programs and policies to reduce school readiness gaps jeanne brooks-gunn virginia and leonard marx...
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Programs and Policies to Programs and Policies to Reduce School Readiness Reduce School Readiness
GapsGapsJeanne Brooks-Gunn
Virginia and Leonard Marx Professor of Child Development and EducationTeachers College and the College of Physicians and Surgeons
Columbia University
March 2, 2009
National Center for Children & FamiliesNational Center for Children & FamiliesTeachers College, Columbia UniversityTeachers College, Columbia University
www.policyforchildren.orgwww.policyforchildren.org
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.org www.policyforchildren.org
NAEP Reading Assessment for NAEP Reading Assessment for Grade 4 (1994) & Grade 12 (2002) ― Grade 4 (1994) & Grade 12 (2002) ― Percentage of Students At or Above Percentage of Students At or Above
Proficient by Race/EthnicityProficient by Race/Ethnicity43%
16%
22%
34%37%
9%
13%
44%
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
40%
45%
50%
White Black Hispanic AsianAmerican
Race/Ethnicity of Student
Per
cen
tag
e o
f S
tud
ents
Grade 12 Grade 4
Rouse, Brooks-Gunn & McLanahan, 2005
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.org www.policyforchildren.org
Gaps in Kindergartners’ Achievement: Gaps in Kindergartners’ Achievement: Ethnicity and Social ClassEthnicity and Social Class
Duncan & Magnuson, 2005
-0.61
-0.39
-0.71
-0.45
-0.9
-0.8
-0.7
-0.6
-0.5
-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0S
tan
da
rd d
ev
iati
on
fro
m w
hit
es
Blacks Hispanics
ECLS-K Math ECLS-K Reading
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.org www.policyforchildren.org
What defines “school readiness”?What defines “school readiness”?
A child’s academic skills (e.g., vocabulary size, complexity of spoken language, basic counting, “general knowledge”);
A child’s social and emotional skills (e.g., following directions, working in a group, impulse control) – which are as important as academic skills but not well studied.
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.org www.policyforchildren.org
Children who are not “ready” Children who are not “ready” for school are more likely to…for school are more likely to…
Perform less well in elementary & secondary school;Become teen parents;Engage in criminal activities;Suffer from depression.
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.org www.policyforchildren.org
(From Jencks & Phillips, 1998)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
P P V T -R S co re (B lack M ed ian =40; W h ite M ed ian =52)
Per
cen
t of P
op
ula
tion
B lackW hite
Vocabulary Scores for Black and Vocabulary Scores for Black and White Three and Four-year OldsWhite Three and Four-year Olds
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.org www.policyforchildren.org
Standard Deviation UnitsStandard Deviation Units
If the standard deviation = 15 and white students score 12 points more than black students on average (a white-black gap of 12), then…
12/15 points = .80 standard deviation units(80% of the standard deviation)
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.org www.policyforchildren.org
If the white-minority gap in test If the white-minority gap in test scores is 1 standard deviation scores is 1 standard deviation then…then…84% of white children will perform better than the average minority child
16% percent of minority children will perform better than the average white child
Whites students are 13 times more likely than minority students to score in the top 5% and enroll in “gifted” class
The average textbook is written so that the average white student understands 75% of it
The average minority student will understand 53% of the same textbook, virtually guaranteeing that such a reader will not engage with the text
(From Rock & Stenner, 2005)
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.org www.policyforchildren.org
Racial / Ethnic Gaps in Selected Test Racial / Ethnic Gaps in Selected Test Scores and in Family Socio-economic Scores and in Family Socio-economic
Status for KindergartnersStatus for Kindergartners
Duncan & Magnuson, 2005
-0.61
-0.39
-0.70-0.71
-0.45
-0.78
-0.9
-0.8
-0.7
-0.6
-0.5
-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0
Sta
nd
ard
de
via
tio
n f
rom
wh
ite
s
B lacks H ispanics
EC L S-K M ath EC L S-K Re ad in g So cio e co n o m ic In d e x
Growth Trajectories of Two Groups of Growth Trajectories of Two Groups of ChildrenChildren
*Children whose families are in repeated poverty (poverty at the time of the Fall K test and poverty at one or more subsequent measurement points).
National Center forNational Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia UniversityChildren and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia Universitywww.policyforchildren.orgwww.policyforchildren.org
Layzer, 2008
Full sample
Repeat poverty
Poverty Affects DevelopmentPoverty Affects Development
16 mos. 24 mos. 36 mos.
Cu
mu
lati
ve V
ocab
ula
ry (
Word
s) College Educated Parents
Working Class Parents
Welfare Parents
Child’s Age (Months)
200
600
1200
Hart & Risley, 1995
National Center forNational Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia UniversityChildren and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia Universitywww.policyforchildren.orgwww.policyforchildren.org
Language Gaps Increase During Language Gaps Increase During Preschool YearsPreschool Years
Age span of children Median deficit Sample size
CCDP
3 years to 3 years,11 months 8.7 months 2541
4 years to 4 years,11 months 13.8 months 2360
5 years to 5 years, 9 months 14.8 months 2878
Even Start
3 years to 3 years,11 months 8 months 2187
4 years to 4 years,11 months 12 months 2805
Layzer, 2008
National Center forNational Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia UniversityChildren and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia Universitywww.policyforchildren.orgwww.policyforchildren.org
• Parenting– Home Visiting Programs– Center-based Programs with Parenting
Component– Parental Language and Literacy
Programs– Parent Behavior Training Programs
Parenting Programs as a StrategyParenting Programs as a Strategy
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.org www.policyforchildren.org
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.org www.policyforchildren.org
Early Childhood Education as a Early Childhood Education as a StrategyStrategy
Access and attendance• Low access for specific groups• Head Start and access• Most common child care arrangements• Access and school readinessQuality• Quality indicators• High quality programs• Quality and school readiness
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.org www.policyforchildren.org
Preschool Enrollment for Four Preschool Enrollment for Four Year-olds, from 1968 to 2002 Year-olds, from 1968 to 2002
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Year
Black, Non-Hispanic
Hispanic
White, Non-Hispanic
Magnuson & Waldfogel, 2005
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.orgwww.policyforchildren.org
State Pre-K and Head Start Enrollment State Pre-K and Head Start Enrollment as Percentage of Total Populationas Percentage of Total Population
3-Year-Olds 4-Year-Olds
Pre-K 2.7 17.3
Head Start
7.3 11.3
Special Ed
3.9 6.2
Other 24.8 33.6
None 61.3 31.6
The National Institute for Early Education Research, The State of Pre-School 2005
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.org www.policyforchildren.org
Head Start EnrollmentHead Start Enrollment
About 10% of all of all 3 and 4 year-olds are in Head Start– 20% of black children– 15% of Hispanic children– 4% of white children
If Head Start did not exist, gaps in preschool enrollment would increase (compared to white children)– 9 percentage points for black children– 31 percentage points for Hispanic children
Gaps in school readiness would increase if Head Start did not exist
School Readiness: Comparing Head Start School Readiness: Comparing Head Start and Other Care Arrangementsand Other Care Arrangements
OLS Prop
PPVT-III 0.08 0.19
WJ-R Letter-Word Identification 0.11 0.16
Social Competence 0.10 0.14
Attention Problems -0.11 -0.16
Zhai, Brooks-Gunn, & Waldfogel, 2009
N=2803; OLS includes city- & child-fixed effects; Prop. indicates propensity matchingBold indicated significance. Fragile Families Study
Access and School ReadinessAccess and School Readiness
If all children whose families were in poverty were in a preschool, reductions in test gaps would be:
• 2 to 12 percent for black children• 4 to 16 percent for Hispanic children
If all children whose families were at or below 200% of the poverty threshold, were in a preschool, reductions in test gaps would be possibly double
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.org www.policyforchildren.org
Reading Scores By Preschool Reading Scores By Preschool Attendance & Kindergarten Reading Attendance & Kindergarten Reading
InstructionInstruction
N=7748; ECLS-K
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.org www.policyforchildren.org
Magnuson, Ruhm, & Waldfogel, 2007
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.org www.policyforchildren.org
Indicators of High Quality Indicators of High Quality PreschoolPreschool
• Teacher training• Teacher education• Teacher to child ratios• Class size• Language and conversation• Organization of classroom• Continued training
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.orgwww.policyforchildren.org
Child Care Global Quality Child Care Global Quality MeasuresMeasures
Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale-ECERS (37 items)• Space and furnishings• Personal care routines• Language-Reasoning• Activities• Interaction• Program Structure
Each item is scored 1-7 with average of all items used as quality score:• 1 = inadequate• 3= minimal• 5= good• 7= excellent
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.orgwww.policyforchildren.org
Distribution of Quality in Fragile Distribution of Quality in Fragile Families and Child Well-being StudyFamilies and Child Well-being Study
Minimal37%
Good33%
Excellent10%
Inadequate20%
Rigby, Ryan & Brooks-Gunn, 2006.
Data based on 786 three-year-olds in 13 Cities from the Fragile Families Study
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.orgwww.policyforchildren.org
Quality of Care in Different Quality of Care in Different SettingsSettings
Care ratings:• Kith and kin = 3.5• Family child care = 4. 0• For-profit centers = 4.2• Non-profit centers = 5.0
1=inadequate, 7=excellent
Rigby, Ryan, and Brooks-Gunn, 2007
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.org www.policyforchildren.org
High Quality Preschool Education High Quality Preschool Education and School Readinessand School Readiness
1. Large effects for small-scale experiments (one-half to three-quarters of a SD)
2. Small to modest effects for federal programs (one-sixth to one-quarter of a SD)
3. Effects for mothers with a high school education or less, but not for mothers with BA
4. Effects sometimes larger for black than white or Hispanic children
Small-scale Early Childhood Education Small-scale Early Childhood Education EvaluationsEvaluations
• Perry Preschool• Abecedarian• Infant Health & Development Program
• Parent-Child Development Centers• Tennessee Program• Planned Variation Program
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.org www.policyforchildren.org
Infant Health & Development Program Infant Health & Development Program Intervention ServicesIntervention Services
• Intervention Group– Home visiting in child’s 1st – 3rd years
of life– Day care center in child’s 2nd and 3rd
years of life• Transportation available• Center open all workday
• Intervention and Follow-up Only Groups– Free medical surveillance, referrals to
specialists in child’s 1st – 3rd years of life
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.org www.policyforchildren.org
Infant Health & Development Program:Infant Health & Development Program:Impacts from Age 3 to 18Impacts from Age 3 to 18
*Heavier low birth weight children only*All impacts were significant
IQ PPVT
3 Years 14.3 9.4
5 Years 3.7 6.0
8 Years 4.4 6.7
18 Years 3.3 5.1
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.org www.policyforchildren.org
Brooks-Gunn et al., 1994, JAMA; McCarton et al., 1997, JAMA; Table 3 & 4, McCormick et al., 2006, Pediatrics
Infant Health & Development Program:Infant Health & Development Program:Impacts on Math AchievementImpacts on Math Achievement
WJ Math
8 Years 4.9
18 Years 3.6
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.org www.policyforchildren.org
*Heavier low birth weight children only*All impacts were significant
Brooks-Gunn et al., 1994, JAMA; McCarton et al., 1997, JAMA; Table 3 & 4, McCormick et al., 2006, Pediatrics
Infant Health & Development Program: Infant Health & Development Program: IQ Impacts Based on Likely Care SituationIQ Impacts Based on Likely Care Situation
Age 3 Age 5 Age 8
Maternal Care 20.2 12.3 8.2
Other Home Based Care 16.4 5.9 7.2
Center Based Care 11.6 2.0 1.7
Hill, Waldfogel, Brooks-Gunn, 2002, JPAM
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.org www.policyforchildren.org
*Heavier low birth weight children only
School Readiness: Comparing Head School Readiness: Comparing Head Start, Parent, and Other Non-center CareStart, Parent, and Other Non-center Care
Parent Non-Center
OLS Prop. OLS Prop.
PPVT-III 0.21 0.33 0.21 0.32
WJ-R 0.39 0.46 0.32 0.41
Social Competence 0.17 0.24 0.03 0.05
Attention Problems -0.11 -0.10 -0.18 -0.19
Zhai, Brooks-Gunn, & Waldfogel, 2009
N=2803; OLS includes city- & child-fixed effects; Prop. indicates propensity matchingBold indicated significance.Fragile Families Study
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.org www.policyforchildren.org
School Readiness: Comparing Head Start and School Readiness: Comparing Head Start and Other Center-based CareOther Center-based Care
Pre-K Other Center
OLS Prop. OLS Prop.
PPVT-III 0.06 0.09 0.04 0.09
WJ-R -0.02 0.01 0.03 0.05
Social Competence 0.13 0.15 0.09 0.17
Attention Problems -0.06 -0.05 -0.15 -0.18
Zhai, Brooks-Gunn, & Waldfogel, 2009
N=2803; OLS includes city- & child-fixed effects; Prop. indicates propensity matchingBold indicated significance.Fragile Families Study
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.org www.policyforchildren.org
Infant Health & Development Program: Infant Health & Development Program: Impacts As A Function Of Number Of Impacts As A Function Of Number Of
Days Of Center-Based CareDays Of Center-Based Care
Hill, Brooks-Gunn, Waldfogel, 2003, DP
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.org www.policyforchildren.org
Total Sample
>350 days of treatment over 2 years
Age 3
IQ 14.3 16.7
Age 8
IQ 4.4 8.4
*Heavier low birth weight children only
Federal ECE Programs and School Federal ECE Programs and School ReadinessReadiness
• Head Start Impact Study• Early Head Start National Evaluation• Early Reading First• Preschool Curriculum Evaluation
Research Study (PCERS)
All randomized trials of center-based early childhood education programs
Layzer, 2008
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.org www.policyforchildren.org
Impacts of Federal ECE EffortsImpacts of Federal ECE Efforts• Head Start: modest effects on letter recognition,
none on language
• Early Head Start has modest effects across a range of outcomes
• Modest effect of Early Reading First
• Some impacts in PCERS of many different curricula
Layzer, 2008
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.org www.policyforchildren.org
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.orgwww.policyforchildren.org
Change in Policy Scores over TimeChange in Policy Scores over Time
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
-0
0.2
0.4
0.6
1991 1994 1998 2002
ECE Preschool Subsidy Tax Regulation
Avera
ge P
olicy S
core
Notes: N= 50 at each time point. Subsidy policy levels in 1991 unknown. Thus, 1994 policy levels are used to proxy 1991 subsidy policy choices.
NCCF, State ECE policies
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.orgwww.policyforchildren.org
Five Different Policy ApproachesFive Different Policy Approaches
Policy Approaches
Number of States
States
All 1 MN
Preschool Investment
8 KY, IL, NJ, OK
Child Care Tax 8 AR, CO, OH, OR
Subsidy and/or Regulation
21 RI, VA, VT, WI
Limited Policies 12 AL, AZ, MS, SC
NCCF, State ECE policies
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.orgwww.policyforchildren.org
Improving Child Care Quality: Improving Child Care Quality: ProgramsPrograms
• Be of high quality (e.g., small classes with high teacher- pupil ratios, teachers with BA degrees and training in early childhood education).
• Train teachers to identify children with moderate to severe behavioral problems and to work with them to improve their emotional and social skills.
• Include a parent-training component for mothers of low-literacy.
• Include (and document) high attendance• Include well-defined and tested curricula
ChallengesChallenges
• Sites vs. populations• Dosage• Timing and length of early childhood
education• Immigrants• Curricula• Training
Heckman, J. “Investing in Disadvantaged Young Children Is Good Economics and Good Public Policy,” Testimony before the Joint Economic Committee, Washington D.C., June 27, 2007
Rates of Return to Human Capital Investment(Return to an extra dollar at various ages)
ExtraExtra
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.orgwww.policyforchildren.org
State Policies Affect All ChildrenState Policies Affect All Children
• Preschool investment
• Subsidy generosity
• Regulation stringency
• Tax generosity
NCCF, State ECE policies
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.orgwww.policyforchildren.org
States with the Lowest Scores (1990-2002)States with the Lowest Scores (1990-2002)
-2.5
-1.5
-0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
Alabama Arizona Idaho North Dakota South Dakota
Preschool Investment Subsidy Generosity Tax Generosity Regulation Stringency
Sta
nd
ard
ized
Policy
Score
NCCF, State ECE policies
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.orgwww.policyforchildren.org
States with the Highest Scores (1990-States with the Highest Scores (1990-2002)2002)
-2.5
-1.5
-0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
Alaska Connecticut New York Hawaii Minnesota
Preschool Investment Subsidy Generosity Tax Generosity Regulation Stringency
Sta
nd
ard
ized
Policy
Score
NCCF, State ECE policies
Sustained Impacts of ECE Programs: Sustained Impacts of ECE Programs: Life-time EarningsLife-time Earnings
• Outcome in adulthood– Life-time earnings based on completing
high school or some college
• Inputs in early childhood– Health (reduction of low birth weight)– Achievement (increase in achievement
test scores)– Parenting (increase in HOME scores)
Magnusson, Brooks-Gunn & Waldfogel, 2009
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.org www.policyforchildren.org
Reducing Low Birth Weight Rate: Reducing Low Birth Weight Rate: Life-time EarningsLife-time Earnings
• If LBW, 10 % to 15% reduction in life time earnings
• Value of $41,156 (10% effect of LBW on life time earnings)
• Value of $61,733(15% effect of LBW on life time earnings)
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.org www.policyforchildren.org
Magnusson, Brooks-Gunn & Waldfogel, 2009
Increasing Early Math and Reading Skills:Increasing Early Math and Reading Skills:Life-time EarningsLife-time Earnings
• One SD increase in academic skills in adolescent is associated with 15% to 20% increase in LTE
• One SD increase in academic skills at ages 5-6 is associated with .16 (reading) & .22 (math) SD increase in youth achievement
• One SD increase in math and reading at ages 5-6 is associated with a .38 SD increase in youth achievement
Magnusson, Brooks-Gunn & Waldfogel, 2009
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.org www.policyforchildren.org
Increasing Early Academic Skills: Increasing Early Academic Skills: Life Time EarningsLife Time Earnings
If one SD increase in early skills, assuming a 15% or 20% effect of youth achievement on LTE:
• $33,138 if math & reading skills at 15% effect
• $44,184 if reading & math skills & 20% effect
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.org www.policyforchildren.org
Magnusson, Brooks-Gunn & Waldfogel, 2009
Increasing Quality of the HOME: Increasing Quality of the HOME: Life-time EarningsLife-time Earnings
One SD increase in HOME in early childhood is associated with .10 to .28 increase in youth achievement:
• $ 9,941 if .12 improvement in youth achievement & 15% effect
• $13,255 if .12 improvement in youth achievement & 20% effect
• $21,125 if .255 improvement in youth achievement & 15% effect
National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University National Center for Children and Families (NCCF) - Teachers College, Columbia University www.policyforchildren.org www.policyforchildren.org
Magnusson, Brooks-Gunn & Waldfogel, 2009