project profile section 3

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Section 3

Managing Project Teams and Conflicts

The People in Projects

People perform the work and determine the success or failure of a project. This chapter discusses

the organizational structure, roles, and responsibilities of the people involved in projects.

Stakeholders

A stakeholder is anyone who has a vested interest in the project. Stakeholders are individuals and

organizations who are actively involved in the project, or whose interest may be positively or

negatively affected as a result of project execution or successful project completion. Stakeholders

often have conflicting objectives, needs, and expectations. Finding appropriate resolutions can be

one of the major challenges of project management. The project team must identify the

stakeholders on a project, determine what their needs and expectations are, and then manage and

influence those expectations to ensure a successful project. In general, differences between or

among stakeholders should be resolved in favor of the customer. Understanding the customer is

key to determining the true requirements of a project.

Customers

Customers for any development and investment project are either internal or external to the project.

External Project Customers the general public or their elected representatives

Internal Project Customers individuals who will use the deliverables or information produced

at various stages of the project (internal to the project)

Sponsors

Project sponsors are individuals or groups that represent external project customers by advocating

a project or group of projects. They may be internal or external tothe project.

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Opposition Stakeholders

Opposition stakeholders are stakeholders who feel that their interests will be harmed by theproject. Examples could include local governments, stakeholder associations, environmental

advocacy groups, and others.

What is a Project Team?

Every project has a project team. The project team consists of every person who works on a

project, including state employees, consultants, contractors, utility companies, resource agencies,

and property owners. Project team members are responsible for delivering products with thequality promised, in a timely and cost effective manner. Each team member is an internal customer

for some deliverables and a supplier of other deliverables.

Project teams may be formally or informally organized, depending on the complexity of the

project. Individual team members may be active or inactive as a project progresses through the

project lifecycle.

A project team is a cross-functional group of employees that meets regularly to:

Support through action one or more of the organizational or location objectives

Carry a project through from start to finish, using a disciplined development approach

Evaluate action success to-date and make adjustments that are needed

Proactively attack key project needs that extend into two or more work groups

All organizations have at least one project team. Project teams stay intact until the project they are

working on is finished. A project team may be comprised of staff members from the samedepartment, multiple departments or even several different organizations. The basic duties of a

project team are to work on and oversee a particular project, typically for a specified time period.

The team should include five to eight highly committed individuals. That size often seems to

provide the most appropriate range of energy, participation and decision-making ability.

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Membership on the team depends on the desired project outcomes and the scope of activities. If

the number of employees in the organization is 10 or less, you might include all employees on the

team.

A project team is effective if the team is comprised of a cross-section of the employees, including

executives, middle managers and entry-level employees. A cross-functional team can help to

ensure that all levels of the organization have a chance to provide input to the development and

implementation of the action plans for change, thereby increasing the ownership and participation.

Also, a cross-functional team can bring a rich diversity of ideas often useful in generating diverse

perspectives and opinions during the project.

The team should include people who can make decisions about the project, can ensure that the

project is fully resourced to achieve its desired results and are affected by the project. Ideally, the

team can include members from outside the organization, such as investors and specialists in the

areas of products and services.

Characteristics of a Project Team

The group's makeup that is the size, membership, and stability is primarily influenced by:

The nature of the given project or objective

The degree of cross functional representation required

The ability of each individual to actively participate in the project's completion

Limiting the group's size to ten or less people for problem solving effectiveness

The type of objective work required -- information sharing versus problem solving

Providing departmental representation without departmental overload

The urgency for project implementation

Meeting frequency, location, and timing options include:

Meeting regularly until the objective is complete

Meeting lengths being around one hour or less

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Getting together every one or two weeks, depending on the nature of and need for the project

Limiting the active number of project teams in process at any given time

Normally meeting in the standard locations that are available

Skills desired of members would include:

A desire for and understanding of continuous improvement and quality

A basic awareness of communication, problem solving, decision making, and project

development tools

Shared responsibility in the content, impact, and success of the project

An understanding of how the project will impact the profitability of the organization

The ability to spend time on project development tasks between meetings

Possible constraints to team effectiveness and regular meetings include:

Requiring a given person to lead or to be on too many teams

Failing to have a given department actively represented

Not having the necessary support information for prompt decision making

Failing to regularly complete action items away from the meeting

Lack of effective team leadership

Not developing and following a systematic plan for project completion

Building the Project Team

In projects where some or all of the partners are working together for the first time, they need to

grow into a team, rather than work as a group of individuals. If all partners could do the work

individually and achieve the same result as the project aims for, there would be no need for

cooperation and no project. The project team is a new organisation that allows partners to benefit

from wider input of expertise and skills, facilitates individual learning and leads to higher

performance and achievements through the project.

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While the project outcomes, structure and responsibilities are defined on a very tangible and

technical basis, teamwork involves a lot of softer aspects of human interaction. Not only do

teams consist of people with different backgrounds and specialisations but also different types and

characters, such as leaders, implementers, visionaries, collaborators, etc. A mix of these different

roles is very valuable for projects. In order to ensure that all members have an equal status in the

team, some teams define some core values or ground rules for collaboration, such as:

Open and honest communication and feedback

Respecting each other as professionals

Supporting each other and providing help when needed

Listening to feedback and ideas

Have the chance to ask questions any time

Sharing information, expertise, skills, etc. within the team

Pro-active participation of all members in the team

Open-minded and constructive approach to conflicts

Teams go through certain stages of development, that to some extent correspond to the

stages of the project lifecycle. At the beginning, when partners come together for the first time as

individuals, they start to get to know each other with a certain distance and try to identify their

own position in the group. Next, team members start testing and challenging each other: Different

ideas on how the project can be realized come up and conflicts can arise. This phase is

important and can sometimes take a long time. Once it is completed, the team develops a

shared vision and agrees on values, rules and processes for working together. The roles of the

team members are established and they develop trust in each other as the basis for joint

performance and support (these phases are often described in project management literature

as forming, storming, norming, performing).

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For the management of the project, it is important to be aware of these phases and when they are

happening. This varies from project to project but impacts directly on the performance of the

partnership. When the partners come together for the first time, everyone is usually highly

motivated and things can move quite fast. However, when this initial phase ends and the team

enters the phase of challenging each other and the project, work may get delayed

(unfortunately this often coincides with the project start-up phase when delays are most

critical). Even during implementation, when the team is working well together, there will be

periods of higher and lower performance and motivation of partners. The task of the project

manager is then to identify the lower phases and intervene in a way to support the team to

get back on track, for example by bringing partners together in a meeting.

Planning the closure phase and exit strategies are important for the technical and contentrelated aspects of the project but also for the team. At the end of the project, it is important to

celebrate the achievements of the team and look ahead to new projects and challenges. This may

well involve breaking up a team after very intensive and fruitful collaboration, which is why this

phase is called mourning

Factors that Influence Team Performance

1. Team Composition and Roles

The single most important element about team composition is having a team that is effective

working together. Collaboration and communication skills are two of most critical personal skills

demanded of all members. The ability and willingness to recognise and value the different roles

and contributions of team members is essential. Every team needs problem solving, influence,

process and compliance behaviours and values if it is to be successful. People possessing those

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different requirements for group success have very different behaviours and conflict can be one of

the products of their interactions. Team development at the very start of the project should include

training in communication skills, and the recognition and valuing of the different behaviours,

values and personal skills needed for team success.

No more than five to seven key members should be in a core team - the nucleus of the group. Co-

ordination and communication issues grow exponentially if more people are added to the core

team. When additional resources are required, apply them on an as needed basis. If you have a

requirement demanding more than five to seven people, reduce the individual team goals to a

scope that can be covered by five to seven - or have more teams.

Roles that must be present include champion/sponsor, leader, facilitator, technical expert,

coordinator, chronicler, communicator/presenter and someone to ensure the team keeps it

collective eyes on the goal. One person may fulfill more than one role, or roles may be rotated or

shared, but they must be done - absent any one of them, the team suffers in its performance.

2. Team Goals and Expectations

The establishments of specific, measurable, attainable, realistic and time framed goals for teams

are absolutely essential to their success. If goals are not set for the team at the outset that

meet those five criteria, then the first goal of the team is to develop goals and gain approval

of their goals from their sponsor. Failure to do this is the single biggest reason that teams

fail. Establishing the goals and making them known is the single best way to define and

manage expectations, and provide the basis for measuring progress and contribution.

3. Team Resources

The resources a team needs to meet its goals vary widely, based on any number of elements. The

two resources that tell a team - any team - just how important their goals are to the

organisation are time and talent. If team membership is simply layered on top of existing

duties, if meetings are constantly delayed or cancelled because of other issues, if expertise

cannot be made available by functional areasbecause the expertise is too busy working on

other things, if briefing meetings with sponsors and leadership are difficult to schedule or

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keep getting changed, if team questions or concerns do not get quick review and response,

then team goals aren't that important.

Team Sponsorship

The sponsor needs to be highly placed, actively engaged on a regular basis with the team, able to

make things happen so the team can move forward to its goals, and has to have access to the very

top leader on a routine basis. If those criteria are met, team performance is given a real chance to

succeed - without it teams may be successful, but it will take longer and introduce a real chance for

ineffectiveness and lack of enthusiasm.

Team Rewards and Recognition

Studies have shown that the top two things people in their work want are, being recognised as a

contributing member of a worthy enterprise, and recognition and reward for their

accomplishments. People want to identify with the enterprise. They want to know that what they

do has value in the marketplace, and has value to the success of their organisation. The

organisation has to communicate that every position adds value - some may be more obvious than

others, but the "we are all in this together" approach and philosophy of work leads to high

performance. Recognition and rewards can come in many forms. Accomplishment on team

projects needs to be publicised, and individual accomplishment within teams should lead to actions

that make it clear that team participation and success lead to opportunities.

What is Motivation?

Motivation is a decision-making process, through which the individual chooses the desired

outcomes and sets in motion the behaviour appropriate to them. Motivation differs from motives.

Motives are defined as learned influences on human behaviour that lead us to pursue particular

goals because they are valued. Motivation can therefore be thought of as the degree to which an

individual wants and chooses to engage in certain behaviours. For example what motivates one to

study? The answer lies in whether one: (1) Want to study - what are the reasons, if so? (2) Choose

to study? - Why are you reading these revision notes? What factors mean that you have taken the

decision to study? How much effort do you put in?

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Individual behaviour is at the heart of human motivation. Why is individual behaviour so

important in trying to understand and then influence motivation?

- Every individual has a set ofneeds and a different set ofgoals

- Individuals behave in a way as to satisfy their needs and fulfill their goals

- Therefore, individuals behave differently!

- Businesses, as organisations, are in a position to offer some of the satisfactions that individuals

seek:

Why is motivation important for businesses?

It is often said that the best businesses have the best motivated workers. Well-motivated employees

are usually characterised by:

- Higher productivity (i.e. they produce more for a given level of resources than poorly-motivated

workers)

- Better quality work with less wastage

- A greater sense of urgency (things happen quicker - when they need to)

- More employee feedback and suggestions made for improvements (motivated workers take more

"ownership" of their work")

- More feedback demanded from superiors and management

- Working at 80-95% of their ability

Motivational Theories

Motivational theories can be divided into two categories, content and process theories. Content

theories assume that all individuals possess the same set of needs and therefore prescribe the

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characteristics that ought to be present in jobs. Process theories stress the difference in peoples

needs and focus on the cognitive processes that create these differences.

Content theories

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is a "content theory" of motivation. Maslow's theory consisted of

two parts: (1) The classification of human needs, and (2) Consideration of how the classes are

related to each other

Maslow (1954) suggested a hierarchy of needs up which progress. Once individuals have satisfied

one need in the hierarchy, it ceases to motivate their behaviour and they are motivated by the needat the next level up the hierarchy.

This theory was not intended as an explanation of motivation in the workplace; however, many

managerial theorists have enthusiastically adopted it. The theory suggests that employees will

always tend to want more from their employers. When they have satisfied their subsistence needs,

they strive to fulfill security needs. When jobs are secure they will seek ways of satisfying social

needs and if successful will seek the means to the ultimate end of self actualization.

How does the Hierarchy Work?

- A person starts at the bottom of the hierarchy (pyramid) and will initially seek to satisfy basic

needs (e.g. food, shelter)

- Once these physiological needs have been satisfied, they are no longer a motivator. Tthe

individual moves up to the next level

- Safety needs at work could include physical safety (e.g. protective clothing) as well as protection

against unemployment, loss of income through sickness etc)

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- Social needs recognise that most people want to belong to a group. These would include the need

for love and belonging (e.g. working with colleague who support you at work, teamwork,

communication)

- Esteem needs are about being given recognition for a job well done. They reflect the fact that

many people seek the esteem and respect of others. A promotion at work might achieve this

- Self-actualisation is about how people think about themselves - this is often measured by the

extent of success and/or challenge at work

Process theories

What all process theories have in common is an emphasis on the cognitive processes indetermining his or her level of motivation.

Equity theory assumes that one important cognitive process involves people looking around and

observing what effort other people are putting into their work and what rewards follow them. This

social comparison process is driven by our concern for fairness and equity. Research by Adams

(1965) and others confirms equity theory as one of the most useful frameworks for understanding

work motivation.

Valence, instrumentality and expectancy (VIE) theory had resulted from Vrooms (1964) work

into motivation. Vrooms argument was that crucial to motivation at work was the perception of a

link between effort and reward. Perceiving this link could be thought of as a process in which

individuals calculated first whether there was a connection between effort and reward and then the

probability (valences) would follow from high performance (instrumentality.) The motivational

force of a job can therefore be calculated if the expectancy, instrumentality and valence values are

known. The individuals abilities, traits, role perceptions and opportunities attenuate the

motivational force.

The main contribution of both types of process theory has been to highlight the effects of cognitive

and perceptual processes on objective work conditions. It suggests that managers need to pay

attention to four main aspects of their subordinates perceptions:

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1. Focus on the crucial expectancy values (the link between effort and their performance.)

2. Managers should determine what outcome employee values.

3. They need to link the reward that subordinates value to their performance.

4. Managers need to ensure that wage rates are not perceived as inequitable.

Conflict Resolution in Project Management

Conflict is a situation of competition in which the parties are aware of the incompatibility of

potential future positions and in which each party wishes to occupy a position which is

incompatible with the wishes of the other. Conflict is viewed as a cycle: As with any social

process, there are causes; also, there is a core process, which has results or effects. These effects

feed back to effect the causes. To understand conflict further, the situation must include elements

of interdependence, emotions, perceptions, and behaviors. For example, conflict occurs between

parties whose tasks are interdependent, who are angry with each other, who perceive the other

party as being at fault, and whose actions cause a business problem.

Conflict can be constructive and healthy for an organization. It can aid in developing individuals

and improving the organization by building on the individual assets of its members. Conflict canbring about underlying issues. It can force people to confront possible defects in a solution and

choose a better one. The understanding of real interests, goals and needs is enhanced and ongoing

communication around those issues is induced. In addition, it can prevent premature and

inappropriate resolution of conflict.

Constructive conflict occurs when people change and grow personally from the conflict,

involvement of the individuals affected by the conflict is increased, cohesiveness is formed among

team members, and a solution to the problem is found. However, if conflict is not managed

properly, it can be detrimental to an organization by threatening organizational unity, business

partnerships, team relationships, and interpersonal connections.

Deconstructive conflict occurs when a decision has not been found and the problem remains,

energy is taken away from more important activities or issues, morale of teams or individuals is

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destroyed, and groups of people or teams are polarized. Destructive conflict has a predictable

pattern known as the Drama Triangle. By learning how to identify these unproductive roles and

how to effectively handle each role player, managers can prevent some conflicts from occurring

and resolve those that do. Most individuals know how to assume the following three roles:

Persecutorrefers to a person who uses aggressive behavior against another person, attacking the

intended victim. An attack can be direct or indirect and be physical, verbal, or both. The

persecutor's actions deliver a message that "you are not okay" while making the persecutor feel

righteous and superior.

Victim refers to a person who uses nonassertive behavior so others view them as "I'm not okay."

This behavior encourages others to either rescue or persecute the victim. Victims will feel helpless,

inadequate, sad, scared, or guilty. The victim role is often used because the individual is feeling

stressed, has low self-esteem, or is being persecuted by another.

Rescuer refers to a person who uses either nonassertive or aggressive behavior. Individuals

become rescuers because they will not say "no" and unwillingly assume the responsibility of

solving the victim's problem. In contrast, others will assume the rescuer role to demonstrate

superiority over the victim.

It is important for a project manager to understand the dynamics of conflict before being able to

resolve it. The internal characteristics of conflict include perception of the goal, perception of the

other, view of the other's actions, definition of problem, communication, and internal group

dynamics.

Perception of the goal becomes a problem when success becomes competitive or "doing better

than the other guy." The focus is placed on the solution rather than attaining the goal.

Perception of the othercan create conflict when the attitude becomes "us versus them."

Similarities and differences are emphasized causing division within a group.

View of other's actions can be a problem when the situation is competitive instead of

cooperative. Behavior can be suspicious in a competitive environment.

Definition of problem can result in conflict when the size of the problem is escalated, issues are

misconstrued, and original issues are lost.

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Communication in a competitive environment can cause mistrust and information may be

withheld or may be lacking. Communication is not open and honest.

Internal group dynamics can be negative when the group structure is centralized and rigid

rather than safe and open. Conformity is emphasized and tasks dominate over the needs of the

team members.

These characteristics can strongly influence the behavior style of group members and affect the

potential outcome of the conflict. In some instances, the project manager's lack of skills to

effectively manage and resolve conflict can be the problem.

Antecedents of Conflict

Incompatible personalities or value systems

Overlapping or unclear job boundaries

Competition for limited resources

Interdepartmental/intergroup competition

Inadequate communication

Interdependent tasks

Organizational complexity

Unreasonable or unclear policies, standards, or rulesUnreasonable deadlines or extreme time pressure

Collective design making

Decision making by consensus

Unmet expectations

Unresolved or suppressed conflicts

Approaches to Conflict Resolution

InProject Management,five (5) modes for conflict resolution are explained and the situationswhen they are best utilized are identified. These modes are Confronting, Compromising,

Smoothing, Forcing, and Avoiding.

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Confronting is also described as problem solving, integrating, collaborating or win-win style. It

involves the conflicting parties meeting face-to-face and collaborating to reach an agreement that

satisfies the concerns of both parties. This style involves open and direct communication which

should lead the way to solving the problem. Confronting should be used when:

Both parties need to win.

You want to decrease cost.

You want create a common power base.

Skills are complementary.

Time is sufficient.

Trust is present.

Learning is the ultimate goal.

Compromising is also described as a "give and take" style. Conflicting parties bargain to reach a

mutually acceptable solution. Both parties give up something in order to reach a decision and leave

with some degree of satisfaction. Compromising should be used when:

Both parties need to win.

You are in a deadlock.

Time is not sufficient. You want to maintain the relationship among the involved parties.

You will get nothing if you do not compromise.

Stakes are moderate.

Smoothing is also referred to as accommodating or obliging style. In this approach, the areas of

agreement are emphasized and the areas of disagreement are downplayed. Conflicts are not always

resolved in the smoothing mode. A party may sacrifice its own concerns or goals in order to satisfy

the concerns or goals of the other party. Smoothing should be used when:

Goal to be reached is overarching.

You want to create obligation for a trade-off at a later time.

Stakes are low.

Liability is limited.

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Any solution is adequate.

You want to be harmonious and create good will.

You would lose anyway.

You want to gain time.

Forcing is also known as competing, controlling, or dominating style. Forcing occurs when one

party goes all out to win its position while ignoring the needs and concerns of the other party. As

the intensity of a conflict increases, the tendency for a forced conflict is more likely. This results in

a win-lose situation where one party wins at the expense of the other party. Forcing should be used

when:

A "do or die" situation is present.

Stakes are high.

Important principles are at stake.

Relationship among parties is not important.

A quick decision must be made.

Avoiding is also described as withdrawal style. This approach is viewed as postponing an issue for

later or withdrawing from the situation altogether. It is regarded as a temporary solution because

the problem and conflict continue to reoccur over and over again. Avoiding should be used when:

You cannot win.

Stakes are low.

Stakes are high, but you are not prepared.

You want to gain time.

You want to maintain neutrality or reputation.

You think problem will go away.

You win by delaying.

Researchers examined the impact of the conflict resolution styles used by individuals in shaping

their work environment and affecting the level of ongoing conflict and stress. Results of the study

showed that individuals who use a certain style to conflicts can create environments with varied

degrees of conflicts. Individuals who use more of a confronting style create an environment with

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lower levels of task conflict, which reduces relationship conflict and stress. Whereas, individuals

who use more of the forcing or avoiding styles tend to create an environment with more task

conflict, which increases relationship conflict and stress. The study suggests conflict develops not

only in environmental circumstances but in the styles used by individuals when confronted with a

conflict. The manner in which a person responds to organizational dissension and uncertainty will

influence the responses of others and the individual's work experience.

Functional versus Dysfunctional Conflict

Functional conflict is when employees would disagree or debate on how to best achieve a certain

goal, and does not focus on the goal itself. Because of this, it can lead to the choice of a superior

way to reach the goal. A functional conflict is constructive because the effects lead to a better or

efficient and ingenious way to solve the conflict. Conflicts are said to be constructive when they:

(a) bring up rather than hide matters in which there may be disparities; (2) oblige individuals to be

direct, and to encourage problem-solving; and (3) focus on the concerns instead of the individuals

themselves. Examples of functional conflict are qualitative decision-making, the encouragement of

ingenuity and improvement, and high interest with employees.

Dysfunctional conflict on the other hand is destructive because they put a stop to improvement or

accomplishment of an aim. This occurs when managers identify that the conflict obstructs theachievement of the goals. A conflict is said to be dysfunctional when: (1) the members repudiate to

work together in finding a solution; (2) a superior is indisposed or incapable to mediate; (3) one or

both the members decline to accept the superiors arbitration; (4) it lack communication. The

members fail to voice out what is needed to solve a problem, or at least diverge on how the conflict

should be interpreted.

With these two conflicts, functional and dysfunctional, the manager should decide wisely on how

to balance both conflicts, without allowing the functional conflict to end up being dysfunctional.

There is no exact way or a rule to follow; all the manager has to follow is his own decision. It all

depends on him on how he will resolve the conflict at hand. If the manager himself cant decide on

how to resolve the problem, then it would be quite impossible for it to be resolved among the

employees. One of the antecedents of conflict is relative deprivation and group identification.

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Interpersonal conflict often results from relative deprivation. An expected achievement of one is

often short of ones target or principles. This can lead an individual to be utterly depressed. If one

is the reason of the distress, then conflict can grow from there, although it does not mean that

actual conflict takes place. Aside from individual deprivation, a more serious case is when a group

is what causes the distress. When one is outnumbered and being deprived by more people, it can be

more serious and lead to much larger conflict. Instead of just trying to live up to the expectations of

one, you are actually trying to satisfy a group of people who are possibly trying to come up with

ways for you to not be able to cope up with them.

SECTION 5

Communicating in the Project Life Cycle and Project Profile

SECTION 6

Logical Framework Analysis

SECTION 7

Result Based Management

Managing Project Resources

Understand what resources are, and the types of resources that are typically available. Appreciate

the importance of managing project resources, and their effect on project duration.

Apply project resource management tools and techniques for managing project time.

SECTION 5

Project Initiation and Planning

Describe the project initiation process, including how to identify, rank, and select information

systems projects, as well as establish a project charter.

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Explain project scope planning, including how to develop the project workbook, scope statement,

and baseline project plan.

Describe project scope definition, verification, and change control.

Understand Integrated Project Planning and Management Cycle

SECTION 6

Project Communication and Documentation

Describe Project Management Configuration Plan

Understand the different methods of communicating professionally

SECTION 7

Managing Project Quality

Understand the concept of quality and why it is important.

Discuss quality management pioneers and quality certifications and standards in industries today.

Describe tools and techniques for managing quality, including quality planning, quality assurance,

and quality control.

SECTION 8

Managing Project Risk

Understand the concept of risk and its relationship to project management.

Identify categories of risk and their effect on information systems projects

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Apply techniques for managing project risk, including risk management planning, risk

identification, qualitative risk analysis, quantitative risk analysis, risk response planning, and risk

monitoring and control

SECTION 9

Investment and Development Project Execution and Control

Describe the seven project management processes that are part of project execution.

Discuss the activities project managers engage in during project execution.

Explain some of the key problems in investment and development projects that occur during

project execution.

Describe the importance of communication to project execution.

SECTION 10

Managing Procurement in projects

Understand the appeal of outsourcing.

Explain project procurement management.

Describe how to plan purchases and acquisitions.

Explain how to plan contracting and contract administration.

Understand contract closure

SECTION 11

Project Closure and Audit

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Define project control and closure Understand the importance of, and general philosophies behind,

project control and closure.

Apply techniques for managing project control and closure.

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