Progress in Progress in Nature and SocietyNature and Society

The Cult of ScienceThe Cult of Science• The Middle 19The Middle 19thth century saw the century saw the

development and reliance on the ideas development and reliance on the ideas of science like no time before it.of science like no time before it.

• Connected to it were the fundamental Connected to it were the fundamental belief in progress (connected to liberal belief in progress (connected to liberal ideas of the time).ideas of the time).

• These ideas of progress were applied These ideas of progress were applied both to nature and society in the hopes both to nature and society in the hopes of discovering fundamental laws and of discovering fundamental laws and processes that govern both.processes that govern both.

The Sciences - PhysicsThe Sciences - Physics• Mid-century developments in physics Mid-century developments in physics

centered around thermodynamics, centered around thermodynamics, culminating in the laws as follows:culminating in the laws as follows:

1.1. Conservation of energyConservation of energy2.2. Any closed system tends toward equilibriumAny closed system tends toward equilibrium

• The work of Michael Faraday and James The work of Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell developed theories of Clerk Maxwell developed theories of magnetism and how they work in the magnetism and how they work in the greater universe.greater universe.

The Sciences – Chemistry The Sciences – Chemistry and Biologyand Biology

• Atomic theory became accepted by mid-century.Atomic theory became accepted by mid-century.– John Dalton (1766-1844), a British scientist, first John Dalton (1766-1844), a British scientist, first

proposed the concept of atomic weight.proposed the concept of atomic weight.– Dimitri Mendeleyev (1834-1907), a Russian chemist, Dimitri Mendeleyev (1834-1907), a Russian chemist,

developed the periodic table.developed the periodic table.• Developments in biology brought health benefits Developments in biology brought health benefits

to the publicto the public– Louis Pasteur techniques for killing bacteria in foods.Louis Pasteur techniques for killing bacteria in foods.– Joseph Lister’s work showing that germs could be Joseph Lister’s work showing that germs could be

killed by carbolic acid made surgery safer.killed by carbolic acid made surgery safer.

Charles Darwin (1809-Charles Darwin (1809-1882)1882)

• First studied medicine then First studied medicine then theology.theology.

• Served as a naturalist on Served as a naturalist on HMS Beagle from 1831-HMS Beagle from 1831-1836.1836.

• From the variety of wildlife From the variety of wildlife and fossils he found on the and fossils he found on the voyage (especially in the voyage (especially in the remote Galapagos Islands) remote Galapagos Islands) he developed his theory of he developed his theory of natural selection.natural selection.

Darwinian EvolutionDarwinian Evolution• In In On The Origin of Species On The Origin of Species (1859), (1859),

Darwin stated that all existing forms of Darwin stated that all existing forms of life developed from earlier forms.life developed from earlier forms.

• Life was a constant struggle for Life was a constant struggle for existence, from which, the most existence, from which, the most adaptable survive.adaptable survive.

• Organisms survive due to favorable Organisms survive due to favorable characteristics which are passed on to characteristics which are passed on to future generations, creating new species.future generations, creating new species.

• In 1871s In 1871s The Descent of ManThe Descent of Man, Darwin , Darwin applied these theories to humans.applied these theories to humans.

The Social Sciences - The Social Sciences - SociologySociology

• Cult of science was reflected in the Cult of science was reflected in the doctrine of positivism and the work doctrine of positivism and the work of French thinker Auguste Comte.of French thinker Auguste Comte.– Comte believed that humanity had Comte believed that humanity had

progress from religious and progress from religious and metaphysical phases to one of metaphysical phases to one of scientific or positive stage.scientific or positive stage.

– Humanity would not be concerned Humanity would not be concerned with God, but with collecting scientific with God, but with collecting scientific knowledge.knowledge.

• He believed that methods of He believed that methods of science should be applied to the science should be applied to the study of society, which he called study of society, which he called sociology.sociology.

Karl Marx (1818-1883)Karl Marx (1818-1883)• Son of an attorney in Son of an attorney in

western Germanywestern Germany• Received his doctorate Received his doctorate

in philosophy in 1842.in philosophy in 1842.• His radical views denied His radical views denied

him a place at the him a place at the conservative universities conservative universities in Prussia.in Prussia.

• In 1844, he moved to In 1844, he moved to Paris and began working Paris and began working with Friedrich Engels.with Friedrich Engels.

MarxismMarxism• In In The Communist ManifestoThe Communist Manifesto and and Das Das

KapitalKapital Marx and Engels developed the Marx and Engels developed the concepts of concepts of scientific socialism.scientific socialism.– Ideas on the development of history based Ideas on the development of history based

on on dialecticdialectic of Hegel as well as of Hegel as well as materialismmaterialism and and determinismdeterminism..

– Dialectical materialism Dialectical materialism states that:states that:• Economic conditions provide basis for social Economic conditions provide basis for social

order (structure)order (structure)• Economic conditions determine the nature of Economic conditions determine the nature of

everything else (superstructure)everything else (superstructure)• This expresses itself in different forms This expresses itself in different forms

throughout historythroughout history

MarxismMarxism• Class struggle was the basis of change Class struggle was the basis of change

throughout history.throughout history.• This was repeated throughout history in the This was repeated throughout history in the

dialectical model (thesis in conflict with dialectical model (thesis in conflict with antithesis = synthesis)antithesis = synthesis)– Aristocracy in conflict with bourgeoisie (18Aristocracy in conflict with bourgeoisie (18thth

and 19and 19thth century revolutions) led to new century revolutions) led to new capitalist order.capitalist order.

– In the future, bourgeoisie would be challenged In the future, bourgeoisie would be challenged by by proletariatproletariat (working class) and be (working class) and be overthrown in a new communist society (final overthrown in a new communist society (final phase of history).phase of history).

Social DarwinismSocial Darwinism• Some who wished to apply scientific Some who wished to apply scientific

principles to society looked to the ideas of principles to society looked to the ideas of Charles Darwin.Charles Darwin.

• They used arguments loosely based on They used arguments loosely based on Darwin’s ideas of evolution to explain Darwin’s ideas of evolution to explain differences in the advancement of human differences in the advancement of human society.society.

• These ideas would be used to justify These ideas would be used to justify policies of racial differences and European policies of racial differences and European imperialism over foreign populations.imperialism over foreign populations.

Thomas HuxleyThomas Huxley• British biologist, became a British biologist, became a

fervent support of fervent support of evolutionevolution

• Won him the nickname Won him the nickname “Darwin’s Bulldog.”“Darwin’s Bulldog.”

• Huxley’s ideas brought him Huxley’s ideas brought him into conflict with clergy, into conflict with clergy, but he saw it as fitting with but he saw it as fitting with most religious philosophy.most religious philosophy.

• His ideas would pave the His ideas would pave the way for Social Darwinism.way for Social Darwinism.

Herbert SpencerHerbert Spencer• British philosopher British philosopher

and writer.and writer.• In Synthetic In Synthetic

Philosophy, he Philosophy, he attempted to apply attempted to apply Darwin’s ideas to Darwin’s ideas to every are of society.every are of society.

• Development of Development of human societies human societies involve survival of involve survival of the fittest.the fittest.