Department of Civil Engineering

National Institute Of Technology, Raipur

Project report on pond water quality data analysis and geo tagging

SUBMITTED BY:-

AVIRAL VERMA (11114013)

UJJWAL LINGAM SHRIDHAR (11114072)

SUBMITTED TO:-

Dr. GOVARDHAN

National Institute Of Technology, RaipurDepartment of Civil Engineering

CertificateThis is to certify that Minor project report on “Pond water quality data

analysis and geo tagging” submitted by AVIRAL VERMA and UJJWAL LINGAM, students of Final Year, CIVIL Engineering during the academic years 2014-2015 in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award

of the degree of Bachelors of Technology by National Institute of technology, Raipur is an authentic record of their own work carried out

under my guidance and supervision.

APPROVED BY:- GUIDED BY:-

Dr. R.K. Tripathi Dr. Govardhan

Professor & Head Assistant Professor

Dept. of Civil Engineering Dept. of Civil Engineering

National Institute of Technology, National Institute of Technology,

Raipur Raipur

AcknowledgmentWe wish to communicate our deep sense of gratitude to Dr. Govardhan, Assistant Professor,

Dept. of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Raipur who actively supported and provided the guidance to us throughout the project work. His guidance provided us the invaluable insight in developing the project. We are grateful to the entire information, guidance and encouragement towards the project working going on.

We also express gratitude to Head, Dr. R.K. Tripathi and all our professor of Civil Engineering Department, NIT Raipur for their suggestion, who helped us a lot in improving our project.

We are thankful to the computer lab staff for their help during project work. Our special thanks to every member of Civil Engineering Department of this institute for their valuable co-operation during the course of this project.

Last but not the least; we would like to thank all those who have, directly or indirectly, helped a lot in fruitful completion of the project.

By:-

Aviral verma 11114013

Ujjwal Lingam 11114072

Date:-

Place:-

Declaration

We hereby, solemnly declare that the work carried out by us, presented in this project “Pond water quality data analysis and geo tagging” is entirely and solely our effort.

It has been carried out entirely at the facilities available in the institution and it has not been submitted earlier for degree in the institute or in any other institute.

By:-

Aviral verma 11114013

Ujjwal Lingam 11114072

Date:-

Place:- Raipur

Abstract

Pond water – the most natural and yet the most precious natural resource that the man kind needs. Current quality assessment methods of water parameters are mainly elaborate or based, require fresh supplies of chemicals, trained staff and are time consuming. In rapidly growing city like Raipur ponds witch were of at most importance, are now endangered, due to either, urbanization and pollution due to domestic waste.

Through this project we can observe the periodic variation in water quality parameters of ponds in Raipur city by plotting the chart displaying their variation with time. By this our government can take the appropriate measures to improve the water quality in preferential order.

Index Certificate Acknowledgement Declaration Abstract Introduction

i. General Information.ii. Present condition and need for water quality analysis.

iii. Key issues to be addressed by this project.iv. Aim of the project.

Software Developmenti. Agenda Prioritization.ii. User Interface.

iii. Embedding Google Map API.iv. Android App.

Procedurei. Standard test procedures.

1. BOD2. COD3. Alkalinity4. Hardness5. pH

Future prospects Conclusions References

Introduction

GENERAL INFORMATIONRaipur is the capital city of the recently formed state of Chhattisgarh in November 2000 (formerly part of Madhya Pradesh) in central India. The city is administered by the Raipur Municipal Corporation (RMC). With a population of 1 million (GOI 2011), the city sprawls across 188 km2 and consists of 41 villages. Traditionally, Raipur's economy has been based on agricultural-processing and sawmilling, serving as a regional hub for trade and commerce for a variety of local agricultural and forest products. Today Raipur is an important regional, commercial and industrial destination for coal, power, steel and aluminum industries. Raipur is the largest market of steel and iron in India and among the richest cities of India. Raipur has witnessed a high growth rate in population, which has not been matched with a corresponding sanitation infrastructure (RMC et al. 2011).

Raipur at a Glance

Total population in 20111.1 million (11.2 lakhs) (GOI 2011 )

Total area 226 km2Area covered under corporation 142 km2

Annual growth projected 1.8 million (2021); 4.1 million (2041)Number of Wards 70

PRESENT CONDITION AND NEED FOR WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS

World Water Day was celebrated in Raipur by bringing together many speakers who talked on the importance of sharing and disseminating information to truly serve society well.On 22nd March 2014, Raipur celebrated World Water Day with senior government officials and officials from NGOs and other organizations presenting on the importance of NGOs in disseminating information to the people. They also highlighted the discrepancies in data collected between organizations and the need to improve on this if they were to make a difference to society.

The event was jointly organized by the Department of Urban Administration and Development (DUAD), Department of Women and Child Development (WCD), Department of Health and Family Welfare (HFW), IIHMR Jaipur, Health of the Urban Poor Program (HUP), USAID and Population Foundation of India.

The welcome note by Sanjoy Samaddar, Project Director-HUP-IIHMR, Chhattisgarh stressed on the need to identify and include social determinants of health to strengthen urban health MIS in Chhattisgarh. A Water And Sanitation Hygiene (WASH) module for master trainers on frontline workers was then released.

Often, we assume that society at large is knowledgeable about issues that affect us, including the problems around water but it isn't so. To clearly state that water conservation is more important now than ever, a movie aptly titled 'Jal hi jeevan hai', was screened. Discussion papers on MIS and recommended measures to deal with issues related to interdepartmental coordination were debated.

For the proper integration of any data related to health or water on common parameters in Chhattisgarh, transparent systems must be established by each government department as well as NGO’s. Unless this is emphasized, strengthening health or water MIS would be an uphill task.

Raipur Ranking Based on NUSP Output IndicatorsAccording to the National Award Scheme for Sanitation for Indian Cities in 2009/2010 under the NUSP, the city of Raipur was ranked at No. 274 with a total score of 30.74. Subsequently it was accorded the lowest rating category.

Raipur’s City Sanitation Ranking in 2009-2010 under the NUSP. Source: RMC et al. (2011)

KEY ISSUES TO BE ADRESSED BY THIS PROJECT

Key Issue 1: Inadequate and deficiently designed, operated & managed individual and community toilets in the urban poor areas resulting in open defecation and severe health impacts

Rationale for issue identification: A total of 57% of the urban poor population in the city defecates in the open. There is one toilet seat for every 460 urban poor users as compared to the national norms of 1 toilet seat per 50 users. The toilets designed are neither gender sensitive nor handicapped nor elderly users friendly (see also access to water and sanitation, development issues, socio-cultural issues, health and hygiene issues).

Key Issue 2: Indiscriminate dumping of solid waste in open areas and storm water drains and unscientific management of the dump sites receiving the waste from the entire city and lack of treatment and ultimate scientific disposal

Only 8% of the city population is served with door to door collection of solid waste and 7% of the entire population still resort to open dumping of waste which are ultimately crowding the excessive lengths of open, uncovered drains running through the city during the rainy season. The number of dumper placers and tipper trucks required for the existing population is 39 and 60 respectively. However, Raipur Municipal Corporation (RMC) is in possession of only 7 dumper placers and 21 tipper trucks, which is not sufficient for the service delivery. Raipur also lacks scientific engineered landfills and there is an imminent threat of groundwater contamination through the leachate produced from the untreated solid waste (see also water source protection, pathogens and contaminants).

Key Issue 3: Higher risk due to improper septic tanks and seepage management leading to contamination of water bodies/water supply distribution system and incidences of water borne diseases

Roughly 54% of the properties are connected to unscientifically designed septic tanks, which do not adhere to the CPHEEO guidelines and therefore overflow into the open drainage channels ultimately draining into the natural water bodies and/or polluting the groundwater (see also water pollution, groundwater sources, surface water sources). Also only 2 suction Lorries are available where 120 suction Lorries are required to be pressed into service to empty the septic tanks once annually. Currently there is no official designated site available for the disposal and the seepage management is informal with a high risk of occupational health hazards (see also health and hygiene issues). The water quality samples in the distribution system show abnormal levels of E. coli (EHEC) contamination along with the presence of nitrate in higher concentration in the drinking water (compared to the trace amounts found in the treated water) indicating the ingress of pollutants due to seepage overflow in the distribution system (see also pathogens and contaminants). Since the water supply lines run along the road side drains, the drain water may find its way into the drinking water pipes there by contaminating the water giving rise to water borne diseases.

Key Issue 4: The coverage of centralized sewer network in Raipur is insufficient and the willingness of households to get connected low

Only 11% of the urban poor are connected to the city sewer network (see conventional sewers) while the remaining 89% resort to open drains or open areas for wastewater disposal. At the

city level, about 43% of the population in the city lacks any system of disposal of the sewage generated. There is however no legal arrangement on state or on city level to either enforce the connectivity of households nor any provision for incentives and frameworks to motivate the citizens to do the same (see also 1669-creating policies and legal framework in wastewater collection], building an institutional framework, demand creation tools). The current sewer system drains towards the North where two treatment plants are located. Consequently the wastewater from the southern belt is to be pumped over a ridge, which forms the center of Raipur city. Due to the topography five pumping stations are required in the South and West to pump wastewater over the ridge and none of the pumping stations is frequently operated at the present.

Key Issue 5: The existing sewage treatment system consisting of 7 oxidation ponds is defunct and the total sewage generated in the city is untreated

Location of existing and proposed sewage treatment systems and problem areas. Source: GIZ (2011, City Level Strategy)

The treatment system of the city comprises of seven oxidation ponds (see aerated ponds and waste stabilization ponds) divided between two different sewage treatment systems (STPs), all of them are dysfunctional due to want of operation and maintenance (O&M) and/or financial reasons. The entire city sewage generated (about 3.7 million liters per day) remains untreated. The electrical connection to the pumping stations has been withdrawn (non-payment of dues since 1997) resulting in their dysfunction culminating in the backflow of sewage to storm water drains and hence leading to pollution. This in turn also renders the oxidation ponds defunct since the waste does not reach them.

Key Issue 6: Poor maintenance and non-integration of the available storm water drainage network renders it underutilized leading to a considerable number of water logging areas and hence unhealthy conditions

The natural drains in Raipur are low in capacity, insufficiently graded and choked due to the indiscriminate dumping of solid waste (see also open channels and drains). Constructions have been executed adjacent to most of the drains reducing the chances of widening them resulting in 29 flood prone areas in the city. In some areas there is no proper outlet of storm water to the adjacent roadside primary drains; some other areas are flooded for 3-4 months during rainy season.

Recommendations as per CSP: Facilitating and ensuring that the approval process for the Storm Water DPR is finalized with immediate effect to initiate the tender process. Coordination with the sewerage and solid waste management department to priorities the activity of prevention of indiscriminate dumping of solid waste and wastewater discharge into the storm water drains (see also creating an enabling environment and awareness raising in wastewater collection). Further, integrating lakes into the storm water drainage system by converting them into rainwater and storm water harvesting structures (see also storm water management, retention basin, precipitation harvesting).

Key Issue 7: Sub-standard quality of water supplied or accessed in several areas in the city

The water quality samples in the distribution system shows abnormal levels of E. coli contamination as high as 2400 per 100 ml (Most Probable Number) (see also water quality testing). It is reported that there were 627 cases of water borne diseases in the city as a result of poor sanitation and unhygienic conditions (see also health and hygiene issues). The stand-posts and hand pumps are located very close to the open drains and in some cases the stand-posts are laid in the open drains causing contamination of the drinking water.

Key Issue 8: The existing Institutional and Governance Framework of RMC is not equipped adequately to administer the sanitation development and management services

The present organizational structure does not conform to the service requirements. Positions of Superintending (all), Executive (50%) and Assistant Engineers (35%) are vacant. The short tenure of Municipal Commissioner (6 months to 3 years), notwithstanding the long-term nature of urban development projects and high frequency of transfers in the city management’s positions adversely affects the continuity and local accountability. The Public Health and Engineering Department and Public Works Department lack adequate support staff to operate and manage the existing system of sanitation services and moreover are overloaded with several varying nature of tasks cutting across different sectors of sanitation. There is lack of designated environmental manager in addition to the non-availability of the State Environmental Policy for environmental guidelines and regulations. Lack of staff for conservation of water bodies, staff training, knowledge management and contractor

management as well as the fact that the city does not allocate financial resources for capacity building, has no Capacity Enhancement & Development Strategy makes the situation grim.

Key Issue 9: Existing financial management system doesn’t meet the demands of the current and future sanitation requirements

Rationale for issue identification: On paper, Chhattisgarh State has initiated the implementation of Municipal Model Law partially but it has only shifted the city planning and service delivery to local government and has not matched the functions with appropriate fiscal powers. There are insufficient local financial resources. The financial analysis for the period 2004 to 2010 reveals that the revenue expenditure of RMC in all the years is more than the revenue income. Lack of administrative procedures that ensure financial data flow and reporting, absence of internal and external controls and absence of cost-effective and revenue-generating mechanisms is evident.

Software Development:-

Agenda Prioritization:-This is the most important step to start any software development project. It includes

planning all the key features of the program and deciding its layout which sets comfortably with the users. This project has a main component which is the main frame of the program i.e. Google Map which is set as a main background of the application and allows users to navigate through all the ponds which are recorded by the developers of the application. All other information such as “about project” and “administration panel” is kept in a popup so that look wise the application remains clean and simple.

Four web development languages are used to develop this Application as:

1. PHP2. Java Script3. CSS/CSS34. HTML/HTML5

For DBMS or Database management system, “MySQL” is used as a hosting service. Following diagram describes the basic structure of the whole application:

The whole program is divided into two main sides.

Client Side Server Side

Server side programming is done in PHP or Hypertext Processor which is responsible for handling requests of the users and forwards the required data accordingly, while MySQL is used as a database management which saves the different records.

Client side is further divided into two parts:

Android Application Web Application

Both of these applications are almost common except more features are accessible in Web application. Developers can enter and edit records only through web application while all the records are visible on both android and web application. The main programming languages for android and web apps are the same i.e. CSS/CSS3, HTML/HTML5, JavaScript but the only difference is that in android all the codes are bundled together with the help of Phone gap ( Phone gap enables the web developers to compile their codes and make it compatible to all the smartphone platform such as android, ios, windows etc.).

User Interface:- (Client side programming)The interface of the application is kept very simple and well organized so that any user

can access the records without any problem.

Google Map

Pond Locations

Your Location

Web App Screen Shot Android App View

Here is the list of few HTML pages related to the UI of application and their purpose:

BAR Chart for yearly record

Records in tabulation

Android View

Index.html (Homepage of Application) Admin.html (Admin account page) New_exp.html (Page for new experiment) View_exp.html (Page for displaying html) Dev_pannel.html (Main page of developer panel)

For designing and positioning different elements of HTML, “Bootstrap” is used as a prime API which is mainly responsible for giving design and color to the navigation bar, buttons, popups and Alert Box in the application. For drawing Bar graphs “Jquery Canvas” plugin is used.

For Backend:-

PHP:-

PHP or Hypertext Processor is used as a server side programming language. It controls the back-end of the application, which enables the server to handle request send by the client application module. To keep things simpler, various files are created within the “server” directory of this project which controls specific functions related to this applications. Following are the list of some main files along with the small description of their functionality:-

1. add_admin.php (Insert new developer into the database.)

2. del_admin.php (Delete a developer from the database)

3. insert2.php (Contains functions to insert any type of record to database)

4. del_exp.php (Delete an experiment record from database)

5. dev_login.php (Check the developer record in the database)

6. get_admin.php (Returns the details of the developer in JSON string)

7. get_exp.php (Returns the details of the experiments in JSON string)

8. save_exp.php (Insert new experiment record into the Database)

9. serverinfo.php (Contains login information of the MySQL server)

DBMS (MySQL) :-

MySQL is used as the prime service for saving records in the form of table. Following are the list of tables used in this application for saving records along with the small description of their functionality and name of column:-

dev (Save the details of the developers)o uid (Primary Key)o fname (First name)o lname (Last name)o uname (username)

o email (Email)o pass (Password)o type (Type of account Grand/Prime)o mob (Mobile No)

exp (Save the records of experiments)o id (Primary Key)o exp_id (Id of one set of experiment)o name (name of the experiment)o time (Time of experiment)o dev_id (Id of developer feeding the record)o un (Unit of the result of the experiment)o lat (Latitude of the location of the record)o lng (Longitude of the location of the record)o value (Value of the result of the experiment)

Embedding Google Map API:-Google Maps is a desktop and mobile web mapping service application and technology

provided by Google, offering satellite imagery, street maps, and Street View perspectives, as well as functions such as a route planner for traveling by foot, car, bicycle (beta test), or with public transportation. Also supported are maps embedded on third-party websites via the Google Maps API and a locator for urban businesses and other organizations in numerous countries around the world. Google Maps satellite images are not updated in real time; however, Google adds data to their Primary Database on a regular basis, and most of the images are no more than 3 years old.

The following web page displays a map centered on Sydney, New South Wales, Australia:

<!DOCTYPE html><html> <head> <style type="text/css"> html, body, #map-canvas { height: 100%; margin: 0; padding: 0;} </style> <script type="text/javascript" src="https://maps.googleapis.com/maps/api/js?key=API_KEY"> </script> <script type="text/javascript"> function initialize() { var mapOptions = { center: { lat: -34.397, lng: 150.644},

zoom: 8 }; var map = new google.maps.Map(document.getElementById('map-canvas'), mapOptions); } google.maps.event.addDomListener(window, 'load', initialize); </script> </head> <body><div id="map-canvas"></div> </body></html>

To plot the ponds on the map we have used markers which can be used in the following manner:-

// The following example creates complex markers to indicate beaches near// Sydney, NSW, Australia. Note that the anchor is set to// (0,32) to correspond to the base of the flagpole.

function initialize() { var mapOptions = { zoom: 10, center: new google.maps.LatLng(-33.9, 151.2) } var map = new google.maps.Map(document.getElementById('map-canvas'), mapOptions);

setMarkers(map, beaches);}

/** * Data for the markers consisting of a name, a LatLng and a zIndex for * the order in which these markers should display on top of each * other. */var beaches = [ ['Bondi Beach', -33.890542, 151.274856, 4], ['Coogee Beach', -33.923036, 151.259052, 5], ['Cronulla Beach', -34.028249, 151.157507, 3], ['Manly Beach', -33.80010128657071, 151.28747820854187, 2], ['Maroubra Beach', -33.950198, 151.259302, 1]];

function setMarkers(map, locations) { // Add markers to the map // Marker sizes are expressed as a Size of X,Y // where the origin of the image (0,0) is located // in the top left of the image. // Origins, anchor positions and coordinates of the marker // increase in the X direction to the right and in // the Y direction down. var image = { url: 'images/beachflag.png', // This marker is 20 pixels wide by 32 pixels tall. size: new google.maps.Size(20, 32), // The origin for this image is 0,0. origin: new google.maps.Point(0,0), // The anchor for this image is the base of the flagpole at 0,32. anchor: new google.maps.Point(0, 32) }; // Shapes define the clickable region of the icon. // The type defines an HTML &lt;area&gt; element 'poly' which // traces out a polygon as a series of X,Y points. The final // coordinate closes the poly by connecting to the first // coordinate. var shape = { coords: [1, 1, 1, 20, 18, 20, 18 , 1], type: 'poly' }; for (var i = 0; i < locations.length; i++) { var beach = locations[i]; var myLatLng = new google.maps.LatLng(beach[1], beach[2]); var marker = new google.maps.Marker({ position: myLatLng, map: map, icon: image, shape: shape, title: beach[0], zIndex: beach[3] }); }}

google.maps.event.addDomListener(window, 'load', initialize);

STANDARD PROCEDURE FOR WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

Biochemical Oxygen Demand, BOD, as it is commonly abbreviated, is one of the most important and useful parameters (measured characteristics) indicating the organic strength of a wastewater. BOD measurement permits an estimate of the waste strength in terms of the amount of dissolved oxygen required to break down the wastewater. The specifics of the analysis are discussed in detail in Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. The BOD test is one of the most basic tests used in the wastewater field. It is essentially a measure of the biological and the chemical component of the waste in terms of the dissolved oxygen needed by the natural aerobic biological systems in the wastewater to break down the waste under defined conditions. Generally the BOD test is carried out by determining the dissolved oxygen on the wastewater or a diluted mixture at the beginning of the test period, incubating the wastewater mixture at 20°C, and determining the dissolved oxygen at the end of 5 days. The difference in dissolved oxygen between the initial measurement and the fifth day measurement represents the biochemical oxygen demand.

While BOD describes the biological oxidation capacity of a wastewater, it is not a measure of the total potential oxidation of the organic compounds present in the wastewater. A number of chemical tests are used to measure this parameter, either in terms of the oxygen required for virtually complete oxidation, or in terms of the element carbon. Probably the most common test for estimating industrial wastewater strength is the Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) Test. This test essentially measures the chemical oxidation of the wastewater by a strong oxidizing agent in an acid solution. The value for the COD test is always greater than the BOD test and is not always a good indication of BOD values for the same waste.

A test which measures carbon and which is being used to a greater extent in measuring wastewater strength is the TOC (Total Organic Carbon) test where the carbon is oxidized by catalytic combustion to carbon dioxide and the carbon dioxide is measured. Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

The dissolved oxygen concentrations in a wastewater before and after treatment are very important. While dissolved oxygen concentrations are necessary to carry out the BOD determination, as described above, dissolved oxygen levels are also quite important in determining how satisfactory a biological wastewater treatment plant is operating. For example, for satisfactory biological wastewater decomposition (i.e. treatment) some dissolved oxygen must be present. If it is not, the system will be inefficient and is said to be anaerobic. Septic conditions follow, accompanied by a variety of nuisance conditions such as odor and color changes.

Normally, oxygen is not a very soluble gas and dissolved oxygen concentrations in wastewaters are very low. For example, dissolved oxygen concentrations of a few milligrams per liter (or parts per million) are commonplace in water. The solubility of oxygen is such that dissolved oxygen levels in clean water are affected by temperature and salt concentrations expressed as chlorides.

When microorganisms and an available food supply are present, dissolved oxygen will be consumed. Since many of the components present in a raw wastewater can serve as a nutrient for microorganisms, most domestic wastewaters will undergo some decomposition and usually any available dissolved oxygen supplies are consumed during travel through the sewer system. Generally, raw wastewater will have little if any dissolved oxygen present while wastewater in the aeration tanks, final settling tanks, or in the final effluent will probably have at least measurable dissolved oxygen concentrations.

Chemical Oxygen Demand, or CODIt is a measurement of the amount of material that can be oxidized (combined with oxygen) in the presence of a strong chemical oxidizing agent. Since the COD test can be performed rapidly, it is often used as a rough approximation of the water's BOD, even though the COD test measures some additional organic matter (such as cellulose) which is not normally oxidized by biological action. As with the BOD test, the COD test is reported as mg/L of oxygen used.

The table below shows the normal range of COD found in various kinds of domestic wastewater. Keep in mind that the addition of industrial waste can cause these values to vary widely.

Alkalinity

Alkalinity is a measure of the capacity of water or any solution to neutralize or “buffer” acids. This measure of acid-neutralizing capacity is important in figuring out how “buffered” the water is against sudden changes in pH.

Alkalinity should not be confused with pH. pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion (H+) concentration, and the pH scale shows the intensity of the acidic or basic character of a solution at a given temperature. The reason alkalinity is sometime confused with pH is because the term alkaline is used to describe pH conditions greater than 7 (basic).

The most important compounds in water that determine alkalinity include the carbonate (CO32-) and bicarbonate (HCO3-) ions. Carbonate ions are able to react with and neutralize 2 hydrogen ions (H+) and the bicarbonate ions are able to neutralize H+ or hydroxide ions (OH-) present in water. The ability to resist changes in pH by neutralizing acids or bases is called buffering.

Alkalinity is important to aquatic organisms because it protects them against rapid changes in pH. Alkalinity is especially important in areas where acid rain is a problem.

Important Compounds for Alkalinity

H+ Hydrogen ion (acid)

OH- Hydroxide ion (base)

H2CO3 Carbonic acid

HCO3- Bicarbonate ion

CO32- Carbonate ion

CaCO3 Calcium carbonate (calcite)

CaMg(CO3)2 Dolomite lime

Sources

One source of alkalinity is calcium carbonate (CaCO3), which is dissolved in water flowing through geology that has limestone and/or marble. Limestone is a sedimentary rock formed by the compaction of fossilized coral, shells and bones. Limestone is composed of the minerals calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and/or dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2), along with small amounts of other minerals. Limestone is converted to marble from the heat and pressure of metamorphic events.

Alkalinity can increase the pH (make water more basic), when the alkalinity comes from a mineral source such as calcium carbonate (CaCO3). When CaCO3 dissolves in water, the carbonate (CO3

2-) can react with water to form bicarbonate (HCO3-), which produces hydroxide

(OH-):

CaCO3 (s) ↔ Ca2+ + CO32-

CO32- + H2O ↔ HCO3

- +OH-

The hydroxide ion (OH-) is a strong base. An increase in OH- concentration will cause the pH to increase.

In addition to rocks and soils, the alkalinity of streams can be influenced by:

salts, plant activity, and Wastewater.

Wastewater can have higher alkalinity because it typically has higher concentrations of nutrients and ions, some with acid buffering properties, such as silicates and phosphates.

Storm water runoff leading to streams can carry lime (either calcite or dolomite), which is applied to lawns and agricultural fields. Clay soils naturally have an acidic pH(~pH 4-6), and ammonia-based fertilizers produce acid as they are decomposed:

(NH4)2SO4 + 4 O2 → 2 HNO3 + H2SO4 + 2 H2OLime is often added to increase soil pH and buffer soil and fertilizer acids.

In watersheds where calcium carbonate isn’t available, carbonic acid is an important source for carbonate and bicarbonate. Carbon dioxide and water are converted to carbonic acid through the following reaction:

CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 (carbonic acid)

Carbonic acid provides bicarbonate and carbonate for buffering, just like CaCO3:

H2CO3 ↔ HCO3- + H+

HCO3- ↔ CO3

2- + H+

While conversion of carbon dioxide to carbonic acid produces ions capable of buffering pH, it also causes a decrease in pH (increase in H+) that CaCO3 doesn’t. Notice in the reaction that as carbonic acid (H2CO3) reacts to form carbonate (CO3

2-), 2 hydrogen ions H+) are released into the water.

Typical Alkalinity Ranges

(mg/L CaCO3)Rainwater < 10Typical surface water 20 - 200Surface water in regions with alkaline soils 100 - 500Groundwater 50 - 1000Seawater 100 - 500

Source Normal COD range, mg/LPlant influent 300 - 700

Primary effluent 200 - 400

Trickling filter effluent 45 - 130

Activated sludge effluent 30 - 70

Advanced waste treatment effluent 5 - 15

Chlorine Demand

When chlorine enters water, it immediately begins to react with compounds found in the water. The chlorine will react with organic compounds and form trihalomethanes. It will also react with reducing agents such as hydrogen sulfide, ferrous ions, manganous ions, and nitrite ions.

Let's consider one example, in which chlorine reacts with hydrogen sulfide in water. Two different reactions can occur:

Hydrogen Sulfide + Chlorine + Oxygen Ion → Elemental Sulfur + Water + Chloride IonsH2S + Cl2 + O2- → S + H2O + 2Cl-

Hydrogen Sulfide + Chlorine + Water → Sulfuric Acid + Hydrochloric AcidH2S + 4Cl2 + 4 H2O → H2SO4 + 8 HCl

I have written each reaction using both the chemical formula and the English name of each compound. In the first reaction, hydrogen sulfide reacts with chlorine and oxygen to create elemental sulfur, water, and chloride ions. The elemental sulfur precipitates out of the water and can cause odor problems. In the second reaction, hydrogen sulfide reactions with chlorine and water to create sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid.

Each of these reactions uses up the chlorine in the water, producing chloride ions or hydrochloric acid which have no disinfecting properties. The total amount of chlorine which is used up in reactions with compounds in the water is known as the chlorine demand. A sufficient quantity of chlorine must be added to the water so that, after the chlorine demand is met, there is still some chlorine left to kill microorganisms in the water.

Hardness

Hard water is usually defined as water which contains a high concentration of calcium and magnesium ions. Measurements of hardness are given in terms of the calcium carbonate equivalent, which is an expression of the concentration of hardness ions in water in terms of their equivalent value of calcium carbonate. Water is considered to be hard if it has a hardness

of 100 mg/L or more as calcium carbonate.

Softening is the removal of hardness from water. This is not a required part of the water treatment process since hard water does not have any health consequences. However, hard water is problematic for a variety of reasons. Hard water makes soap precipitate out of water and form a scum, such as the ring which forms around bathtubs. In addition to being unsightly, the reaction of hard water with soap results in excessive use of soaps and detergents. Hard water may also cause taste problems in drinking water and may shorten the life of fabrics washed in hard water. Finally, hard water harms many industrial processes, so industries often require much softer water than is usually required by the general public.

Excessively hard water will nearly always have to be softened in order to protect the water treatment plant equipment and piping systems. At a hardness of greater than 300 mg/L as calcium carbonate, scale will form on pipes as calcium carbonate precipitates out of the water. The scaling can damage equipment and should be avoided. Hardness generally enters groundwater as the water percolates through minerals containing calcium or magnesium. The most common sources of hardness are limestone (which introduces calcium into the water) and dolomite (which introduces magnesium.) Since hardness enters water in this manner, groundwater generally has a greater hardness than surface water.

Remote Monitoring of Water Quality

For Intensive Fish Culture ( Ref. Dr. D.Lin, 2010 )

Introduction

Aquaculture is the fastest growing food-producing sector in the world, with an average annual growth rate of 8.9% since 1970. China is one of the most important contributors to world aquaculture production. 41.3 million tons, or 69.6% of the world production, was produced in China. As a result of a significant shift from wild fishing to aquaculture in the 1980s, aquaculture development has accelerated throughout the country. The production of intensive fish culture has been increased rapidly in China from 1.6million tons in 1990 to 3.5million tons in 2005. Automatic remote monitoring and computer-controlled intensive culture is the future trend in aquaculture. In modern aquaculture management, water quality monitoring plays an important role. Appropriate control of water quality to keep the concentration of the water environment parameters in the optimal range can enhance the fish growth rate, impact dietary utilization and reduce the occurrence of large-scale fish diseases. Without gathering information regarding physical and chemical parameters of water quality together with the related ecological factors it is almost impossible to perform the appropriate water quality control at the right time and in the right place. However, there are a few applications of systems which could carry out real-time water quality monitoring continuously in China. According to the conventional methods of water quality monitoring, samples of water are taken and transported to a chemical laboratory to analyze the hazardous substances. On the one hand, the maintenance of the measurements and control process is manual and influenced by the personal experience. On the other hand, the process of forecasting is time-consuming and some contamination episodes might be missed. For example, fish mortality occurred overnight in one incident and was only detected the next morning, after huge losses had already been caused. With the advent of new sensor technologies, data telemetry and wireless communication technology, various equipment has been developed to monitor remote areas in real-time. At present, continuous monitoring of drinking water and wastewater quality at most treatment plants is applied in Europe, North America and Japan. In China, online monitoring installations have been constructed for several large rivers, such as the Huanghe River and the Huaihe River, to provide real-time information to support environmental protection decision-makers. However, the financial burden for building the fundamental hardware of these high-tech facilities may only be affordable to governments. Realizing real-time data collection in a secure, robust, manageable and low-cost manner, without long-distance cable connections, will likely become a bottleneck in the development of information monitoring in fish culture. Therefore, using web-server-embedded and next generation telecommunication technologies will become increasingly important in sensing networks. In recent years, some researchers investigated integrated water quality remote monitoring systems and management systems based on culture knowledge models and forecasting models, but these systems are not aimed at the present needs to develop aquaculture and not connected with any online monitoring system. Moreover, these installations cannot achieve real-time communication between data collection and control

terminals, which is not yet a fully viable alternative for high density, open, and dynamic fish breed circumstances. In this work, water quality remote monitoring systems using a GPRS service combined with IPsec-based virtual private networking (VPN) functionality were developed for constructing a wireless sensing network on a countrywide scale. Integrated with a forecasting model on the basis of artificial neural networks (ANN), the system is able to provide real-time information and the dynamic trend of the water quality at different monitoring sites. The detected data can be collected and analyzed at any time via the Internet so as to know the status and changes of the system. Remote Monitoring of Water Quality for Intensive Fish Culture.

Aquaculture and Water Quality RequirementsAquaculture is defined as the high-density production of fish and plant forms in a controlled environment. Water quality for aqua culturists refers to the quality of water that enables successful reproduction of the desired organisms. The required water quality is determined by the specific organisms to be cultured and has many components that are interwoven. Aquaculture obeys a set of physical, chemical and biological principles. Since these principles compose the subject of water quality, in Section 2.1 we describe common water quality parameters related to these principles which have been used as indicators of water quality on fish culture, as well as the respective classification of these parameters by monitoring importance. In Section2.2, we present a classification of the parameters based on their impact level in an ecosystem.

Physical, Chemical and Biological AnalysisThe monitoring of environmental parameters in fish aquaculture allows the control and good management of water quality in fish ponds, avoiding the occurrence of unfavorable conditions that can be harmful for organism.Water quality is based on the results of toxicity tests. These tests measure the responses of aquatic organisms to defined quantities of specific pollutants. The aquatic species have different tolerances for a specific toxic compound; in this paper the characteristics of the fish are analyzed to evaluate the performance of the model.In extensive aquaculture systems on china, the water quality parameters are monitored in different frequencies. Dissolved oxygen, temperature, pH and salinity are monitored daily while ammonia, nitrates, turbidity and algae counts are analyzed weekly. Chemical analyses are not taken into consideration for water quality management on a routine bases, they are only monitored by request. Lists common water quality parameters used as indicators of water quality on fish marine culture and their respective classification by monitoring frequency.In order to understand the effects of these water quality parameters, Table2 and Table 3 show the optimal and harmful ranges (reported in the literature) for daily, weekly and by request parameters which will be considered for the assessment of water quality in our work.

Parameters Importance on marine fish culture

TemperatureThe temperature of water plays an important role in both environmental and intensive aquaculture processes. First, it affects the ability of living organisms to resist certain pollutants. Some organisms cannot survive when the water temperature takes a value beyond a specific range. Changes in temperature rates can stress fish and consequently high mortality rates can be present in the population. Second, it controls solubility of gases, chemical reactions and toxicity of the ammonia. The demand of dissolved oxygen increases when Temperature is high. Temperature can be considered as normal from 28 to 32 °C.

Dissolved oxygenThe dissolved oxygen is breathed by fish and zooplankton and is necessary for their survival. Fluctuation of dissolved oxygen, hypoxia and anoxia crisis are events that can be normally presented in aquaculture systems. Dissolved oxygen is considered the most critical quality parameter, since fish in low dissolved oxygen concentrations are more susceptible to disease. The minimum levels recommended by authors oscillate between 4 and 5 ppm.

SalinitySalinity is the saltiness or dissolved salt content of a body of water. The salt content of most natural lakes, rivers, and streams is so small that these waters are termed fresh or even sweet water. The actual amount of salt in fresh water is, by definition, less than 0.05%. The water is regarded as brackish, or defined as saline if it contains 3 to 5% salt. The ocean is naturally saline and contains approximately 3.5% salt. High salinity concentrations reduce dissolved oxygen in water ponds, and it can be dangerous for fish cultivation. The optimal concentrations of salinity are from 15 to 23 ppt.

Remote Monitoring of Water Quality for Intensive Fish Culture

pHpH is a measure of the relative amount of free hydrogen and hydroxyl ions in the water. Water that has more free hydrogen ions is acidic, whereas water that has more free hydroxyl ions is basic. The values of pH range from 0 to 14 (this is a logarithmic scale), with 7 indicating neutral. Values less than 7 indicate acidity, whereas values greater than 7 indicate a base. Extremely low or high pH stresses fish and causes soft shell and poor survival. Water bodies with 6.5 to 9.0 pH concentrations are appropriate for aquaculture production. Reproduction decreases outside of this range. Acid death appears with values below than 4.0 and an alkaline death in values above 11. The presence of chemicals in the water affects its pH, which in turn can harm the animals and plants that live there. For example, even a mildly acidulous seawater environment can harm shell cultivation. This renders pH an important water quality indicator.

AmmoniaAmmonia is the main end product of protein catabolism in crustaceans.Ammonia increases tissue oxygen consumption, damages gills and reduces the ability of blood to transport oxygen. Ammonia exists in water in both ionized (NH4+) and unionized (NH3) forms. Unionized ammonia is the most toxic form of ammonia due to its ability to diffuse readily across a cell membrane. The safe level for unionized ammonia, recommended by Chien (1992) and Wickins (1976), is less than 0.1 mg/l and for total ammonia is under 1.0 mg/l. Water nitrogen Inorganic nitrogen in water is chiefly present as ammonia, nitrate and nitrite. In fish, the respiratory pigment is hemocynanin, which can still bind oxygen in the presence of oxidizing agents such as nitrite. The safe concentration of NO2 is from 0.4 to 0.8 mg/l. Nitrates are nitrogenous compounds which can be toxic when their levels rise. According to Clifford (1994), the optimal level for Nitrates is from 400 to 800 μg/l. The expected total inorganic nitrogenRecommended for crops is from 2.0 to 4.0 mg/l.

TurbidityA high concentration of suspended solids can cause high turbidity in water, preventing the penetration of light and affecting photosynthesis. The amount of suspended solids can be determined indirectly by measuring the turbidity. The accepted range for suspended solids is from 50 to 150 mg/l; or turbidity from 35to 45 cm depth. Environmental ClassificationWat n er quality parameters can be classified in different impact levels, depending on the toxicity and harmful situations the parameters introduce to the ecosystem. In order to classify the behavior of a water quality parameter, it is necessary to define level sand allowed deviations for optimal or harmful concentrations.

AlkalinityRelated to important factors in fish culture such as buffer effect on daily variation of pH in the pond, setting the soluble iron precipitated, and in ecdysiast(Molting) and growth. Phosphorus Nutritive element, mainly appearing as orthophosphate, essential to aquatic life. From Estevez, phosphorus acts particularly in metabolic processes of living beings, such as energy storage and in the structure of the cell membrane.

Hydrogen sulfideIn water, hydrogen sulfide exists in unionized (H2S) and ionized forms (HS−and S2). Only the unionized form is considered toxic to aquatic organisms. Unionized H2S concentration is dependent on pH, temperature and salinity, and it is mainly affected by pH.

Dioxide of carbonWhen dissolved oxygen concentrations are low, carbon dioxide prevents oxygen penetration. According to Boyd (2001), the normal range of carbon dioxide is from 1 to 10 mg/l

Potential redoxThis is an indicator of substance oxidation or reduction levels. Low values are indicators of strong reduction of sediment, which is associated with toxic metabolite formation, hypoxic or anoxic conditions and low pH values. In a pond, optimal ranges of potential redox are from 500 to 700 mV for water and from 400 to 500 mV for sediment.

SilicateIn water, silicate is a composite of high importance particularly for diatoms. Optimal levels for silicate are established from 0.1 to 0.3 mg/l. Total Aquatic BacteriaMicroorganisms, particularly bacteria, play a vital role in pond ecosystems. Both beneficial (nutrients recycling, organic matter degrading etc.) and harmful (such as parasites) issues are caused by bacteria in the pond ecosystem. The optimal range for total bacteria counts should be below 10,000 UFC/ml.

VibrioVibrio is a bacterial disease responsible for mortality of cultured fishWorldwide. Vibrio related infections frequently occur in hatcheries, butEpizootics are also commonly in pond reared fish species. Optimal ranges are defined as being below 1000 UFC/ml.

Fecal ColiformsFecal Coliforms in water come from the feces of warm-blooded animals and they are an indicator of water pollution. The optimal range of fecal coliforms is below 1000 MPN/ml and for crop it should not exceed 1400 MPN/ml.Remote Monitoring of Water Quality for Intensive Fish Culture 223

Specified levels. In this study, tolerance thresholds were chosen using minimal changes in water parameters. The levels for classification of the water quality parameters were defined by taking into account the levels and limits reported in the literature (see Table 2 and 3). In Table 4, 5 and 6 we show the classification, in different impact levels, for the water quality parameters from Table 1. The deviation column in these tables represents the tolerance for each level.The importance of water quality management, the correct interpretation of water parameters and the appropriate techniques for integrating these parameters are problems studied in the aquaculture field. This research deals with one of the most important objective of the aquaculture management: it proposes a new way to join dissimilar parameters for getting an accurate assessment of water quality, increasing the effectiveness of the proposed system over traditional methodologies. In this sense, we hypothesize that different effects and levels of parameter concentrations degenerate in different water quality, thus, an appropriate join of these parameters

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