project design and research methods in gis

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Lecture Note Complied by Tadele Feyissa, Wollega University GIS Program

Concerned with the foundations, methods, and implicationsof science.

The central questions concern what counts as science, thereliability of scientific theories, and the purpose of science.

In general, the philosophy of science seeks to describe andunderstand how science works within a wide range ofsciences.

Not necessary to include every kind of science, however itshould not be confined only to a single branch of a specificsingle science

2Lecture Note Complied by Tadele Feyissa, Wollega University GIS Program

Logic and probability are the standard tools ofphilosophy of science.

Probability can be seen as an extension of logic, so it isimportant to understand the Basics concepts of logic.

Logic is the standard tool of philosophy of science.

Logic means reason or Judgment.

To understand the logic it is better to understand thelogic of scientific argument


The scientific argument basically relates to theexpectations generated by

a scientific idea and

the actual observations made relevant to thoseexpectations.

In very simple words a scientific argument is a logicaldescription of what we think and why we think it.

A scientific argument uses evidence to make a case forwhether a scientific idea is accurate or inaccurate.


Scientific researchResearch is a very general term for an activity that involves finding out, in systematic way, things you did not know.

Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge.

One can also define research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic.

It is about advancing the frontiers of knowledge.


Scientific researchScientific research is a systematic way of gathering data, a harnessing of curiosity.

This research provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature and the properties of the world.

It makes practical applications possible

The formal definition of research vary from discipline to discipline

Research is the systematic, objective, empirical and controlled process of gathering, recording and analyzing data/information for aid in making scientific and critical decision or discovery of new knowledge.


From the definition one can suggest 6 important points1. systematic,

2. objective,

3. empirical

4. controlled

5. Research is to facilitate scientific decision making process or discovery of new knowledge

6. critical


Research is systematicImplies that it employs and follows planned and scientific methods and procedures to address research endeavors

Research is objective Implies that the information/data generated or collected,

analyzed and reported should be corrective and objective

It should avoid subjectivity


Research is Empirical:It implies research tests

Beliefs,

Ideas,

Assumptions, or

Hypothesis and

Conclude on the bases of tested results


Research is Controlled:Implies that the researcher can have confidence in his/her research outcomes


Research is to facilitate scientific decision making process or discovery of new knowledge: Implies generating free of error in:

Results

Prediction or

Concussion for decision or creation of new knowledge


Research is Critical: Implies that many truths are tentative and are subjected to change as a result of subsequent research


Back ground/ introduction

Significance

Objectives

Methodology

Conceptual frame work

Literature information

Results & Discusion or Analysis

Conclusion & Recommendation

References/bibliography


The purpose of introduction is to introduce the research project to the readers

Some of the information to be included among others are:

Enough back ground to enable the reader to place your particular research problem in the context of common knowledge:rational of the study,

it should show how its result will solve the problem at hand, advance the field or be important for some other work.


It explains to the reader the background from whichthe research problem emerges.

It should explain the major factors which surroundyour problem, and of any significant literaturewhich relates to it.

It should contain a clear statement of the objectivesof research i.e., enough background should be givento make clear to the reader why the problem wasconsidered worth investigating


It also has the function of capturing the interest of the reader

A brief summary of other relevant research may also be stated so that the present study can be seen in that context


OBJECTIVESWhere the investigator discusses the major and specific objectives of his/her study.

Breaking down a large problem into small parts and address them step by step

The incremental treatment of the individual pieces of question will allow the larger question to be approached and answered.

A general review of how the problem arise is presented along with the specific objectives of the project under study


Strategy or plan of action that links methods tooutcomes --- governs our choice and use of methods

It is systematic and follows a series of steps andrigid standard protocols (rules)

This protocols are broadly similar to all but manyvary slightly between different field of science


Science has developed research guidelines overmany years as the benchmark for measuring thevalidity of results obtained

Failure to follow the guidelines will prevent yourfindings from being accepted.

For any study, there must be a clearmethodological procedures so that it can be verified


It refers to reading and extracting informationfrom existing literatures related to the issue underinvestigation.

The reference can be published or unpublished

The theoretical and empirical framework fromwhich the problem arises must be briefly described.


A brief resume of related studies found in journals,magazines, abstracts and reports should be made.

This provides evidence that the researcher isfamiliar with what is already known and also withunknown or unproved.

It also helps to avoid the risk of duplication of whathas been done and to serve as a basis forformulating hypotheses.


The literature review is not simply a list orsummary of books and articles that the researcherhas read.

Instead, it has to be combined and synthesized inan integrated description of the field of study.

A good literature review shows how the textcompiled from various books and articles relate tothe broad topic


1. Identify relevant books, journals, reports related to your proposed research topic

2. Understand what results the previous researchers have produced

3. Share ideas about its theoretical concepts or analytical techniques relate to the proposed study

4. Help to design good methodologies for the research

5. Identify the most recent finding related to the study

6. Aid for better understanding about the topic


This section represents the heart of the research report

This chapter should be divided into different sections

Commonly, this chapter is schematized following the outline of the objectives of the study to facilitate an easy analysis/discussion and then obtain the desired specific objectives of the study


It is in section the collected data should be organized into section corresponding to a particular objectives of the study

The data may be organized and summarized into:

Figures

Maps

Statistical presentation etc followed with textual discussion


This part begins with a brief

re-statement of the problem,

Overall objective

the hypotheses/questions

Methods and procedures of data collection and analysis used in few paragraphs

description of the problem and discussion of findings and conclusions of the study.


This section must focus attention to:

1. announce the retention or rejection of the hypotheses,

2. imply an answered questions that were raised in due course of the study and which required further investigation in the area.

The research findings should be synchronize to already designed objectives sequentially in logical and systematic framework to arrive on conclusion


Recommendation for practical application like GIS, Remote Sensing and other is to correct or tackle the studied problem

The recommendation should be supported by the research findings and conclusion given


There are two types of literature sources: references and bibliography.

The references comprise the items that are referred to in the text so that the reader can access them if necessary.

The bibliography comprises a list of the sources that have influenced your thoughts about the topic.

They reveal the conceptual framework within which you have developed your ideas.


In a scientific research report one has to indicate the sources from where the researcher finds information, such as:Data

Opinion

Figures

Models, equation should the sources in the

Quotation text and in the lists of reference

Paraphrased

Direct short

Direct long 31Lecture Note Complied by Tadele Feyissa, Wollega University GIS Program

List of reference section should contain :All the works the writer has cited

References that are not cited in the text should not be listed in the reference list


Characteristics of scientific research It is directed toward the solution of a problem

It involves gathering of new data from primary or secondary sources

It is based upon observable experiences or empirical evidence.

It demands accurate observation and description.

Carefully recorded and reported


Characteristics of scientific research …

It generally employs carefully designed procedures and rigorous analysis

It emphasizes the development of generalizations,

principles or theories that will help in understanding, prediction and control of elements

It attempts to find an objective, unbiased solution to the problem

Sometimes requires courage

It is a deliberate and unhurried activity


Seeking solution to practical or theoretical problem at hand

Discovering new knowledge

Expanding the frontier of existing knowledge

Ultimately improve the way we live


Clarifies a problem

Evaluates a program

Defines an opportunity

Introduce innovative technology & its application in area of development


Research methods and methodologies are usually used interchangeably.

However, you need to know that these concepts convey different meaning

Method is: a particular technique to collect data/information.

a specific tool to collect data eg. Survey, interview, etc


Methodology describes :

The principles and procedures in a particular field of study

How we design and implement research studies

And may include

description of sources of data, identification of data requirement

How to collect data

Techniques of selection of source data

Instruments of data collection

Method of data organization, analysis and presentation

thus methodology encompasses the entire approach of the study


Classification of Research

There are different ways of classifying research

It may classified based on

Goal of research

Specific objectives of research

Designs

The type of data used in research and field of study


The nature of the problem that the research attempts to solve could beTheoretical- aim to build a theory or

Practical- solving immediate practical problems

The two types of problems that the research tries to solve leads to 2 broad classifications of research

Basic research and

Applied research


The objectives of the research may be To describe the characteristics of events Explaining casual link b/n two variablesComparing two or more groups on the basis of particular phenomena

As a result, research can be categorized into

Descriptive

Explanatory

Comparative


The researcher may have Qualitative

Quantitative data

Mixture of the two

Thus the research may classified as

Qualitative

Quantitative or

Both qualitative and quantitative


When we consider the design of data collection approach, we may have: Experimental

Non-experimental


Primary research

Also called field research

Secondary research

Also known as desk research


Research can be classified by field of study as:

Geo-information science research

Health science research

Social science research

Educational research

Behavioral science research, etc.


Based on time dimension research could be categorized as:

a cross-sectional and

longitudinal research


Basic research advances fundamental knowledge

Hence, it also called Fundamental research or

Pure research

It is basically concerned with the

Formulation of a theory or principles,

Creation of new knowledge

Expansion of the acceptability of existing knowledge

Verification of the acceptability of a given theory


It is “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake”

Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research

Adds a new knowledge to an organized body of scientific knowledge

Does not necessarily produce results of immediate practical value

Thus the general aim of basic research are: obtaining and using empirical data to formulate, expand or evaluate theory

Discovery of knowledge solely for the sake of knowledge

Note that basic research lays down the foundation for the applied research that follows


Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organization

Conducted in relation to a particular problem to give answers to questions at hand

The central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problem

Makes decisions about a particular course of action or policy

Test theories often generated by basic research and applying them to real situations.


Traditionally, basic and applied researches were seen as activities of:Different nature,

Carried out by different institution and financed from different sources

However, it is difficult to draw a clear boundary between these two types of research

Researchers believe that basic and applied types of research should not be thought as mutually exclusive categories.


Both basic and applied research follows a scientific methodology to answer the question at hand.

The distinction between them are rather a matter of emphasis than as representing a true dichotomy,


Descriptive

The goal of descriptive research is to describe the status of some aspects of a phenomenon

It aid understand a topic and leads to causal analysis

It is, therefore, involves a variety of research methods to achieve its goal.


Descriptive research conti…

Possible methods that come under descriptive research is:

Survey studies

Observation studies

Case studies

Correlation studies

Change detection studies


It is a method of gathering data at a particular time for a specific objectives

It is characterized by:gathering data on a one-shot basis and hence is economical and efficient

Can represent a wide range of target population

Generated numerical data,

Provides descriptive, explanatory and inferential data

Manipulate key factors, features or elements


It involves observing and recording of spatial and attributes as it occurs in its natural settings.

It is important for conformation


Case Studies It emphasizes detailed contextual analysis a limited number of condition /events and their relationship

They are largely descriptive examinations, usually of sites, for example small town, valley, mining site etc

Eg Solid waste disposal site selection in NekemteTown


Studies designed to investigate whether or not relation exists between two or more quantified variables

Eg whether an association exists b/n Temperature and elevation

The purpose of correlational studies:Not establish cause-effect r/p among variables

But to determine whether the variables under study have some kind of association or not

The relation may negative, positive or no relation


Conducted when problem at hand has not been clearly defined

Thus explorative research is initial research conducted to Background information

Better understand

Clarify a problem


It seeks explanations of observed phenomena, problems, or features.

While descriptive research examines the what, where, and when of a phenomenon, explanatory research seeks answers to why and how types of questions.

It attempts to “connect the dots” in research, by identifying causal factors and outcomes of the target phenomenon.


Experiments can be conducted either:

In laboratory setting or

In the field (natural settings)

Experiments in laboratory setting:

When operating within laboratory env’t, the researcher has direct control over most, if not all, of the variables that could impact upon the outcome of the experiment


Experiments in the field (natural settings)

the researcher has less control over variables that have effect upon the experimental variables but will strive to exert whatever control is possible.


Qualitative involves studies that do not attempt to quantify their results through statistical summary or analysis

Quantitative research is the systematic and scientific investigation ofQuantitave properties and phenomena

Their relationship


It is probable that your research may be cross-sectional – the study of a particular phenomenon at a particular time.

We say this because we recognise that most research projects undertaken for academic courses are necessarily time-constrained


study change and development

An example is the census conducted every 10 years,


3. Project Identification Research project identification or selection is the most important and crucial aspect of any research.

In the research process, the first and for most steps is the choice of a suitable problem for investigation

Therefore, a considerable care must be taken while selecting a research problem.

It requires a great deal of time, energy, and logical thinking on the part of the researcher.

Practically speaking, several factors deter the selection of a suitable problem by a researcher, especially if he/she is a beginner


Identification of a research project/ topic may be made by a researcher by adopting either of the following means;

1) By observation

2) Theory and Scientific Concepts

3) Previous Research

4) Practical Concerns

5) Personal Interest

6) Resource and Financial Support Interest


A researcher in his respective field of science may find few concepts which are not answerable and a researcher start to wonder about it, why it is happening

One of the sources of problems for a beginning researcher is his/her own observation in a given field.

The day-to-day observation of the occurrences in the working place and out of the working environment, socio-economic


You know that malaria incidence is high in low land areas. This problem may produce

Eg Application Of GIS in Malaria Prevalence Modelling In Low Land Areas- In Didessa Valley, Western Oromia


No research study ever answered all the questions that may be asked about a particular subject. New research findings always inspire new research questions. Sometimes it is because these findings are surprising, or because they conflict with existing theory, or other research findings


Consultation of research reports, bibliographies of books and articles, periodicals, research abstracts, year books, dictionaries and research guides constitutes an invaluable source of a research problem in a given fieldWith the limitation of time, resources and financial constrains it is not always possible to meet out all the objectives set for the proposed study.


Therefore, there is always a scope to continue the previous research work and the objectives which were left solved, fully or partially, are covered in the later study.With the limitation of time, resources and financial constrains it is not always possible to meet out all the objectives set for the proposed study. Therefore, there is always a scope to continue the previous research work and the objectives which were left unsolved, fully or partially, are covered in the later study.


Researcher may be motivated by looking into the problems in the real world Problems which are faced by him and the community around him. Much research problems are aimed at solving immediate problems in the world.Eg Application of GIS in flood modeling


Researcher has its own special area of interest so the researcher is inspired by his own interest. In such cases a researcher will be motivated by his own way and he may follow his own criteria of selection of research project


Availability of resource and financial visibility of the topic be considered while a given topic is identified.The interests of funding organization need to be identified


For a good research project identification a researcher must look in many different places at the same time. A researcher must do a thorough literature review, interact to people working in the related stream and observe carefully the reality around him.


1. Availability and access to the data/ information needed for the proposed research project.

2. Relevance of the research project as per the stream under which research is performed.

3. Skill set and capability of a researcher to undertake the proposed research project4. Usefulness and limitation of the proposed research project5. Interest and willingness of researcher to conduct the proposed research.6. Accessibility and workability for field work of the proposed research project.7. Time required, financial support and equipment/ instruments to conduct proposed

research.8. Potential to generate further research for later researcher.9. Other specific criteria that relate to particular discipline, field of study or institution


A research proposal is a systematic plan, which brings us to focus the preliminary planning that will be needed to accomplish the purpose of the proposed study.

It is just like a blueprint, which the architect prepares before the construction of building starts.


More specifically, the research proposal has the following importance:It serves as a basis for determining the feasibility of the project.

It provides a systematic plan of procedure for the researcher to follow.

It gives the research supervisor a basis for guiding the researcher while conducting the study.

It reduces the probability of costly mistakes.78Lecture Note Complied by Tadele Feyissa, Wollega University GIS Program

Therefore, research project proposal is a written statement of the research/project design explaining The purpose of the study , that include justification, rational and objectives

A detailed, systematic outline of a particular project, including methodology and procedures

Required financial and time budget


Preparation of a full-fledged proposal is not a one-time endeavour.

But is the result of continuous modification and amendment through discussion with experts in the field.


Research proposal is needed to

Use it as guide plan in the course of your project endeavor

Convinces the other people

Demonstrates expertise

Demonstrates competency

Serve as a contract


An architect is using a blue print plan for construction of complex building

Likewise the researcher is using a research Project proposal as a guide and plan of action

When there is a clear plan of action from the beginning the research is much more likely to proceed smoothly and will be successful


The main function of any research proposal is to convince

other researchers,

research funding agencies,

educational institutions and

supervisors/advisors that your research is worth spending resources on.

The research should inspire donors about importance of his/her project


Research proposal helps to demonstrate expertise in a particular area of study.

With your research proposal you convince people that you have enough understanding of the research topic to be able of the research properly


Research proposal also helps to demonstrate competency in a particular area of study.

It is also important that your research proposal convinces the reader that you have all the necessary skills to carryout the proposed study.

This can be done by describing an appropriate and feasible research methodology.


Research often involves contracts between different individuals or groups or people.

The proposal states clearly what each individual party is expected to do, how resources will be used and when the research will be completed.

When your proposals approved it is same signing agreement.


Your discipline

The community

The state

The nation

The world or appropriate category


What has already been done in the area of your project?

How do you plan to carry the activity


There are certain elements that appear in thepreparation of the research proposal.As a fact there is no single format for a research proposal. This is because every research project is different. Different disciplines, funding organization and academic institutions all have different formats and requirements


Conventionally, a scientific research proposal should include :

1. The Title

2. Introduction

2.1 background of the study

2.2 statement of the problem

2.3 objectives of the study

2.4 hypothesis/ Research Questions

2.5 conceptual framework

3. Review of related Literature (this can appear in under chapter one as separate section)

4. Research Methodology

5. Work plan

6. Budget

7. References

8. Appendices/Annexes (if applicable)


The title of the research should be worded in

clear -it gives sufficient information about the nature of study

Short -the title should not be too lengthy or too involved.

specific to the area of study.

The title should not be burdened by pompous words and

should not include terms of unscientific, rhetorical,

argumentative, emotional, or biased nature.

The language in the title should be professional in nature

but not pedantic.
