricks in the sense that solid wastes reduce the use of fertile soil of the earth for brick

manufacturing, thus, protecting the land for agricultural use.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

ABSTRACT v

LIST OF TABLES viii

LIST OF FIGURES ix

LIST OF SYMBOLS x

1. INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 General 1

1.2 Solid Waste 1

1.2.1 Generation 4

1.2.2 Disposal 4

1.2.3 Environmental effects 4

1.3 Bricks in construction 5

1.3.1 Requirement of bricks 6

1.3.2 Clay in bricks 6

1.4 Need for the study 7

1.5 Objectives 7

2. LITERATURE REVIEW 8

2.1 General 8

2.2 Bagasse ash Utilisation 8

2.3 Granite waste Utilisation 10

3. MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY 13

3.1 Bagasse ash 13

3.1.1 Waste Quantification 14

3.1.2 Environmental Impacts 14

3.2 Granite waste 14

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3.2.1 Waste Quantification 15

3.2.2 Environmental Impacts 16

3.3 Methodology 17

3.3.1 Collection of Bagasse Burnt Ash 17

3.3.2 Collection of Granite Waste 18

3.4 Chemical Analysis 18

3.4.1 XRD pattern of Bagasse Burnt Ash 19

3.4.2 XRD pattern of Granite Waste 20

3.5 Manufacturing methodology 29

3.5.1 Clay winning 30

3.5.2 Clay preparation 31

3.5.3 Bagasse Ash and Granite Waste preparation 31

3.5.4 Mix proportion 32

3.5.5 Moulding 33

3.5.6 Drying 33

3.5.7 Firing 34

3.6 Testing of Bricks 38

3.6.1 Compressive Strength 38

3.6.2 Water Absoption 38

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 39

4.1 Result of XRD Analysis 39

4.2 Compressive Strength Test 41

4.3 Water Absorption Test 44

5. CONCLUSION 47

6. REFERENCES 48

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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

1 Bagasse ash and Granite Waste Bricks Mix Proportion 32

2 Bagasse Ash Bricks Mix Proportion 32

3 Granite Waste Bricks Mix Proportion 32

4 Compressive Strength of new bricks 41

5 Water Absorption of new bricks 44

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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

1 Bagasse Ash 13

2 Granite Waste 15

3 Methodology 17

4 XRD pattern of Bagasse burnt ash 19

5 XRD pattern of Granite waste 20

6 Standard Reference Material For SiO2 22

7 Standard Reference Material For Al2O3 23

8 Standard Reference Material For K2O 24

9 Standard Reference Material ForCaO 25

10 Standard Reference Material For Fe2O3 26

11 Standard Reference Material For Fe2O3 27

12 Standard Reference Material For Fe2O3 28

13 Manufacturing Methodology 29

14 Clay winning 30

15 Clay preparation 31

16 Drying 33

17 Firing 34

18 Various proportions of Bagasse ash & Granite Waste Bricks 35

19 Various proportions of Bagasse Ash Bricks 36

20 Various proportions of Granite Waste Bricks 37

21 XRD result of Bagasse ash 39

22 XRD result of Granite waste 40

23 Variation in Compressive Strength of Bagasse Ash & Granite Waste Bricks 42

24 Variation in Compressive Strength of Bagasse Ash Bricks 42

25 Variation in Compressive Strength of Granite Waste Bricks 43

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26 Variation in Water Absorption of Bagasse Ash &Granite Waste Bricks 45

27 Variation in Water Absorption of Bagasse Ash Bricks 45

28 Variation in Water Absorption of GW Bricks 46

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATION

XRD - X Ray Diffraction

RCRA - Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

GDP - Gross Domestic Product

FAO - Food and Agriculture Organisation

EOU - Export Oriented Units

JCPDS- Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction Standards

SRM - Standard Reference Material

BA - Bagasse Ash

GW - Granite Waste

% - Percentage

Wt - Weight

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

The traditional construction materials such as concrete, bricks, hollow blocks, solid

blocks, pavement blocks and tiles are being produced from the existing natural resources. This is

damaging the environment due to continuous exploration and depletion of natural resources. The

issues related to environmental conservation have gained great importance in our society in

recent years.

Exposing the waste material to the environment directly can cause environmental

problems. Initiatives are emerging worldwide to control and regulate the management of

subproducts, residuals, and industrial waste in order to preserve the environment from the point

of view of environmental contamination as well as the preservation and care of natural areas.

Waste materials can be used to produce new product or can be used as admixtures so that

natural sources are used more efficiently and the environment is protected from waste deposits.

The cost of construction materials is increasing day by day because of high demand, scarcity of

raw materials, and high price of energy. From the standpoint of energy saving and conservation

of natural resources, the use of alternative constituents in construction materials is now a global

concern. For this, the extensive research and development works towards exploring new

ingredients are required for producing sustainable and environment friendly construction

materials. The present study investigates the potential use of various solid wastes in the

production of bricks.

1.2 SOLID WASTE

Solid waste as any garbage or refuse, sludge from a wastewater treatment plant, water

supply treatment plant, or air pollution control facility and other discarded material, including

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solid, liquid, semi-solid, or contained gaseous material resulting from industrial, commercial,

mining, and agricultural operations, and from community activities. 

Types of Solid waste:

Solid waste can be classified into different types depending on their source:

» Agro-waste (organic)

» Industrial waste (inorganic)

» Mining/mineral waste

» Non hazardous waste

» Hazardous waste

i. Agro-waste (organic):

Agro waste are those arising from agricultural industries such as bagasse, banana leaves

and stalks, saw mill waste, sisal fibre, rice and wheat straw husk, ground nut shell, cotton stalk,

jute stalk etc.India is primarily an agricultural country. In the absence of organised data, exact

estimates of the agricultural wastes are not available, but their availability in the country is more

than 500 million tonnes per year.

ii. Industrial waste (Inorganic):

Industrial waste is a type of waste produced by industrial activity, such as that

of factories, mills and mines. Much industrial waste is neither hazardous nor toxic. It mainly

consist of coal combustion residues, steel slag, bauxite red mud, Construction and

demolitiondebris (concrete rubble, tiles, waste bricks, etc.), metal, Phosphogypsum, waste

glass,granulated blast-furnace slag,waste steel slag, rubber tire, etc.

iii. Mining/mineral waste:

Mining wastes include waste generated during the extraction, beneficiation, and

processing of minerals. The entire operation brings out all sorts of unwanted materials which is

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nothing but waste. Rubble, which remains after minerals have largely been extracted, is also a

waste. Also at end of the processing of minerals there is toxic waste generation. Mining

operations of all kind produce waste. Since India produces 89 minerals, these result in diverse

kinds of potentially hazardous waste. Such mining/mineral wastes are Coal washeries waste;

mining wastetailing from iron, copper, zinc, goldand aluminium industries.

iv. Non hazardous waste:

Non-hazardous wastes, which comprise the other category of solid waste, are solid wastes

that do not meet theResource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) and are not subject to

RCRA regulations. However, it is not safe to assume that waste classified as "non-hazardous"

poses no risk. This category is further subdivided into municipal solid waste and industrial waste.

Municipal solid waste is a broad category of non-hazardous solid waste that includes

animal carcasses as well as the typical garbage or trash.Agricultural solid waste is a subcategory

of municipal solid waste and is waste that is generated by the rearing of animals and the

production or harvesting of crops or trees.Industrial solid waste is a second subcategory of non-

hazardous solid waste and includes solid waste generated by industrial processes and

manufacturing. This category also includes medical waste and regulated medical waste, which

are particularly relevant for veterinarians.

v. Hazardous waste:

Hazardous waste is a waste with properties that make it dangerous or potentially harmful

to human health or the environment. Hazardous waste takes many physical forms and may be

solid, semi-solid, liquid, or even contained gases. The treatment, storage and disposal of

hazardous waste is regulated under the Resource Conservation and Recovery

Act (RCRA).Hazardous wastes are divided into two major categories: characteristic wastes and

listed wastes.

Characteristic hazardous wastes are materials that are known or tested to exhibit one or

more of the following four hazardous traits:ignitability (i.e., flammable), reactivity, corrosivity,

toxicity.

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Listed hazardous wastes are materials specifically listed by regulatory authorities as a

hazardous waste which are from non-specific sources, specific sources, or discarded chemical

products.

1.2.1 GENERATION

Solid waste generated in India is 48million tons and 25% from construction industry and

7-8 million tons of concrete and brick. Waste quantities are expected to reach 65 million shortly.

Population growth, rising standards of living increasing urbanization, and

industrialization all have contributed to increased solid waste generation in both industrialized

and developing countries. Solid waste is generated, in the beginning, with the recovery of raw

materials and thereafter at every step in the technological process as the raw material is

converted to a product for consumption.

The process of consumption of products results in the formation of solid waste in urban

areas. In addition, other processes such as street cleaning, waste water treatment, air pollution

control measures etc. also produce solid waste in urban areas.A society receives energy and raw

material as inputs from the environment and gives solid waste as output to the environment. In

the long-term perspective, such as input-output imbalance degrades the environment.

1.2.2 DISPOSAL

The final functional element in the solid waste management system is disposal. Proper

disposal of solid waste is a necessity to minimize environmental health impacts and degradation

of land resources. In developing countries, solid waste is commonly disposed of by transporting

and discharging in open dumps, which are environmentally unsafe. Systematic disposal methods

are composting, land filling and incineration. Looking at the most common disposal method of

open dumping to be 90% in India.

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1.2.3 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS

Solid wastes pose significant threats to public health and the environment if they are not

stored, collected, and disposed of properly. The most serious effects of improper solid waste

management include air pollution, contamination of drinking water supplies, and the spread of

human disease.

For a chemical to affect human health it must come in contact with or enter the human

body. There are several ways in which this can happen.

Skin contact: Chemicals that cause dermatitis usually do so through direct contact with

skin. Some chemicals like corrosive acids can damage the skin by a single contact while others,

like organic solvent, may cause damage by repeated exposure.

Inhalation: Inhalation is the most common source of workplace exposure to chemicals

and the most difficult to control. Air pollutants can directly damage respiratory tract or gets

absorbed through lung and cause

system/systemic effects.

Ingestion: Ground water and sub soil water contamination from leachates from refuse

dumps and poorly managed landfill sites can result in ingestion of toxic chemicals by population

groups who live far away from the factory sites and decades after the garbage has been dumped.

There are very few studies conducted in India on specific health problems resulting from

accidental exposure to toxic industrial solid waste. There had been reports that sacks, cardboard

cartons and paper envelopes contaminated with chemicals packed in them were burnt and the

irritating fumes from these caused respiratory problems. There had also been reports of skin or

respiratory irritation following exposure to corrosives chemicals

Wastes from non hazardous industries can at times produce health problems, not only

among the workers and handlers of waste, but also among general population. One example of

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this category is the cotton dust. Cotton waste are generally non hazardous; however they may, in

susceptible individuals provoke respiratory allergic reactions; allergy may be due to inhalation of

dust containing cotton wastes or fungus or other contaminants in the waste dust.

1.3 BRICKS IN CONSTRUCTION

Bricks are a versatile and durable building and construction material, with good load-

bearing properties, high thermal mass and potential low energy impact. It may well be called an

everlasting material because they neither burn nor decay. Bricks are traditionally manufactured

by mixing clay with enough water to form a mud that is then poured into a mould of the desired

shape and size, and hardened through fired in a kiln or dried in the sun.

Brick may satisfactorily be used in either a simple or an elaborate architectural scheme;

there are practically no limitations and it is certain that, whatever style is chosen, the exterior

effect in brick is more striking than when other materials are used, because of the wonderful

glowing colour a brick wall possesses. As the years go by the brick wall improves in appearance;

it takes on new beauty. Overall, bricks are a good example of a sustainable building practice and

are currently gaining in popularity around the world.

1.3.1 REQUIREMENT OF BRICKS

The construction sector is an important part of the Indian economy with the contribution

of 10% in the GDP (Gross Domestic Product)and is registering an annual growth of 9%. Clay

fired bricks are the backbone of this sector. The Indian brick industry is the second largest

producer of bricks in the world after China. India is estimated to produce more than 14000 crores

of bricks annually, mainly by adopting age-old manual traditional processes. In view of the

increased building construction activities and the various ambitious projects envisaged by the

central/State Government, the demand for bricks will increase manifold in the coming years.

1.3.2 CLAY IN BRICKS

Clay minerals are ubiquitous. Clays are not only anessential component of the soils to

which we owe oursurvival, but also the most ancient and essential rawmaterial of mankind used

for artifacts-pottery, bricks andtiles. Clay deposits are exploited practically in every country in

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the world and they are used most extensivelyin the ceramic, paper, rubber and chemical

industries.

In brick-making terms, clay covers a range of naturally occurring raw materials which are

used to make a product. The clays vary considerably in physical properties, colour, hardness etc,

and mineralogical content. They do, however, have certain properties in common. They have the

ability to be crushed and mixed with water to form a plastic material which can be moulded into

various shapes.

1.4 NEED FOR THE STUDY

» To reduce the environmental pollution caused by the various solid waste.

» To utilize the different solid waste in the production of bricks.

» To preserve the valuable natural resource of clay for the production of bricks.

» To determine the optimum percentage of various solid wastes incorporated in the

production of bricks.

1.4.1 OBJECTIVES

» To characterize the chemical properties of Bagasse ash and Granite processing waste.

» To produce the bricks using Bagasse ash and Granite waste and testing its suitability for

construction purpose.

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CHAPTER 2LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 GENERAL

Need for building materials is growing at an alarming rate and in order to meet the

demand for new buildings, new ways and techniques must be evolved. Manufacturing of

building materials like bricks/blocks, cement, steel, aggregates, etc. consumed in bulk quantities,

puts great pressure on natural resources (raw materials) and energy requirements. The use of

alternative materials for bricks should be encouraged in order to preserve precious fertile top

soil.

Sugarcane is the world's largest crop.  In 2010, FAO estimates it was cultivated on about

23.8 million hectares, in more than 90 countries, with a worldwide harvest of 1.69 billion tonnes.

Brazil was the largest producer of sugar cane in the world. The next five major producers, in

decreasing amounts of production, were India, China, Thailand, Pakistan and Mexico. After

harvest, the crop produces sugar juice and bagasse, the fibrous dry matter. Sugarcane bagasse is a

potentially abundant source of energy for large producers of sugarcane, countries such as Brazil,

India and China.

In the world market, there are nearly 300 varieties of granite. India supplies more than

160 varieties. In India, the processing industry is in three sectors; namely, small-scale units,

medium-scale units and 100% export-oriented units (EOU). The processing industry of granite in

the country has been developed over the years. Major production of granite in raw as well as

processed form is generally from Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat,

Uttar Pradesh and Orissa.

2.2 BAGASSE ASH UTILISATION

Environment friendly, energy-efficient and cost effective alternative materials developed

from solid wastes will show good market potential to cater to people’s needs in rural and urban

areas. Inclusion of industrial waste-based newer building materials, emphasizing their

environmental significance in the curriculum at higher education level and practical applications

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of wastes in construction sector will give fillip to such technology promotion. The scientific

advancement in recycling and using industrial and agricultural processes for utilizing wastes will

lead to a better use of world’s resources. The new and alternative building construction materials

developed using agro-industrial wastes have ample scope for introducing new building

components that will reduce to an extent the costs of building materials (Asokan Pappua et al.,

2007).

The utilization of waste materials in concrete manufacture provides a satisfactory

solution to some of the environmental concerns and problems associated with waste

management. Agro wastes such as rice husk ash, wheat straw ash, hazel nutshell and sugarcane

bagasse ash are used as pozzolanic materials for the development of blended cements (Ganesan

et al., 2007). Bagasse is the fibrous residue obtained from sugar cane after the extraction of sugar

juice at sugar cane mills (Osinubi and Stephen, 2005). Bagasse ash is the residue obtained from

the incineration of bagasse in sugar producing factories. Research works have been carried out

on the improvement of geotechnical characteristics of soils using bagasse ash (Osinubi and

Stephen 2007).

Sugar cane bagasse ash (SCBA) is generated as a combustion by-product from boilers of

sugar and alcohol factories. Composed mainly of silica, this by-product can be used as a mineral

admixture in mortar and concrete (G.C. Cordeiro et al., 2008).The presence of oxides and carbon

in the ash will make it suitable for refectory and ceramic products such as insulation, membrane

filters and structural ceramics. Also with fine particle size characteristics, implies that this

bagasse ash can be used as facing sand moulding during casting operations. The ash can

withstand a temperature of up to 16000C with a density of 1.95g/cm3. The firing shrinkage value

of the bagasse ash is very low with a value is 0.85%. This result confirm with the structure

observed in the microstructure which is mainly carbon, silica and silicon carbide, since silica and

graphite (C) expand during firing (V. S. Aigbodion et al., 2010).

Bagasse ash has been utilized in the high strength Portland cement concrete which not

only improves the early strength but also increases the compactness of the concrete. It is an

effective mineral admixture and pozzolan with the optimal replacement ratio of 20% cement,

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which enhanced the high early strength and resistance to chloride diffusion and the water

permeability (Noor-ul-Amin 2010).

Ground bagasse ash can be used as a pozzolanic material in concrete with an acceptable

strength, lower heat evolution, and reduced water permeability with respect to the control

concrete (Nuntachai Chusilp et al., 2009). In presence of BA setting times are increased and free

lime is decreased. The compressive strength values increased with hydration time in the presence

of BA and the values were found to be higher than that of control. The blended cement was

found to be more resistant in an aggressive environment (N.B Singh et al., 2000).

Portland cement incorporating the cement replacement materials (industrial and

agricultural waste products) improves corrosion resistance of carbon steel. Sugar cane bagasse is

considered as waste in sugar mills and dumped in open space or used as fuel for boilers. The

corrosion rate of reinforcing steel and chloride penetration were significantly reduced, and

compressive strength was increased, with the incorporation of BA up to 20 percent replacement

in concrete (K. Ganesan et al., 2007).

Pozzolans can be produced with vibratory grinding of the sugar cane bagasse residual

ash. In this case, the grinding in vibratory mill for 120 min enables the production of an ash with

pozzolanic activity index of 100%; With the produced residual ash in ultrafine grinding during

120 min the cement replacement up to 20% is possible in high performance concrete with the

improvement of the rheological properties, non-reduction of the compressive strength and with

“very low” chloride-ion penetration (G. C. Cordeir et al., 2010).

2.3 GRANITE WASTE UTILISATION

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Rapid increase in stone processing units, generate lot of wastes during drilling, cutting

and polishing and cause environmental issues related to handling and disposal of the wastes.

Waste generated in stone processing industry consists of 15% of processing waste and 5% of

polishing waste The associated environmental problems include contamination of water

resources, air pollution due to air borne dry powder on windy days, blockage of drainage paths

and wastage of valuable natural resources of stones (Prasanna K and Kurian Joseph 2007).

The fine particles can cause more pollution than other forms of marble waste unless

stored properly in sedimentation tanks, and further utilized. The fine particles can be easily

dispersed after losing humidity, under some atmospheric conditions, such as wind and rain. The

white dust particles usually contain CaCO3 and thus can cause visual pollution. Clay and soils

have a high cation exchange capacity and can absorb high proportion of heavy metals and

cations, such as Ca, Mg, K and Na; yet soils are not as effective as marble and granite fine

particles in holding pollutants like Cl. The particle size of the slurry is less than 80 μm; it is later

consolidated as a result of accumulation. The waste in the water does not completely sink to the

ground, and much of it remains on the surface (Rania A. et al., 2011).

Marble and granite slurry cement bricks yield similar mechanical, in terms of

compressive strength, and physical, in terms of density and absorption, properties. There is a

positive effect of granite slurry on cement brick samples that reach its optimum at 10% slurry

incorporation. Absorption is the major drawback of slurry incorporation in cement bricks

according to the ASTM C55 where water absorption requirement is fulfilled only at Zero, 10 %,

and 20% slurry samples for grade S (Grade S for general use where moderate strength and

resistance to frost action and moisture are required) (Rania et al., 2011).

Incorporation of granite and marble wastes into raw clay material fired at low

temperature, results energy saving as well as the relief of disposal of industrial wastes. At higher

waste weight percentage and temperatures, the obtained strength indicates that the quality of the

waste incorporated bricks may be further improved. Moreover, it is important to note that the

21

average compressive and flexural strengths obtained at 20 wt. % is higher than that of other

waste weight percentage. The water absorption and porosity of the waste incorporated briquette

specimens are inversely proportional to waste content as well as sintering temperatures, while

bulk density is directly proportional to waste content as well as sintering temperatures (S.

Dhanapandian and B.Gnanavel 2010).

Utilization of the sludge waste from stone cutting is essential in order to minimize the

waste and the environmental considerations. Moreover, it is an effective utilization of the

limited natural resources. The sludge generated from the stone cutting processes can be regarded

as an interesting raw material for the production of terrazzo tiles. The usage of sludge in these

applications could serve as an alternative solution to disposal (Kamel Al Zboon and Montasser

Tahat 2009).

Marble and granite blocks are cut into smaller blocks in order to give the required smooth

shape. During the cutting and polishing process about 25% marble and granite is resulted in dust,

mainly composed of SiO2, Al2O3,Fe2O3 and CaO, with minor contents of Mg, Ti, Mn and K

oxides (Segadaes et al., 2005), which can cause serious damages to the environment, especially

soil and underground water contamination, if not efficiently treated before disposal. A ceramic

body traditionally used to produce roofing tiles was reformulated by the addition of granite waste

from sawing operations (S.N. Monteiro et al., 2003). The replacement of feldspar by granite

waste into a vitrified ceramic tile body (Carlos Maurício Fontes Vieira et al., 2006).

Solid wastes are today one of the worst problems in the word, mainly because of the

increase in volume and the high capacity of environmental contamination. The granite sawing

wastes have particle size distribution and mineralogical composition similar to conventional non-

plastic ceramic raw materials. These wastes can be used in substitution of conventional raw

materials in ceramic formulations in proportions up to 50 per cent. This can be important to save

traditional raw materials from the region and decreasing the aggression to the environment

(Romualdo Rodrigues Menezes et al., 2002).

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CHAPTER 3

MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 BAGASSE ASH

The sugarcane industries are producing three types of wastes such as molasses, filter

press mud and bagasse. Molasses and bagasse are the valuable by products of the sugar industry.

Bagasse is a fibrous waste material that remains after crushing of sugarcane stalks.

Currently, sugarcane bagasse is burned in boilers together with the coal to produce steam, which

is utilized in the factory processes and also to power turbines for the production of electrical

energy. The electrical energy is utilized in sugar industry processes. There is worldwide

consensus that there is a need to recycle and reutilize waste residues for an efficient utilization of

natural resources. The ash produced from the above process contains 80% Bagasse ash and 20%

coal ash. The ash is utilized for the production of glass ceramic products due to its high silica

content.

Figure 1 Bagasse Ash

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3.1.1 WASTE QUANTIFICATION

India is the Second Largest Producer of Sugar after Brazil in the World. In 2010-1011,

the sugar production is 336.7 million tonnes. The sugar industry plays an important role in

India’s economy. It is the largest among the processing industries next to cotton textiles. The

volume of ash produced is 6kg per a tonne of sugarcane (1000 kg cane → 250 kg bagasse → 6

kg ash). In 2010- 2011, the bagasse ash produced is approximately about 2 millions.

3.1.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

» The ash from sugar industry was dumped on the land. It affects the natural mineralogy

of land.

» From the dump yard, ash flies around and settles on floors, office tables, and almost

everywhere, causing not only inconvenience but also health hazards for those living nearby.

» The important potential impact is contamination of ground water by leachates from the

ash disposal area.

» Vegetation loss at the disposal site.

3.2 GRANITE WASTE

During the processing of granite, the raw stone block is cut as demanded either into tiles

or slabs of various thicknesses(usually 2 or 4cm), using diamond blades. Water is showered on

blades while stone blocks are cut into sheets of varying thickness to cool the blades and absorbs

the dust produced during the cutting operation. The amount of wastewater from this operation is

very large. It is not recycled as the water so highly alkaline that, if re-used, it can dim the slabs to

be polished. In large factories, where the blocks are cut into slabs, the cooling water is stored in

pits until the suspended particles settle (sedimentation tanks), then the slurry is collected in

trucks and disposed of on the ground and left to dry. This water carries large amounts of stone

powder. Eventually, the sludge dries in the sun and its particles become airborne. This causes air

pollution problems for the surrounding area.

24

Another solid waste generated by the granite units is the cutting waste which results from

cutting slabs into the required dimensions. After the stone has been cut to the specific

dimensions, the slabs are finished either by polishing or texturing, as requested. The polishing

operation is fully automated with the use of powdered abrasives that keep on scrubbing the

surface of the marble until it becomes smooth and shiny. Water showers are essential to prevent

overheating of the blades. The fine powder resulting from the above operation named as granite

waste.

Figure2 Granite Waste

3.2.1 WASTE QUANTIFICATION

India is one among the leading countries in mining and export of granite and is rich in

granite reserves. Although granite is a minor mineral, it is a major contributor in foreign

exchange earnings. India is the second largest exporter of raw granite after China and ahead of

Brazil and South Africa. India ranked fifth in the export of processed (value added finished)

product. In 2012, the granite production is 10,841,073 tons. In India, about 6 million tonnes of

wastes from marble and granite industries are being released through cutting, polishing,

processing and grinding.

3.2.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

25

» Stone waste is generally a highly polluting waste due to both its highly alkaline nature,

and its manufacturing and processing techniques, which impose a health threat to the

surroundings.

» Granite industry is one of the most environmentally unfriendly industry. Cutting the

stones produces heat, slurry, rock fragments, and dust.

» The weathering of the worn steel grit and blades used in processing granite transfer

some quantities of toxic metals like Chromium. This endangers the quality of surface and ground

waters nearby.

» The fine particles can cause more pollution than other forms of waste unless stored

properly in sedimentation tanks, and further utilized. The fine particles can be easily dispersed

after losing humidity, under some atmospheric conditions, such as wind and rain. The white dust

particles usually contain CaCO3 and thus can cause visual pollution.

» The granite slurry could lead in the long run to water clogging of the soil, to increasing

soil alkalinity, and to disruption of photosynthesis and transpiration. The net effect is a reduction

of soil fertility and plant productivity. Even if those plants did not die out, their internal

chemistry will have been altered and their nutritional value poisoned by gases emitted by the

industry.

» Slurry and dust form the blanket on the plants and surfaces, it also affect the aesthetic

appearance.

26

3.3 METHODOLOGY

COLLECTON OF BAGASSE BURNT ASH

COLLECTION OF GRANITE WASTE

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF WASTES

BRICK PRODUCTION

TESTING OF BRICKS

COMPARISION OF STRENGTH BETWEEN NEW

BRICKS AND CONVENTIONAL BRICKS

Figure 3 Methodology to be adopted

3.3.1 COLLECTION OF BAGASSE BURNT ASH

Bagasse burnt ash was collected from sugar industry located in Erode. In this

industry the bagasse (80%) was burned together with the coal (20%) for the production of

electrical energy. The electrical energy utilized for industrial processes. The remaining ash

carried by truck and dumped in the open fields of land.

27

3.3.2 COLLECTION OF GRANITE WASTE

The granite waste was collected from granite industry located in coimbatore. In this

industry, during the process of cutting and polishing the granite waste in the form of slurry is

generated. After the drying period of one month the waste was carried by the truck and dumped

in open fields of land.

3.4 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

The chemical analysis of wastes was carried out by X-Ray Diffraction Method, which

was done in National Institute of Technology, Trichy.

X-ray diffraction (XRD) is a non-destructive technique that reveals detailed information

about the chemical composition and crystallographic structure of natural and manufactured

materials.

The other uses of X- Ray Diffraction are as follows:

»Identification of single-phase materials – minerals, chemical compounds, ceramics or

other engineered materials.

»Identification of multiple phases in microcrystalline mixtures (i.e., rocks).

»Determination of the crystal structure of identified materials.

»Identification and structural analysis of clay minerals.

»Recognition of amorphous materials in partially crystalline mixtures.

28

Figure 4 XRD pattern of Bagasse Ash

29

Figure 5 XRD pattern of Granite waste

30

The intensities and d-spacing values obtained for various peaks are compared with the

standard reference material given in the software named as JCPDS (JOINT COMMITTEE ON

POWDER DIFFRACTION STANDARDS).

The standard reference material for various compounds such as SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, K2O,

Fe2O3, Na2O is in the software is given in the following tables

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

3.5MANUFACTURING METHODOLOGY

The bricks were manufactured at near Keeranur. Three different series of bricks were

produced, which involves the addition of bagasse ash, granite waste with various proportions of

total weight of clay. For each proportion twelvebricks were moulded to test its compressive

strength and water absorption.

Clay winning

Clay preparation

Bagasse ash& granite waste preparation

Mix proportion

Moulding

Drying

Firing

Figure 13 Manufacturing processes of brick

3.5.1 CLAY WINNING

43

Figure 14 Clay Winning

»Clay winning means the extraction of clay from the quarry. The choice of method of

clay winning will depend on the depth, thickness, hardness and physical geology of the clay

beds.

»Clay deposits are found at the foot of hills or on agricultural land close to rivers (which

naturally generates conflicting interests between the use of land for brickmaking and for

agriculture). It must, however, be remembered that the fertile topsoil required for agriculture is

not used for brickmaking. These 30 to 50 cm of soil have to be removed before excavating the

clay for brickmaking.

»The criteria for choosing a suitable location are the quality of clay, availability of level

ground and closeness of a motorable road for transports.

»Hand-digging in small and medium-sized production plants is usually done to a depth of

less than 2 m. (After excavation of large areas they can be returned to agricultural use.)

»Mechanical methods, using drag-line and multi-bucket excavators, are required for

large-scale brickmaking plants. These methods require proportionately less excavating area, but

make deep cuts in the landscape.

44

»Particular attention is given to environmental factors both during the clay win and when

restoring the landscape after excavations are complete.

3.5.2 CLAY PREPARATION

Figure 15 Preparation of Clay

»Sorting is done by picking out roots, stones, limestone nodules, etc., or in some cases by

washing the soil.

»Crushing is required because dry clay usually forms hard lumps.

»Thorough mixing is needed and a correct amount of water. The effort of mixing can be

greatly reduced by allowing the water to percolate through the clay structure for some days or

even months. This process, known as "tempering", allows chemical and physical changes to take

place, improving its moulding characteristics. The clay must be kept covered to prevent

premature drying.

3.5.3 BAGASSE ASH AND GRANITE WASTE PREPARATION

»It was necessary to either grind the wastes into a powder or screen it to remove stones

and larger particles.

»The bagasse ash and granite wastes were prepared for required size by sieving.

45

3.5.4 MIX PROPORTION

»Three different series of bricks were produced, which involves the addition of bagasse

ash, granite waste with various proportions of total weight of clay.

»Mix proportions of 1) Bagasse ash & Granite waste bricks 2) Bagasse ash bricks 3)

Granite waste bricks are as follows:

Table 1 Bagasse Ash & Granite Waste Bricks Mix ProportionClay by Weight Bagasse Ash by

WeightGranite Waste by

Weight90% 5% 5%

80% 10% 10%

70% 15% 15%

60% 20% 20%

50% 25% 25%

Table 2 Bagasse Ash Bricks Mix ProportionClay by Weight Bagasse Ash by

Weight90% 10%

80% 20%

70% 30%

60% 40%

50% 50%

Table 3 Granite Waste Bricks Mix ProportionClay by Weight Granite Waste by

Weight90% 10%

80% 20%

70% 30%

60% 40%

50% 50%

46

3.5.5 MOULDING

»All fired clay products require some form of compaction, either by dynamic compaction

(throwing, tamping) or static compaction (with mechanical or hydraulic equipment).

»In keeranur brick champer, Hand moulding systems i.e wooden moulds were used for

moulding. The size of the wooden mould is 22cm X 10cm X 7cm.

3.5.6 DRYING

Figure 16 Drying of Bricks

»Natural drying is done in the open under the sun, but a protective covering (eg leaves,

grass or plastic sheeting) is advisable to avoid rapid drying out. If it is likely to rain, drying

should be done under a roof. But traditionally, bricks are only made in the dry season.

»The new bricks are dried for a period of 5 days.

47

3.5.7 FIRING

Figure 17 Firing of Bricks

»Firing temperatures vary considerably between different clay types and are often quite

critical. During firing, bricks undergo a physical change. Clay particles and impurities are fused

together to produce a hard durable and weather resistant product. This is called vitrification. This

is usually accompanied by further shrinkage and a colour change.

»Firing – Wooden planks are used for firing the bricks. The new bricks are burnt in a

brick kiln for a period of 3 days.

»Cooling – Cold air is drawn into the kiln to cool the bricks slowly ready for sorting and

packing. This air becomes hot and can be drawn off and recycled for use in the drying process.

The new bricks are cooled for a period of 3 days.

48

Figure 18Various proportions of Bagasse Ash & Granite Waste Bricks

49

Figure 19Various proportions of Bagasse Ash Bricks

50

Figure 20 Various proportions of Granite Waste Bricks

51

3.6 TESTING OF BRICKS

The produced new bricks are tested for the following properties:

1) Compressive strength

2) Water absorption

3.6.1 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

Compressive strength is the capacity of a material or structure to withstand axially

directed pushing forces. When the limit of compressive strength is reached, materials are

crushed. The material compresses and shortens it is said to be in compression.

The Compressive strength is also defined as resistance to load per unit area and is

expressed in mega Pascal’s (MPa) or N/mm2.

The compressive strength is mathematically expressed as

Compressive strength= load/ surface area

The compressive strength is used to design of masonry to calculate the strength of a wall

and reflects the performance of the brick in a wall.

3.6.2 WATER ABSORTION TEST

The amount of water that a brick can absorb is measured by the cold water absorption

test. The amount of water absorbed by a composite material when immersed in water for a period

of 24 hours.

Water absorption, % by mass, after 24 hours immersion in cold water in given by the

formula,

Water absorption is used to indicate the pore spaces present in the bricks.

52

CHAPTER 4

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 RESULT OF XRD ANALYSIS

Figure shows the chemical analyses by XRD of the sugarcane bagasse ash and granite

waste. The major components of the bagasse ash and granite waste are SiO2 and show the

highest concentration.

Figure 21 XRD result of Bagasse ash

53

Figure 22 XRD result of Granite waste

» In both the wastes commonly presented compounds are SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, K2O,

Fe2O3, Na2O.

» The d-spacing value related to the max intensity (i.e 100% intensity) of the SiO2 which

is obtained from the standard reference material is compared with the XRD values of wastes. The

same d-spacing value indicates the presence of SiO2.

» The d-spacing value of next max intensity from SRM of the SiO2 is also compared with

the XRD values of the wastes.

» To conform the presence of SiO2 three times the above procedure should be repeated.

» The procedure is also used to conform the presence of other compounds such as Al2O3,

CaO, K2O, Fe2O3, Na2O.

» The major peaks correspond to major compound. In both the wastes the major

compound found as silica (SiO2).

54

4.2 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST

The burnt bricks made of different proportions of bagasse ash, granite waste and clay

composition were tested for compressive strength. For each proportion the table shows the value

of average compressive strength of six bricks.

S.No

Mix proportion by

Weight percentage

of wastes

Average Compressive

Strength of Bagasse

Ash & Granite Waste

Bricks

N/mm2

Average Compressive

Strength of Bagasse

Ash Bricks

N/mm2

Average Compressive

Strength of Granite

Waste Bricks

N/mm2

1 Clay Brick (0%) 3.18 3.18 3.18

2 10% 4.09 3.41 4.55

3 20% 3.18 2.73 3.64

4 30% 2.95 1.59 3.18

5 40% 2.05 0.68 2.73

6 50% 1.36 0.25 2.27

Table 4 Compressive Strength of new bricks

The results show that both bagasse ash & granite waste and granite waste bricks show

similar results, granite waste bricks show slightly higher values, as illustrated in Figure 22 to 25,

which is predictable due to the higher strength of natural granite stone.

Comparing with the ordinary clay brick, in terms of compressive strength, the 10%

bagasse ash & granite waste , bagasse ash, granite waste samples yield results slightly higher to

that of the clay brick. The 20% bagasse ash & granite waste and granite waste also show similar

results to that of clay brick. The 30%, 40% and 50% bagasse ash & granite waste bricks, bagasse

ash bricks, Granite waste bricks results in the reduction of strength.

55

Figure 23 Variation in Compressive Strength of Bagasse Ash & Granite Waste Bricks

0 10 20 30 40 50 600

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

Replacement of clay with Bagasse Ash (%)

Com

pres

sive

str

engt

h ( N

/mm

2)

Figure 24 Variation in Compressive Strength of BA Bricks

56

0 10 20 30 40 50 600

0.51

1.52

2.53

3.54

4.5

Replacement of clay with Bagasse Ash & Granite Waste (%)

Com

pres

sive

str

engt

h ( N

/mm

2)

0 10 20 30 40 50 600

1

2

3

4

5

Replacement of clay with Granite Waste (%)

Com

pres

sive

str

engt

h ( N

/mm

2)

Figure 25 Variation in Compressive Strength of GW Bricks

These results emphasize the positive effect of bagasse ash & granite waste on brick

samples that reach its optimum at 20% waste incorporation, while at higher percentages,

agglomeration of wastes started to decreasing the compressive strength of bricks. Comparing to

the specifications, 20% replacement of clay by waste samples are acceptable, in terms of

compressive strength, compared to the Indian specifications even for structural requirements (3.5

N/mm2). It results that a maximum of 20% replacement can be done for moulding of bricks.

57

4.3 WATER ABSORPTION

The burnt bricks were tested for water absorption. Water absorption rate has been used as

an indication for porosity of the brick. For each proportion the table shows the value of average

water absorption of six bricks.

S.No

Mix proportion by

Weight percentage

of wastes

Average Water

absorption of Bagasse

Ash and Granite

Waste Bricks

(%)

Average Water

absorption of

Bagasse Ash

Bricks

(%)

Average Water

absorption of

Granite Waste

Bricks

(%)

1 Clay Brick (0%) 8.13 8.13 8.13

2 10% 8.42 10.43 8.78

3 20% 13.13 20.22 11.31

4 30% 16.94 25.96 13.08

5 40% 19.4 31.8 15.12

6 50% 23.36 41.38 17.88

Table 5 Water Absorption of new bricks

The results show that the water absorption of the brick increased with the increase of

waste content. Bagasse ash & granite waste and granite waste bricks show similar results, granite

waste bricks show slightly lower values. The variation of water absorption of these bricks as

illustrated in Figure 26 to 28.

Compared to the Indian specifications, 40% replacement of clay by bagasse ash and

granite waste, 50% replacement of clay by granite waste and 20% replacement of clay by

bagasse ash are acceptablein terms of water absorption.

58

0 10 20 30 40 50 600

5

10

15

20

25

Replacement of clay with Bagasse Ash & Granite Waste (%)

Wat

er A

bsor

ptio

n %

Figure 26 Variation in Water Absorption of Bagasse Ash & Granite Waste Bricks

0 10 20 30 40 50 60051015202530354045

Replacement of clay with Bagasse Ash (%)

Wat

er A

bsor

ptio

n %

Figure 27 Variation in Water Absorption of Bagasse Ash Bricks`

59

0 10 20 30 40 50 600

5

10

15

20

Replacement of clay with Granite waste (%)

Wat

er A

bsor

ptio

n %

Figure 28 Variation in Water Absorption of Granite Waste Bricks

60

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

Nowadays, large quantities of artificial and natural wastes in different forms are

generated all around the globe. Regarding to waste management methods, these kinds of wastes

need to be treated instead of being accumulated at open-air dumpsites or landfill, or disposed at

waterways and around the production facilities, causes environmental and health problems.

Utilization of these wastes is essential in order to minimize the waste and the environmental

considerations. Moreover, it is an effective utilization of the limited natural resources.

The incorporation of industrial wastes or sub-products in bricks is becoming a common

practice. Sugarcane and Granite processing industry generates a large amount of wastes, which

pollute and damage the environment. Therefore this work aims to characterize and evaluate the

possibilities of using the bagasse ash and granite wastes, generated by the process industries, as

alternative raw materials in the production of bricks.

The waste can be reused as a replacement of clay with respect to the chemical

characteristics.Bagasse ash & granite waste bricks yield similar mechanical, in terms of

compressive strength, and physical, in terms of water absorption, properties. The average

compressive strength obtained at 10% by weight is higher than that of other waste weight

percentage. Also the compressive strength obtained at 20% by weight is similar to that of clay

brick. The water absorption and porosity of the waste incorporated bricks are directly

proportional to waste content and these values are below 20% according to IS specifications.

There is a positive effect of bagasse ash & granite waste on clay brick samples that reach

its optimum at 20% by weight can be incorporated into raw clay materials of brick chambers,

without degrading their mechanical properties. Finally, bagasse ash &granite waste as an

alternative raw material in brick production will induce a relief on waste disposalconcerns.

Further, the incorporation of bagasse ash & granite wastes in brick production leads to a new

method of wastes disposal and found to be an environmentally friendly recycling process in brick

industries.

61

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