professional teaching practice iv
TRANSCRIPT
PROFESSIONAL TEACHING PRACTICE IV
CHAPTER 7 REFLECTIVE PRACTICE
WHAT IS REFLECTIVE PRACTICE?
Reflection is the way in which we look at ourselves. Reflective practice means taking an honest look at
yourself and your actions and asking questions such as “How well did that go? Or “could I have done that
better? You may well invite others into this process by asking their opinion on how something went.
THE IMPORTANCE OF REFLECTIVE PRACTICE
The ability to reflect upon your own practice is critical to your success as a teacher. Effective learning will not
occur unless you reflect states that you must clearly and continually evidence that your do the following
a- Reflect on and improve their practice, and take responsibility for identifying and meeting their
developing professional need.
Some people cannot accept that they may make mistakes and need to improve. Some people are overly critical
of themselves. Clearly the ideal is to be somewhere in the middle able to accept criticism and identity ways to
improve and then put it into action.
One thing which I have always encouraged trainees to do is to have their own reflective journal.
On the whole, what we are trying to establish is a good level of self-awareness and insight, to take forward
the good things and do something about those areas which you feel need improvement. No one can force you
to do this, it´s up to your, but the more open you are to it, the more effective you will become at it and the less
likely you will be at jumping into situation without thinking about the consequences.
REFLECTIVE PARTNERS (observing)
The process is much better and more productive if you have a reflective partner who will work with you.
Choosing a reflective partner
Someone who understands the training profession would probably be the best option.
Refuse further and select a reflective partner within the school that you teach in.
It should be someone you can trust, can open up o and will be honest with your without being judgmental, I
would also accept someone who is experienced within the teaching profession.
You should also be clear about what your want to get from the experience. They must be in a position to point
out issues as they see them.
Setting the ground rules
It is your choice how you operate this relationship, but here are some pointers, which you may consider:
# Confidentiality: you may be discussing particular students or other individuals so it may be important that
you both exercise confidentiality in this area.
# No ideas are bad ideas, if people think that they cannot be open and honest, they may not volunteer points
which may be beneficial.
# Equality of state: if you feel that you are not of equal status within this relationship, then you may not feel
comfortable to share your concern.
# Space to think : you may both feel that you need space to thing about issues and return to them at a later
time or date when your have had time to reflect.
# Honesty: some may heave this out, or not even think about it, but it is important that both parties are
honest with each other.
# Time and location: you may want to agree a weekly time and location for this activity, so that it becomes
part of the routine.
CRITICAL REFLECTION (ver)
Critical reflection differs from what could be referred to as normal reflection by the level to which you do it.
Critical reflection tends to take into account a wider view. ( we may, for ex, not only look at how we
responded to a particular situation, but expand it into what it is about ourselves which made us react in this
way. ( One of the issues of reflection is that, if you do not document it, and the situation only comes up rarely,
you may well forget how you handled it and how you decided you could impact upon it.)
Critical reflection is a sign of a continual progression toward maturity within the profession, that ability to
almost step back from the situation and look at it from a wider context. Critical reflection will allow for the
inclusion of he experience of the individual.
Writing up your reflection
1-Make it part of your routine.
2-select your own medium for writing: online or in a notebook.
3- do not worry about what you write or how you write it.
4- Confidentiality is important.
5-Reflective is not just about those important, critical incidents. It is also about the everyday life you lead the
normal daily events, the things people say.
6- Write try answers to the taste in the journal too.
CHAPTER 9
VISITS AND OBSERVATIONS
OBSERVING OTHERS TEACH
Watching a good teacher is like watching a skilled craftperson or a great actor They have the class in the palm
of their hand and can get them to do whatever they want.
The one key thing to remember is that your mentor has gone through this exact same process and their skill
is the result of a great deal of practice, experience and sheer hard work.
Obviously, the first thing that you need to do is to strange and observation with a member of staff. On the
whole, teachers are fine with people observing them. Teaching is a huge responsibility and the quality of it
should be as high possible.
Effective observation I not an easy task. You need therefore to have a focus for your observations. You also
need a notebook to write down everything that you see. You should not be tempted to take an active part in
the lesson.
It is therefore important to have a plan for your observation and a series of things which you should look for.
Once you understand this level, you need to look at the next level of complexity.
USING OBSERVATIONS OF OTHERS TO GUIDE YOU TEACHING.
Observing a number of different teachers allows you to see a range of different techniques used within the
classroom. Gaining some ideas is always a good thing. However, try to avoid the temptation to directly copy
another teacher´s style.
CHAPTER 3 MANAGING RESOURCES: EQUIPMENT AND TEACHING AIDS –how to use the resources
-The board, the overhead projector, visuals, worksheets and workcards, the cassette recorder, video,
computers and the photocopier.
1-THE BOARD. Prerequisites:
1- Start with a clear board
2- Write legible and neatly. Do not write in capitals. Learners need to learn when capital are necessary and
when not.
3- Use the right implements. When you have to use a white board do not use a pen that cannot be wiped off.
4- Try to keep the board as clear, as straightforward and as easy to read as possible.
What sort of things will be put on the board will fall into the following categories:
1 – Permanent or reference material
Once it is in the board it will probably stay until the end. In lower levels: the date at the beginning of the
lesson. You can put up reminders of items that students need constantly. For example What does…mean? It
can be pointed till the students are familiar with it.
We can also add the main language item of the lesson, new vocabulary items and model references.
2- Material for the development of the lesson-material related to the stage of the lesson.
It could be pictures to illustrate a story, an expression that is being practiced, a grammar rule or even the
score for a team game.
3- Impromptu work
This is the work you do to illustrate or exemplify to an unpredicted question, an alternative explanation when
that planned does not work. Space for such work must be left on the board for such work.
4- Notes and reminders
Daily class notices and announcements. Also, questions you answer either “Ask me later”
It is essential that you plan the board and decide which part you are going to allocate to which use. See images
of 3 stages.
At what stage in the lesson should the board be used?
Exactly when the writing is done depends on the type of lesson and you student normal styles of learning.
Often the writing stage is consolidation of oral work.
How can you make best use of the board.
Use color. Adjust the size of your writing to the size of the room and the size of the board. Do not put
everything on the board. When writing up vocabulary include an indication of the part of the speech. Eg: (n)
(v) (adj) and stress. Build up board work bit by bit after each activity. Make it clear to students when they
need to copy. When you transfer work from the main part of the board to the permanent part you provide
students with a useful summary of the main stages of the lesson. Always clean the board at the end of the
lesson.
2- THE OVERHEAD PROJECTOR (ohp)
Advantages:
You can write on an ohp without turning your back on the class.
Transparencies can be prepared in advanced.
Students can write on OHTs
You can mask parts of OHTs, so revealing information step by step
Disadvantages:
it can be difficult to move around.
There may be too much light in the room.
They device is relatively expensive.
How can you make best use of the OHP.
Practice using the machine before trying it out with a class.
Before the class make sure the OHP is working. And check that students can see at the back of the room.
3- VISUALS
They can be real objects-realia- and pictures and photographs
Advantages
They illustrate meaning more directly and quickly
They attract the students´ attention
They add variety and interest. They help make the associated language memorable.
The classroom becomes an attractive place.
What are visuals used for?
Arose interest. Elicit known language. Illustrate new language. Stimulate discussion.
Finding and storing visuals
It is often easier to draw your own picture. You can ask the students to find visuals as part of their homework.
You can often provide visuals from objects commonly found in the classroom or on your person-ex of colours,
clothes.
Work out a system for storing visuals you want to keep and organize them so that they become a resource you
can keep re-using and adding to.
Showing visuals
When showing a visual make sure that: it is big enough to be seen
You are holding it steadily; when you first show the visual make sure that everyone can see it.
If necessary you show the visuals to each student in turn.
You display a visual by sticking it in the board, on the wall or on a notice board
4- WORKSHEETS AND WORKCARDS
Why should you want to make your won worksheets?
# to photocopy a text or exercise from a book which the students would not be able to keep or write in
# to adapt published materials
# to write your own exercises
# to make cards for communication activities
Making a worksheet or workcard
Take care to make the worksheet as professional looking and as attractive as possible.
# make sure the writing is legible and neat.
# check for typing errors
# do not make the writing too dense, leave space around the edge of the sheet
# include illustrations to add interest
Other points to remember
Keep a master of worksheets.
It is worth organizing and classifying your worksheets
Note on copyright
Unless it I explicitly stated that photocopying is allowed, it is against the law to make a photocopy of any part
of a book. The publisher can be approached directly for permission. Always include reference to any
published material you photocopy at the bottom of the worksheet
5-THE CASSETTE RECORDER
It is one of the language teacher’s most useful tools. Nearly all coursebooks have it and many teachers have
also access to authentic audio material from radio or song for eg. You may also have access to a language
laboratory, or audioactive machines, where the student can record and listen to their own voices.
Using the cassette recorder
# make sure you know how to use the machine you will be using.
# check the availability of the cassette you plan to use.
# listen to the whole of the excerpt you want to use to make sure that it is complete and clear throughout.
# before the lesson, put the cassette on, find the beginning of the piece you want to use and zero the counter.
# make sure you rewind to the right place.
Recording your own tapes
It is much more difficult and very time-consuming to make your own tape from scratch
# find a quiet room
# use a separate microphone
# try to use other speakers to add add authenticity.
#if you have a script, rehearse it before recording it.
6- VIDEOS
Advantages
The recording is much closer to real life.
Video is much easier to understand
The visual element is attractive and interesting.
Using a video machine
The same rules apply as with an audio cassette recorder. The parts of a video system are slightly more
complex so it is essential that these are checked beforehand.
Producing you own videos
Although you can make your own videos for viewing in class it is a very time-consuming business. It is often
more appropriate to use video-making equipment in lessons which aim to develop the students´ speaking
skills.
7- COMPUTERS
If the use of computers is included in your TP you will need to be shown how the particular machines used by
the institution work.
8- THE PHOTOCOPIER
Make sure you know the “house rules” about use. If there is no photocopier you may have to use your
ingenuity to compensate.
CHAPTER 4
1-Published materials
2- authentic materials
1-PUBLISHED MATERIALS
Coursebooks
It often comprises a set of materials student’s or pupil’s book, student’s or pupil’s coursebook, cassette,
teacher’s book and videos.
Advantages of using a coursebook.
it provides security for teachers and students
it provides a syllabus to the level suitable for the students.
It provides variety and a balanced diet of language work.
It gives continuity and progression
It has a teacher´s book, visuals and cassettes.
What are the disadvantages?
#It is not always easy to find a coursebook that will said the needs and interests of all the students in your
group.
#You may be forced to use a coursebook which is for different students
#The students may not like the book
#It can be very predictable and boring for the students
#It can stop you from being creative.
So the coursebook is an invaluable resource but it may need adapting to meet the class needs. These
needs will vary according to the age, language background, culture and ability of the students. Every class
is different and the success of a coursebook depends to a large extent on how well is used by the teacher.
How can you make the best use of a coursebook
Think about which parts of the coursebook could be omitted.
You may want to do the activities in a different order from in the book.however, this can be
dangerous.
Explore ways in which the book could be personalized.
Think about how activities and texts could be brought to life.
Above all, approach the coursebook critically.
Skill books
Focus primarily on the language skills rather than specific areas of language skills rather than specific areas of
language (reading, listening, speaking and writing)
The teachers´ books include lesson aims, guidelines as to how to use the material and activities, and a key.
Publishers respond to the demand for self-access materials, the student´s book also contain a key.
Although the skills books go under the heading of an individual skill they nearly all link and integrate some of
the skills. Also, in addition to books devoted to one skill, integrated skills books are available.
Why are skills books useful?
Usually skills books are organized according to topic and so provide a clear vocabulary focus. The
accompanying tasks can be extremely useful for developing particular skills and strategies. It is possible to
“dip into” different skills books.
Are there any problems?
It is not always easy to assess the level of skills books: the labels attached are often only a rough guide. They
may have texts which contain structure unfamiliar to your students. If you anticipate these difficulties and
choose carefully, this should not prevent you from taking advantage of these materials and tasks.
Readers
These books are designed for the foreign language learner and are either specially written or adaptations of
well-known novels and stories. Readers are particularly useful for practicing extensive reading skills.
Other supplementary books
It can be used to supplement the coursebook. They include books of language games and songs, roleplays and
simulations, chants and drills. There’s a danger that you might be tempted to give the students a series of
unrelated “fun” activities.
Reference books
The most commonly used reference books are dictionaries and grammar books. They often contain useful
reference sections on such things as irregular verbs, spelling rules etc. some even give cultural information.
Grammar reference books are available for students at different levels. They often have integrated exercises.
Most have a key.
Other reference books that can be used in the ELT classroom include specialized reference books on
particular aspects of the language such as prepositions, phrasal verbs, idioms etc.
How can you use reference books in the classroom?
Before the students can use reference works to help them in their studies they need to be taught how to use
them. You may want to plan one or more lessons to help the students make the best one of any reference
books they have access to.
Reference books
There are a number of books written for teachers that combine sections on a particular aspect of teaching
methodology.
Video
Videos can be used to introduce grammatical and functional structures and they are particularly useful if you
want to practice listening and speaking (including pronunciation) with a class.
There are video courses which can be used instead of a more conventional coursebook and videos which are
designed to supplement coursebooks in the same way that skills books and other supplementary books do.
If you are using video for the first time it is a good idea to stick fairly closely to the maternal prepared
professionals.
In addition, you may want to use television material recorded off-air, or commercially-produced videos.
You have to be very careful when selecting relevant extracts and creating and grading the accompanying tasks
and materials. Do not play any tape unless it serves to fulfil the learning objective of the lesson.
Call
Call, or Computer Assisted Language Learning, is popular in some institutions and there are a number of
software packages designed for the English language classroom. One of the most popular requires the student
to reconstruct a text.
Teachers can also make use of word-processing programs to encourage writing activities
2-AUTHENTIC MATERIALS
What are authentic materials?
Anything a native speaker of English would hear or use can be described as authentic: theatre programmes,
newspapers, magazines, poems, songs, brochures, information leaflets, menus, news broadcam, film on video
etc.
The teacher should select the material carefully. The same piece of authentic material can be used at different
levels, an easier task can be set for lower level students and a more difficult task set for higher level students.
Why do we use authentic materials in the classroom?
Are more interesting and motivating
They provide examples of language as it is really used
The real cultural content encourages involvement and comparisons.
Lend themselves to authentic tasks, for ex getting information students may really need it they are
planning a trip or listening songs for pleasure.
Linked with ways of helping students be more independent learners.
Are there any drawbacks?
It takes time to find something that fits in with the class’s programme of work and which is both
interesting and accessible.
Exposure to language needs confidence –building. You can start with easy tasks.
Chapter 5 Developing skills and strategies
Language learning is not only concerned with acquiring knowledge, it is not just something we learn
about. Rather, it is a skill, or a set of skills-something we learn to do, like riding a bike. So, students need
meaningful, interactive practice in the skills in order to learn to use the language.
Traditionally, we speak of 4 language skills: 2 receptive skills-listening and reading, and two productive
skills-speaking and writing.
Within the skill areas there are a number of “microskills” or strategies which language learners use to
communicate with others.
Increasingly, it is recognized that besides language skills students may also need to have learning skills-
they may need to know how to learn.
Integrated skills. (how to teach them)
In real life the language skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing are generally integrated rather
than occurring in isolation. When taking part in a conversation, for example, we both listen and speak.
How can you integrate skills in the lesson?
In lessons, as in real life, skills are often integrated- with one activity leading on to another. For example, a
lesson for intermediate level students based around a newspaper article might have the following stages:
speaking (eliciting what students know about the subject) reading (read the article9 writing (stdts could
write el letter to the editor in response)
Why is it useful to integrate skill?
It allows for the practice of language in a way which is closer to the real world
A lesson which integrates a number of skills has more variety
It gives the opportunity for a topic to be fully exploted and for vocabulary connected to the topic
to be practiced and recycled
Can skills practice be integrated with the introduction and practice of language items?
Yes. Grammar or functional structures, vocabulary or pronunciation.
Planning a skills lesson.
Your lesson may have the practice of one skill as its main aim, with other skills playing a subsidiary
role, or there may be an equal balance of skills. Make sure that you and the students know what the
focus is at any stage in the lesson.
2- Receptive skills: listening
How can you help students to improve their listening?
The teacher is an invaluable source of listening practice
Encourage students to talk and listen to each other
Provide tests and activities which will develop listening skills and strategies at the same time as
providing input for language acquisition.
How can you choose a suitable listening text?
Ask yourself:
What is my main aim?
Will the students find the text interesting
Is the text at the right level?
Will it be useful?
What skills do I want them to practice?
How difficult will be the text?
What makes a listening text easy or difficult?
Listening texts are easier if:
They are short. One or two speakers. Speak slowly and clearly. If they can be seen on a video. The
topic is familiar. The structure of the text is simple. If the students are interested and prepared for
what they will hear.
How can you help the students to understand a listening text?
Choose a text which will interest the students and formulate aims that are suitable for their level and
needs
Before they listen, help them to predict what they are going to hear. Remind students of the listening
strategies they employ in their own language. For example, encourage them to guess how the
speakers are feeling by their intonation. (eg. Do they sound angry or frightened?). Give plenty of
support especially with lower level students or those who are not confident about listening. For ex
some teachers give the students the script to read usually after they have listened to it or while
listening.
Motivate your students by choosing texts that are interesting. Choose tasks for the students to do
before and while listening rather than afterwards. In that way you are focusing on understanding
rather than just good memory. Do not ask for specific details. At the end of the lesson, get feedback
from the students about the text.
What are the main stages in a listening skills lesson?
Stages
1- Arouse interest and set the scene: encourage the students to think about and discuss what they
are going to hear or create a need to know. You can use realia, visuals, experiences to activate any
knowledge they have about the topic.
2- Teach key words-phrases before listening: it may be helpful to teach a few key words without
which the listening would be difficult to understand. If you do not do this it is important that you
recognize the troublesome words and have a strategy for dealing with them.
First listening
Set a task to help focus on overall understanding
1. Set a task to help focus on overall understanding.. ex: these pictures tell a story. Listen and put
them in the correct order.
2. Give the listening text for the first time (either play the recording or read the text)not pause. It
helps the students concentrate on getting the whole picture.
3. Feedback. Possibly ask the students to discuss their answers and opinions in pairs or groups
before you elicit them. You can ask if they would like to hear the whole or part of the text
again before they go on to focusing on the text in more detail.
Second listening
1. Set a task to focus on more detailed understanding. Try to vary the tasks. Try to introduce
questions that require the students to infer meaning particularly at higher levels.
2. Give the listening text for the second time. Make it easier by pausing. Monitor how they are
doing the task
3. Feedback. Again encourage the students to work together before eliciting their responses
4. Personal response. Try to encourage a personal response from your students by asking
questions like : what do you think..?what would you have done…’
Is listening to a video different from listening to an audio tape?
Although they are similar, it is important to know the differences.
Video is generally easier to understand because of the visual clues available
Video is very useful if more than one person is speaking: in a conversation with
overlapping dialogue, unfinished sentences, interjections, etc
Video is more like real life.
The viewer has to watch the screen to get all the available information. For this reason, It is
not easy for them to complete while -viewing.
Video tapes tend to be long.
Can you use a listening text to introduce or practice language points?
Yes. using a listening text is a very good way of introducing and practicing language in context
3 Receptive skills: reading.
How can you help your students improve their reading?
See chart.
On important aspect that is common to listening and reading: Both listeners and readers have to infer
meaning, using their knowledge of the world.
What makes a reading text easy or difficult?
Generally, reading texts are easier if:
Contain simple language, simple sentences.
they are short.
They are clearly organized eg there is a straightforward storyline.
They are factual.
They are in Standard English.
There is support in the way of layout, titles, pictures, graphs.etc.
What are the different ways of reading?
We read different texts in different ways, depending on our purpose. For example,
Skimming: not reading every word, maybe reading only the first sentence of each paragraph for the
general sense.
Scanning: we scan the page until we find what we are looking for
Intensive reading: reading for detail.
Extensive reading. When we are reading for pleasure.
How can you help students to understand a reading text?
As with listening, choose a text and formulate aims that are suitable for the students´ level and interests. The
most important skill is to be able to identify what the text is about. So focus on their general or global
understanding before their grasp of detail.
Encourage the students to use what they already know –their knowledge of the world and of English.
Remind the students of the reading skills they employ in their own language.
Help the students understand the structure of the text by focusing, for ex, on the key sentences and the way
sentences are linked.
Give plenty of support
Motivate your students by choosing texts that are interesting and that provide a real incentive for them.
Is it useful for the students to read aloud?
It can be-but it is rather different as it involves speaking as well as reading. It is quite difficult for the speaker
to pay attention to the meaning of a text when reading aloud particularly in public.
What are the stages in a reading skills lesson?
there is no one way of doing a reading skills lesson. It depends on such factors as the aim, the text type, the
level of the students, etc. the following are guidelines. Notice the many similarities and the few differences
between these guidelines and those for a listening comprehension.
Before reading
1. Arouse interest and help prediction : encourage the students to think and discuss what they are going
to read
Do not worry about grammar mistakes. The aim is to interest and motivate the student to read. Use
visuals, references to your students´ experiences to active knowledge about the topic.
2. Teach any key words. Pay attention to this before the students read the text.
First reading
1- set a task to assist overall understanding.. ex two or three questions
2- the students read the text. You may want to give a time limit. You may want to give them as much time
as they feel they need.
3- Feedback. Ask the students to discuss their answers and opinions in pairs or groups before you elicit
them.
Second reading
1- Set a task to focus on more detailed understanding.try to vary the tasks.-skim,scan
2- The students read the text for the second time. Again give them some idea of how long they have to
do this and how they should set about the task. Ex: you have three minutes, don´t forget to look
carefully at the linking words.
3- Feedback. Again encourage the students to work together before eliciting their responses.
Follow up
Encourage a personal response. In this way reading can be naturally intergrated with speaking practice.
You may want to go on to use reading text as a context for the introduction or practice of specific
language.
4- Productive skills: speaking
Every opportunity for speaking in the classroom should be taken
What do we mean by speaking skills?
Speaking has many different aspects. It is useful to look at them under these headings.
I. Accuracy. It involves the correct use of vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation. In controlled and
guided activitities.the teacher should state that this is important. However, in freer activities
encourage their attempts to use the language they have in order to communicate.
In feedback the teacher will probably comment on correct use of language but also on how successfully the
students communicated. In any particular activity the teacher can make it clear to students in which areas
accuracy is expected, and to what extent.
II. Fluency. It is the ability to keep going when speaking spontaneously. Students should be able to get
the message across with whatever resources and abilities they have got, regardless of grammatical
and other mistakes.
Normally, students should not be corrected during fluency activities. Afterwards, you can comment favorably
o on any strategies the students used to increase their fluency. For ex:
The use of natural sounding incomplete sentences. When did you go? On Tuesday (not, I wento on
Tuesday)
The use of common expressions like I see what you mean, never mind, what{s the matter?
The use of fillers. Well, let´s see.
Asking for clarification ( I don´t understand. Do you mean…?)
What types of speaking activities can we use in the classroom?
1) Controlled activities: repetition practice or set sentences prompted by picture or word cues to
improve the accurate use of words
2) Guided activities: for ex tasks which the students carry out using language which has been
taught beforehand.
3) Createtive or freer communication: creative practice opportunities or general fluency practice,
where the specific language focus is less relevant.
the students are given the opportunities to experiment how they can communicate. These
activities increase the students´ motivation and help bridge the gap between the rather artificial
world of the classroom and the real world outside.
Students must have a reason for speaking in order for the activity to be truly communicative.
It is not usual to stop students in order to correct them in a free communication activity, it is
important to note mistakes that you may want to discuss with students later.
How can you encourage students to speak?
1) Encourage students interaction. You should aim to create a comfortable atmosphere where students
are not afraid to speak and enjoy communicating with you and their fellow students.
2) Give plenty of controlled and guided practice. Generally, the lower the level of the students the more
controlled and guided practice, compared with freer practice
3) Make speaking activities communicative. Communicative activities are designed so that students have
a reason or a purpose for speaking: they are bridging an information or opinion gaps.
4) Plan speaking activities carefully. Speaking activities need to be very carefully structured at first,
especially at lower levels. They need something to speak about, such as a picture; such as a picture or
a purpose like a roleplay from the context of a reading text. As they become used to these activities
they become more sure of themselves so that freer activities can be attempted. Freer activities,
however, still need careful planning if they are not to fall flat.
Guidelines for a free-creative speaking activity. Before, during and after the activity.
Before the lessons
Decide your aims. Predict problems. Pay attention to the time available. Prepare the materials. Work out
your instruction.
During the activity
Arouse the students´ interests. Remind the students useful voc and structures that might be useful. Give
clear instructions and check understanding. Give them time before starting the main activity. Encourage
rehearsal, particularly in roleplays. Do not interrupt, monitor them. No instant corrections.
After the activity
Provide feedback: How they communicate. Fluency and so on. Focus on possible improvements rather
than mistakes. Note down recurred errors. Then you can prepare a suitable remedial lesson.
Examples of guided and free speaking activities classified under 5 headings:
1. Interaction or information gap activities. These are carried out in pairs or groups and usually
depend on one or more students either having incomplete information or no information at all
and the other´s having the information needed to complete the task. Ex. Giving directions or
making an appointment.
2. Roleplays. A roleplay is when students take the part of a particular person. As this person they
take part in a situation, acting out a conversation. It is unscripted, although general ideas about
what they are going to say might be prepared beforehand.
Remind the situation they might be in. try out language recently introduced. Diagnose strengths and
weaknesses.
3. Simulations. The students are not playing roles but being themselves. They are confronted by a
task to do or a problem to be solved and they must do what they would do in the circumstances.
4. Discussions. Discussions with a class can be successful if you can ensure that: the students are
interested in the subject.
How can you stimulate discussions?
Modifying statements (students can be given ten controversial statements around a
topic. Then modify it and then compare the new statements with the other groups.
Sequencing statements (students are given non-controversial statements. Then they
are asked to sequence them in order of priority.
Defending statements. Different controversial statements are written on pieces of
paper and then put into a box. The students are told to pick our a statement and then
spend a few minutes preparing arguments to defend it which usually leads to lively
discussions
Problem solving. Students can be presented with a puzzle or problem and given a set
time to discuss possible answers to or explanations of the puzzle
Moral issues. The students are given details of a problematic situation and are asked to
discuss the situation and make a decision. ( such as whose fault was….who should…?)
How can you organize discussions in large classes?
Groupwork. So that a number of parallel discussions can take place and more
students have a chance to speak
Taking turns. Introduce a rule whereby no one who has already spoken can
speak again. So all students speak
The pyramid technique.
Games
Productive skills: writing
In TP there is often not enough time to complete a long written task as the process may need to extend over
several lessons.
As with speaking, activities writing skills can range from very controlled to free or creative.
What do we mean by writing skills?
Writing involves many different aspects.
Handwriting
Spelling
Punctuation
Sentence construction
Organizing a text and paragraphing
Text cohesion
Register/style
How can you encourage students to write?
1. have a positive and cooperative attitude towards writing
encourage real writing tasks in the classroom
plan sufficient time for writing activities
encourage the students to show each other their writing
sometimes write in pairs or in groups
be selective about the kind of mistakes that you are going to correct.
2. Prepare students for writing. Help the students gather ideas. Point models for their own
writing
3. Structure writing activities. Plan writing activities carefully so that tasks progress from the
more controlled, through guided to freer
4. Plan guided and freer practice activities carefully. You may want to structure writing activities
carefully at first, especially at lower levels, so that the students have few demand on them.
Even careful planning if the students are to be attempted. You need to focus on the process of
writing rather than on the result.. the students learn by being led through the necessary steps
rather than by being given a title for a piece of writing and left to get on with it.
Guidelines for a process of writing activity.
1. introduction. Stimulate your students. Create a situation where a piece of writing is
required (roleplays, visuals)
2. working with ideas. ( brainstorming, mind maps, develop ideas, choose them and order
them.)
3. Planning. Help the students to divide their ideas into paragraphs (ex: argumentative
essay. Introduction to the topic, arguments for, arguments against, writer´s conclusion.
4. Drafting. The students write a 1st draft. They may need to refer to dictionaries,
grammar reference books and model texts.
5. Reviewing/ editing. The students correct and improve their first draft. At this stage you
can take the work in and make comments.
6. Re-writing. Write out the final version.
Word processing
Using a computer for writing is becoming more and more usual. Many students are more
motivated to write if they can do it on a computer.
6 Learning development and study skills
The aim of many of the techniques described in other chapters is to foster independence
from the teacher. The students need to be aware of how language are learned and what
their own preferred learning style is how they learn best.
Awareness and responsibility
How can you encourage the students to be more aware of how they learn a language?
o Make the aims objective of your lessons clear to the students so they know what
you and they are doing and why.
o Help the students to explore their own attitude to learning.
o Encourage them to think about how they like to learn
o Help them to set realistic and achievable goals.
o Encourage them to monitor and review their learning through self assessment
How can you help raise the students´awareness?
It can be done in many ways:
Through questionnaires with such questions as : how often do you: listen to English on the radio- read
an English magazine?....
Through credo sheets-lists of statements which the students discuss and agree or disagree with. Ex. If
I learn all the grammar rules of English, I will be able to speak the language well. It does not matter is
you make mistakes, it is more important to be fluent.
Through ordering activities. For ex
Put these ways of storing new language.writing them down in alphabetical order. Putting the new words
in sentences. Grouping words according to the topic.
Through discussing and writing advice for language learners´ or when deciding on class rules. E.g:
speak in English in class. Try to learn 5 words per day.
How can you help students to be more independent and responsible for what goes on in the
classroom?
1. Teach them the language they need to understand instructions in English
2. teach them useful expressions they can use in class. Excuse me? Sorry?
3. encourage them to use other resource than the teacher: dictionaries, other students…j
4. ask them to bring in their own materials for use in class. Eg. Magazines, photos.
5. take responsibility roles in the classroom.(one erase the board, other collect homerwork)
Learning Strategies
You can encourage students to use a number of strategies when practicing language skills.-
strategies which they can employ when they are using the language independently. Ex of these
techniques or strategies are:
A. listening
predict what they are going to hear
choosing the appropriate way of listening-overall understanding or specific details.
Using techniques of facilitating listening ex asking for repletion, clarification.
B. Reading
Choosing appropriate ways of reading depending on the rest
Using strategies for deducing the meaning of unknown words
Using dictionaries effectively
C. Speaking
Facilitating speaking using paraphrasing, appropriate fillers.
C. Writing
Making notes and organizing them before doing a free writing.
Making a rough draft
Identifying their own mistakes after the teacher has indicated mistakes by
symbols.
V: verb form, tense-ww .wrong word-wo. Word order-prep. Presposition- sp:
spelling- ag: Agreement of verb and subject
The following are strategies you can encourage students to use when learning, practicing and revising
language.
i. Vocabulary:
Deciding which words or expressions they want to learn-remember.
Using a method of recording vocabulary.
Develping methods for memorizing vocabulary.
ii. Grammar
Looking for patterns and generalizations in language.
Noting when structures are the same
Using dictionaries for grammatical information
iii. Pronunciation
Being aware of their own problems
Encouraging phonetic symbols
Study skills
As well as strategies to language learning there are also a number of more general study skills that you can
encourage learners to use.also apply to other subject
1. you can suggest and discuss ways in which learners can organize their files.
2. you can encourage them to make full use of a coursebook.
3. you can teach the how to use grammar and other reference books.
4. you can teach them to use dictionaries
7 Students working outside the classroom
What type of work can students do outside the classroom?
1. Practice activities from coursebooks or workbooks. They can be done at home and during the next
lesson their answers can be compared pairs.
2. writing.they can be asked to organize their notes and write a first draft at home
3. Preparation. Students can be asked to do some preparation work at home. Eg.students can
prepare for an oral presesentation and they can spend time out of class planning what they are
going to say and perhaps finding pictures to illustrate their talk.
4. Research. Students can be asked to research a grammar point or some vocabulary items out of
class in order to report their findings in class
5. Making use of the outside world. Students being encouraged to explore other ways of language.
They may be able to use videos,radio, English newpapters and magazines.
6. Project work. Once the project has been set up the students can be asked to complete certain tasks
out of class and show their findings in the next class.
7. Revision. Students can be asked to go over at home what they have done with you in class by ;
suggesting them to re-read activities done in class. Asking them to study the grammar section.
Asking them to look at their notes
CHAPTER 6 Presenting and practicing language
How do you decide what approach to take?
It depends on a number of factors:
Whether the structure is completely new, is familiar
Whether on or more structures are being presented and whether or not they are being compared.
The nature of the language
Whether the structure is more likely to be written or spoken
The students: their level, their age, their background, their learning style.
What approach can be used to present or revise language structures?
It is a good idea to try to vary the ways you present and practice language.
1-Visual/oral contexts
Picture, mime and realia can be used to illustrate the meaning and to establish a context.
When is it useful to present language through a visual-oral context?
If the students are young
If the meaning and use of the language is complex
It you want to create a context that the student can relate to.
If you want the situation to be unambiguous
What are the disadvantages of this approach?
The language can be artificial.
It can be time consuming
It is quite teacher-centred, as the teacher is “up-front” at the beginning of the lesson.
Older students may feel this approach is less serious.
2-Texts
Texts which are intrinsically interesting are especially useful as a vehicle for introducing and practicing
language.
When is it useful to present language through texts?
when students are of intermediate level and above.
If the meaning and of the structure is complex
If the new structure is being introduced in contrast with language which is already familiar and which
is also present in the tex.
If a number of items are being introduced.
If the structure has been encountered before. A way of revising.
When you use the students´coursebook.
Are there any problems in using texts for presenting language?(escrito en lapis :not for low levels)
It isn´t always easy to find authentic texts. Texts which are specific written are often very contrived and
unnatural.
It does take a relatively long time to use the kind of material
3-Short dialogues
They are often used as a model for speaking practice of structures. Dialogues are often used as an alternative,
or in addition, to introducing language through visual means, especially with lower level students.
When are dialogues useful?
You can write the dialogues so that it focuses on the language you want to introduce.
Dialogues provide a controlled setting for language items and conversational features.
They are very useful for introducing language functions.
It is easy to introduce pairwork practice
What are the disadvantages of using dialogues?
They can be boring
They do not prepare students for the unexpected
It is not always easy to find or create a dialogue which is naturally generative.
4-Giving(deductive) or working out (inductive) the “rule ” (en lapis escrito: guided discovery)
Giving or eliciting the “rule” is useful
If the meaning of the item is easy to understand
If the students come from a very traditional educational background and expect a grammar-
translation approach.
If the students are at a higher level
Are there any problems with this approach?
It can seem dry and uninteresting especially to younger learners.
it is not suitable for language which is complex in meaning and use
5-Tesst-teach-test
The teacher sets a communicative activity. The teacher monitors and evaluates the activity in order to asses
whether the language structure he or she wants to focus on in being used correctly and appropriately.
The first phase is the “the test” where the teacher finds out what the students can and cannot already do;
teach in the second phase when the language is revised, and the second “ test” is when practice activities are
done to see if the students can use the language better than in the first phase.
What are the advantages of this approach?
it is useful:
at higher levels where very few, if any, language structures are new to the students.
With confident students who claim to know the target language.
With classes when you are not sure what the students have done previously and what they already
know.
What are the disadvantages?
This type of approach, if it is done in one lesson, requires a considerable degree of flexibility on the part of the
teacher. However it may be possible to do the first phase on one day and the revision and practice activities.
If, during the first phase, the students show that they can use the target language competently, then the
teacher has to have alternative activities planned to replace the revision phase.
6-Students-based research
Here the students are encouraged to do their own research into language areas using grammar reference
books; they then report back to the class.
When is student-based research useful?
If the students are at a high level where few structures are new.
If they have been encouraged to be independent learners.
If individual students have difficulty with particular structures
What are the disadvantages?
This approach depends on having students of a high enough level, with good reference skills and a
strong motivation and interest.
The students have to have access to reference materials.
You also need to have the class cover a period of time.
For these reasons this approach is not always practicable in the TP situation
7- Inductive and deductive approach
When an inductive approach is used, a context is established first from which the target structure is drawn.
Visual-oral contexts, texts and short dialogues could be inductive. When a deductive approach is used an
example of a structure and the grammatical rule is given first and then the language is practiced, as described
under Giving or working out the “rule” on.
What are the possible stages in a lesson using the inductive approach?
As noted above there are a number of variations on a theme, but this is an example of on way to proceed.
1. Create the context- with a text which has already been used for skills practice, with a dialogue, or
with a short visual/oral context.
2. the situation should lead naturally to a sentence using the language to be taught- the model or
target sentence.
3. check that the students have grasped the meaning of the structure.
4. Practise saying the target language.
5. Give further practice.
6. Then write up the language structure on the board as memorable and integrated as possible
What are the possible stages in a lesson using the deductive approach?
Again, there is no one way of presenting a structure using a deductive approach. However, one possible way
of staging such a lesson is as follows:
1. Present the structure and explain the “rule” in a way that involves the students.
2. Write up the language structure-s-
3. Set up some activities so that the students can practice using the language in a meaning of context.
How can you check students have understood what is being presented?
It makes sense to check their understanding before any controlled practice-otherwise they may just be
repeating parrot-fashion.
Visuals
They can be used to check understanding. Eg. Students can be asked to choose the picture that best illustrates
the meaning of the word or sentence.
Concept questions
They are questions you ask students to check whether they understand the meaning of a language item. They
should be:
Simple and short
Varied and numerous
Asked often and several around the class.
Translation
You can check the students´ understanding by asking them to translate words or sentences. However, It is
dangerous for students to assume that a word –for-word translation is always available
2-Vocabulary
It is more important than grammar for communication purposes, particularly in early stages when students
are motivated to learn the basic words they need to get by in the language. So, more advanced students are
motivated to add to their stock to become more proficient in their own choice of words and expression.
A learner’s receptive vocabulary is generally much larger than his or her productive vocabulary. As students
become more advanced, their individual interests and needs will help determine what kinds of words they
will want to understand remember and use.
Acquisition vs. learning of vocabulary
Vocabulary can be “acquired” (or picked up”) by students who listen to and read authentic language. Students
can often grasp the meaning of new words from the context.
It is also clear that there are certain ways in which students can consciously “learn”. Words are generally
easier to remember if the meaning is well understood, so a clear presentation by the teacher can be helpful.
What makes a vocabulary item easy or difficult?
It depends on a number of factors
Similarity to L1
The difficulty of a vocabulary item often depends on how similar the item is in form and meaning to the
students´ first language.
Words may be misleading rather than helpful. “false friends”. At first it is not easy to know which words
students will find difficult and which they will find easy.
Similarity to English words already known.
A word which is related to an English word they are already familiar with is easier than one which is not. Eg.
Friendly-unfriendly.
Connotation
For ex. Does the word have a positive or negative connotation to a native speaker.?eg. skinny and slim.
Spelling and pronunciation.
Particular spelling patterns can also cause confusion where the pronunciation is concerned. Eg. Through,
though, tough, thorough
Multi-word items.
A lexical item may consist of more than one word, as in a compound noun such as tennis shoes or sports car.
Phrasal verbs can also cause problems. Eg: put someone down vs put someone up.
Collocation
How a lexical item collocates can also cause difficulty. For example, people are injured or wounded but things
are damaged.
Appropriate use.
Some words and expressions are restricted to use in particular contexts. For ex. We can use pushing to mean
almost in. He’s pushing 50. But pushing is only used in this way with colder people- we do not say. He is
pushing 3. it is also important that the students can differentiate style: informal or formal. Eg. Medical:
Abdomen vs stomach
What aspects of a vocabulary item should the teacher consider?
As with structure it is useful to think about the form, the meaning and the use of any new vocabulary item that
you introduce to students:
# The form
o What part of speech is the word : noun, verb..
o How is it spelled. Is it reg or irregular?
o How does the word collocate with surrounding words?
# The meaning
o Many words have more than 1 meaning.
o What is the connotation?
# The use
o How is the vocabulary item used?
o Does it have a restrictive use? Does it belong to a particular style or register?
How do you decide what vocabulary to teach?
Type of lesson
There is a difference between a “vocabulary lesson” and a lesson in which vocabulary comes up as part of
another activity.
For receptive or productive use?
Is it enough for the students to be able to recognize the vocabulary when they meet it in context, or do you
want them to be able to use it?if you want the students to be able to use the vocabulary, what practice
activities are you going to set up?
Lexical syllabus
Thirdly, you may have to consider the order in which vocabulary items are introduced, particularly at low
levels. In a coursebook the order is given by the author. However, you may want to add or omit items
depending on the teaching context and the needs of your students.
Presenting, practicing and revising vocabulary
As with structures (structures: grammar and function), there are a variety of ways of introducing, practicing
and revising vocabulary.
# Presenting vocabulary set via a visual-oral context.
It is very effective, especially with lower level students. It is particularly useful when the teacher wants to
present a concrete set of word. You can preoceed in a way which is similar to that outlined in the inductive
approach to presenting a structure with a few notable changes. Ex: illustrate the meaning using visual aids.
Say the words. Check the students´ understanding. The students practice saying the words
If you want to provide productive practice you may plan to integrate work on vocabulary with some
productive work. In addition you may often want to set vocabulary leaning homework and give the students
words to study and during the next lesson give a short test.
# Vocabulary in texts
One very effective way of introducing new vocabulary is through listening or reading texts
# Test-teach-test
It is especially useful with more advanced students. This approach is very useful when you want to revise
vocabulary items or to remind students of words they may have already met before you go on to do some
skills work
- set a productive activity for the students which is designed to find out how well they can
understand and use vocabulary. Eg. A controversial discussion
- monitor and evaluate the activity
- if the students are having problems you can revise the vocabulary by focusing on the form,
meaning and use.
# recycling vocabulary
When students delay putting the new vocabulary into active use, it is useful to plan activities that recycle and
reactivate the new vocabulary in subsequent lessons. It is appropriate to start off the lesson by doing a short
activity which revises a lexical act presented the day before. Eg: put the students into groups of 4 or 5. Ask
them to recall as many words and expression as they can from the last lesson on the topic. The group which
can remember the most words is the winner.
Conveying meaning and checking understanding.
Realia and visuals: for concrete items it is usually much quicker to show the item than explain the
meaning.
Mime and gesture: Mime is particularly useful to illustrate actions such as brushing teeth, riding a
bike, painting a wall, etc
Give examples: the meaning of more abstract terms can be conveyed by giving examples of their
attributes or of what they do an do not contain
Explanation or definition: Giving an explanation, definition or paraphrase is often the least successful
way of conveying the meaning of a vocabulary item, especially at low levels where the words you need
to explain or define may also be unknown
Translation : it is worth spending some time helping students to make the most of their translation
dictionaries
Concept questions: you are checking and clarifying the limits of the meaning of the item.. for ex if you
want to check the noun “buiding” you probably won´t want to ask all of them.
What are buildings used for? (homes, hospitals..) is a school a buiding? (yes)
Developing students´ skills and strategies
Ways the teacher can foster this independent both in and out of the classroom include:
1. Encouraging strategies for dealing with unfamiliar vocabulary in texts.
Students need practice in deciding which words are crucial to the overall understanding of the text and which
they can ignore. The process of selection and deciding on a priority will force the students to examine which
words they need to understand. Students also need help and practice in deducing the meaning of words by
comparing words with those in their own language, by looking at the parts of the unknown word an
comparing it with English words which contain the same root or affix.
2. Developing reference skills: if they meet words or expressions which they cannot deduce from the
word itself or from the context, or if they want to check that their guesses were correct, students need
to be able to use dictionaries quickly and effectively.
3. Encouraging the use of vocabulary records: you can demonstrate and discuss ways in which students
can keep their own vocabulary records. For eg. Putting the words into groups according to topic,
putting the new words in sentences, writing a definition with its translation, putting the words and
expressions on one topic in a spidergram to which new words can be added.
4. Demonstrating and discussing ways of memorizing vocabulary
You can teach the students mnemonics. You can explain the system of visually linking the word to be
learned to a bizarre and memorable image.
You can encourage the students to find ways of learning vocabulary. For ex recording words and listen to
them in the car, keeping a small box; keeping a box containing cards with the English word on one side of
a piece of card and the translation on the other-the learner can test him and when the word is memorized
the card is taken out of the box; sticking up words around a mirror or on the wall above the desk in the
student’s own room.
5. Giving choice: giving students a choice as how many or which items they were down and learn. They
are much more likely to be motivated to remember words which they have selected and which they
are interested in.
6. Helping learners devise their own revision plan for reviewing and learning vocabulary: this is useful if
they are using a coursebook which contains lists of words to learn. You can help the student by
notifying them in advance of any tests you plan to give.
3-Pronunciation
it is important to help the students understand the spoken English they hear, and to help them make their
own speech more comprehensible to others.
What elements go to make up pronunciation?
The various elements that go to make up pronunciation can be looked at under the following headings:
Individual sounds. There are 44 English sounds phonemes. A table or list of phonetic symbols and the
sounds they represent can be found in most learner dictionaries.
Word stress: in words of two or more syllables, one syllable isnormally stressed more than the other-
s-. this is the primary stress.
Sounds in connected speech: in connected speech certain changes take place to some of the sounds as
words are said at normal speed and linked together to make connected speech.
The weak forms (eg. Auxilaries)
Some sounds are not pronounced eg d in handkerchief
Linking r
Coalescent assimilation
Rhythm and stress in utterance: English is considered to be a stress-timed language. It often said that
in English we try to keep fairly steady rhythm-spending about the same time to get from on stressed
syllable to the next each time. To do so, devices such as contractions are needed.
Intonation: intonation is a pattern of rise and fall in the level of the voice which often adds meaning
How do you know what aspects of pronunciation to focus on?
There are some aspects of pronunciation which need to be focused on with all groups, for example, stress in
new words, contractions and weak forms, the intonation used for a particular function
A certain sounds are only a problem for some of your students you should not spend long focusing on them
with the whole class.
When should you focus on pronunciation?
Wherever possible pronunciation work should be integrated into lessons in which the main focus in the
presentation or practice of a grammar point a function or a set of vocabulary items. Lessons practicing the
skills of listening and speaking are useful to practice pronunciation. It is sometimes useful to devote a slot or
even a whole lesson to pronunciation work.
Rising awareness
The first step is to help the students recognize the importance of pronunciation. It may be useful to do some
awareness-raising activities with a group in which, depending on their level and degree of self –awareness.
Focusing on how things are said
When the focus is on pronunciation it is usual to give the students the opportunity of hearing the language
pronounced correctly, perhaps to have certain aspects of the pronunciation pointed out to them, and then
have a chance to practice the word or utterance themselves. An important model for pronunciation is the
teacher.
How can you indicate individual sounds?
Mouthing the word
This involves exaggerated movements of the lips, teeth and tongue so that the students can see clearly what is
happening.
Using gesture.
If you ask students to say some sounds with their hands on their throats or over their ears the will notice the
difference between those that are voiced and those that are voiceless.
Emphasizing the syllable containing the sound
it is best to follow the simple rule that if you stress sound unnaturally for any reason, it should immediately
be repeated normally. In this way the final thing which stays in the students´ mind is the sound produced as it
would be in the context from which it has been taken.
Finger indication
The sound can be isolated by going through the word slowly, finger by finger, then going back to the finger
representing the important sound and getting the students to pronounce it in isolation.
Visual
A diagram of the mouth can be put on the board and used whenever a problem occurs with a particular
sound.
Hands
For consonant sound such as /O/(la de thanks)one hand can represent the top teeth and the other hand the
tip of the tongue to show the light contact the tongue has with the teeth.
Phonetic or phonemic symbols
It is useful to have a chart on the wall for reference and to be able to introduce and rfere to the symbols for
common or difficult sounds.
Indicating stress in a word
You can indicate word stress to students in a murder of ways:
1. Where’s the stress?
It is important that students realize that words consists of on eor more syllables before you work on word
stress in the classroom. You can demonstrate the number of syllables by clapping out the word.
2. By overstressing
To make stress be perceived easily
3. By gesture
This is done by any of the following ways:
Moving the hand, like a conductive, on the stressed syllable.
Clapping the word, with a louder clap on stressed syllables
Clicking the fingers on the stressed syllable
Tapping the desk.
4. By using Cuisenaire reds
Each syllable is the word can be represented by a rod. A taller one is used for the stressed syllable.
5. By making marks on the board.
There are a number of possible ways. For example, take the word level, where the stress is on the second
syllable:
a. Capitalization: ho TEL. this could be confusing for students having difficulty with the roman script
b. Underlining: hotel
c. Stress marks: ho´tel
d. Boxes: hotel. Cuadradito arriba de “tel”
Indicating rhythm and stress in sentences-utterances
Some of the same techniques for indicating stress in words can be used to indicate rhythm and stress in
utterances: overstressing gestures, Cuisenaire an marking on the board.
Indicating intonation
1) by exaggeration
in this way the pattern is recognized easily and is more memorable for students. In long utterances it is useful
to use the technique backchaining to maintain the intonation pattern.
2) By gesture
It is possible to draw intonation in the air with your hand but this is usually unnecessarily complicated. It is
easier more useful to give a clear sweep of the hand up or down.
3) By making marks on the board.
4) Curved writingj
5) Arrows. Up or down
CHAPTER 7 Giving feedback to students
1. giving positive feedback
2. correction techniques
3. Evaluation and testing.
The type and extent of feedback and its timing depends on a variety of factors.
Individual students : individual students respond to different to different types of feedback. For eg.
Unconfident student may need more encouragement, whereas advanced students usually feel they do
not get enough correction.
The culture you are teaching in and the expected roles of the teacher.
The stage of the lesson and the type of activity. For eg. Structured or controlled activities require a
different type of feedback. Also written and oral activities have different feedbacks.
The stage in the course
1-Giving positive feedback
The aim of feedback is to bring about self awareness and improvements. Teachers should always be on the
lookout for positive points to comment upon. For eg.
Successful communication-students have expressed clearly.
Accurate use of grammar points recently learned.
Use of new vocabulary-appropriate expression
Language in the appropriate style
Good use of fluency strategies in conversation.
Handwriting, spelling and punctuation in written work.
2-Correction techniques
It is common practice to distinguish between mistakes and errors. A mistake can be thought of as a slip of the
tongue or the pen. The student is able to correct it himself or herself. An error is much more deeply ingrained.
The student might :
Believe what he or she is saying or writing is correct.
Not know what the correct form should be.
Know what the correct form should be, but not be able to get it right.
Are errors always bad?
There are positive aspects to be considered:
At least the students are trying
They are experimenting, testing their ideas. Making mistakes is part of the learning process.
By noting the errors that the students make you can see what needs focusing in future lessons.
How can you anticipate and avoid errors?
Students are less likely to make mistakes with the form if they have been given sufficient controlled practice
in saying and writing the language.
One way of helping yourself cope with errors that occur in the classroom is to try to anticipate any hat might
come up. If you know what might come up you are likely to be more alert to he errors that do come up
Familiarize yourself with all aspects of an item of language you are focusing on. Familiarize yourself, too, with
the typical grammatical, lexical and pronunciation problems associate d with the nationality f the students in
your group.
How do you correct?
the main stages are as follows:
1. the student must know something is not accurate.
But first let him r her finish the utterance. Make a gesture like a wave of th efingr, r give some not too
discouraging word like nearly
2. the student must know where the error is.
So you need to isolate for the students the part of the utterance that is wrong.
3. the student must know what kind of error it is.
Whether the problem is grammatical, syntactical (for ex a missing word) or phonological.
Finger correction is particularly useful and can be used to indicate: a- an unnecessary word, b- a missing word
or c- contraction. Ver dibujos de maños pag 166
Who corrects?
Self correction: always give the students the chance to correct themselves. If they are going to become more
accurate they must learn to monitor themselves. Sometimes they need some assistance before they can self
correct.
Student student correction
It has the advantage of:
involving all the students in the correction process.
Making the learning more cooperative
Reducing student dependence on the teacher.
Try to chose a student who looks eager to help an do not always resort t the clas know all. Always return t the
first student an let him or her say the correct version
Teacher correction
If neither self correction nor student-student correction is effective you must assume that either the student
hasn´t understood what you are getting at or does not know what the correct version should be. Get the
student who made the error t say the correct version, if possible in its original context.
How much do you correct?
Involve the wholes class as much as possible in the correction process, also spend less time correcting what is
only a problem for one student and more time on problems common to the whole group. It is worth spending
a short time correcting some items only and not trying to get everything perfect in one go.
When do you correct?
In general it depends on the aim of the activity. If the focus is on accuracy, the teacher´s control and the
correction will be right, if the focus is more on fluency, the teacher´s direct control and the correction will be
les. It is a good idea to think about how much correction you want to do and what form it will take and include
a note in your lesson plan. In addition you can tell students the purpose of the activity.
So, looking at different types of activities, the following guidelines are suggested:
Presentation of new language and controlled practice
For ex. Repetition practice. Insist on accurate production from your students.. aim for a high standard at this
stage as the standard will inevitably drop during less controlled and freer production.
Structured speaking practice impairs or groups.
Either correct errors as you hear them or make a note of errors the give feedback on the errors with the class
after the activity.
Guided or freer speaking activities.
Don´t interrupt the activity and do not expect complete accuracy. Monitor and give accuracy after the activity.
Feedback given after an activity can be done in a number of ways:
Make a note of errors and focus on common ones of general interest
Record the activity: go through the cassette with the group.
Select parts of the cassette to examine
Transcribe all or part of the cassette and indicate the errors made and discuss
them.
Give individual students notes of errors they have made with instruction on how to correct them.
Provide the class with remedial sessions based on errors common to the majority.
Correcting written work.
Controlled written exercises
For example, copying, dictations, or exercises where there is only on right answer. The correct answer must
be given and the students made aware of any errors they have made.
Guided and freer writing
You will probably want to comment on how well the writing communication, how well the meaning has been
got across.
You can focus on particular aspects such as spelling or pronunciation.
You can comment separately on different things.
Self correction.
The students correct as many errors as they can and submit the work for remarking. Before submitting the
work they can show it to another student for comments.
Student- student correction
You can give the students the opportunity to read and comment on each other´s words either before you se ti
or after you have indicated the errors.
Teacher correction
You must judge when students can not correct their work by themselves and give them the correct version
with an explanation if necessary.
When is correction not appropriate?
Although students usually like being corrected, there are times when it can be impractical or inappropriate to
correct. This is especially true of spoken language.
When you are trying to build a student´s confidency
When you are communicating with a student as a friend
When you are eliciting from the students
When your main aim is to form on the comprehension of a text.
3. Evaluation and testing
It is useful to arrange for more formed means of feedback to take place, and ti may be comprehensive in the
institution you ar working to.j
Tests
It is often appropriate to give tests at different stages in a course
Tutorials
These can take place with the whole group or with individual students
Evaluation by the students.
It can be very useful to ask the students to evaluate the lessons for means of a questionnaire or guided
discussion.
Lesson planning
Introduction to lesson planning
Effective planning is at the centre of effective teaching. At first, these plans may not be the best, but they will
develop with practice and experience and an understanding of what it is that you have to do within a lesson.
What makes a good plan?
A good plan is therefore the product of a great deal of thought and preparation. Lesson plans themselves will
vary from institution to institution and school to school. The plan you use will be the one agreed between the
university and the partnership school.
Each plan should state the objectives and proposed outcomes of the lesson, the activities which will go on
through the lesson, and what resources are needed.
The link between the plan and the scheme of work
When you are planning a lesson, you will link back to previous lessons learning and form a bridge to further
learning via the lesson you will deliver in that session.
Teaching and learning
One of the key points which you must be clear about is the difference between teaching and learning, and who
is doing what and when.
You as the teacher have to adapt to the learning styles of the students themselves, not as a group, but as
individuals within that group. If you try one approach and it does not work for some of your students, you
must have a different approach for them.
Teachers tend to talk about three separate learning styles: kinaesthetic, visual and auditory learners. What
this means is that students who are kinaesthetic tend to prefer a hands-on approach and are more likely to
learn best in this fashion. They may lose concentration if there is little external simulation and consequently
may not perform well in class if they are required to simply work from a book. See this as a problem for the
child and may see them as being disruptive rather than see that the problem is the way that they have
planned their lesson has not taken into account the learning style of this individual.
It is important to recognize the differences and, via your planning and delivery, allow all students to
demonstrate their ability to learn by preparing appropriate activities for them. It is also important to
remember the recent emphasis on the personalized learning of each student. Personalized learning requires
considerable knowledge on the part of the teacher about the students in their class. This should enable them
to identify a student´s strengths and areas for development and to use this information to inform planning
and therefore raise the student´s confidence and competence.
Pre-planning
Once you have a good understanding of the class, be clear about at what stage you will be taking the class
over. It is always more difficult to take over part-way through, although this may be unavoidable especially if
your students are working to a tight deadline sucha as projct work for assessment. The third thing you need
to understand is the scheme of work which your students are working towards. Once you have these three
thing, you will be ready to start to plan your lessons.
Planning your lesson- what should you include?
It is important to include key details into your plan.
At the top of the plan will be the details of the class itself, the year group, the date and time of the lesson, the
make-up of the class in terms of gender split, identification of any SEN and G&T students who may be in the
group. A good lesson plan should allow any competent teacher to take your lesson for you, so detail is good.
The first thing you need to know is what prior learning students have. You may have to show them a new skill
which needs time. You may need to bring them back for discussions at various points in the lesson. You need
to be clear about this because this is what is going to influence the plan itself.
The first thing to document once you have clarified this in your mind is the objective or objectives of the
lesson. You will be sharing this with your class at the start of the lesson.
All, most, some
You should go with an “all, most, some” approach for your plan and document it as such. “All” is the baseline
for success of the lesson and the majority of the students (most) should be able to push forward to your next
objective. Some will be for the more able students who can take themselves one step further. The importance
of reaching the “All” students point is that this will mean you to have reached a place where the following
lesson can take place.
Linking the lesson to the structure
In some schools, health and safety issues such as the width of corridors and the space available for the
students mean that the students will be expected to come straight into your lesson. It can result in a straggly
start to the lesson with students arriving over a period of a couple of minutes. If this is the reality of your
situation, you must plan for it and have some pre-started activity for the students to arrive to as a part of the
routine for the class.
The first activity that you will need to undertake will be a starter. If the starter activity does not involve you
directly in an interactive manner, then this could also be a good time to take the register.
Your lesson should be divided into a series of short activities, punctuated by mini-plenaries which can be used
to check understanding, demonstrate good practice, share ideas and set the time for the next activity. This
implies an important part of the plan: an awareness of the time that tasks will take. The students will be much
more focused if you tell them that they have x minutes to a task than if you set them off with no target to
reach.
The Connect, activate, demonstrate, consolidate model
The connect section includes the starter activity, the learning objectives and outcomes as well as the success
criteria. In the activate section, the instructions for the lesson of part of the lesson are given. The demonstrate
section is where the students are active in their own learning, demonstrating their understanding. In the
consolidate section, plenary activities take place such as reviewing learning. It is clear that this cycle of four
events can happen once within a lesson, or many times.
Using breakouts pints
There is a tendency, especially at the start of the teaching practice, for trainees to overestimate the amount of
tasks which can be achieved of underestimate the amount of tiem it will take to complete a task.
It is good practice to chunk lessons up into time-defined sessions where the students are on a task an then
bought back for a mini-plenary before the next task is started. The breakout point is a very useful tool in that
it allows you to build in a certain flexibility to your lesson plan.
If you do have a plan which includes breakout points, you should also make sure that you have appropriate
extension activities for those students who reach this point early.
Evaluation
A further important aspect of planning is your own evaluation of the success of the lesson which you have just
delivered. When doing your evaluation, certain points may naturally stand out. There may be issues with the
timing if, for example, a task set needed more or less time than you thought. The pitch of the lesson may have
been too high or low or there may be issues with some group work which you did, which has then impacted
on classroom dynamics. All of these things will have to be reviewed before you start to plan your next lesson
so that you can take these factors into consideration.
Where does evaluation fit into the process?
It is important to note that there is a role for the personal experience of the teacher in terms of their own
knowledge which may make the lesson more appealing to the students or the element of experience from
years of teaching and awareness of different solutions to different problems.
Summary
Student learning needs to be at the very centre of what you do in your planning. There are other factors which
are key to this exercise, such as the curriculum you are required to teach and your own personal experiences.
Evaluation of your lessons by both you and your mentor are also an important part of the process.
It is clear that planning will take a great deal of your time, especially at the start of your practice but, with
experience, you will find that your planning gets better and quicker.
Assessment of students´work
Introduction to assessment
Assesment for learning (AfL)
Formative and summative assessment – what is the difference?
Summative assessment is the final mark which you will give for a piece of work. And usually a comment as to
why this grade has been given. Formative assessment is designed to explain and to improve the piece of work
prior to final submission. It can also be used to gauge a student´s level of understanding, as a motivational tool
or as a guide to the effectiveness of your teaching, it is basically any activity undertaken by teachers and,
importantly, the students themselves, which can be used to inform teaching and learning. Also frequently
referred to as Assessment for Learning.
Assessment for learning
As indicated above, formative assessment can take many forms. Thankfully, nowadays teaching has become
much more interactive. You are expected to ask students what they think, and ask them to present their work
in a variety of ways. What has changed is the way that we work within that room. No teacher, under any
circumstances, should give up on a student just because that student´s learning style does not match their
teaching style.
Assessing for motivation
Assessment for motivation has positive impact on their self-esteem, just as negative comment has a harmful
and arguably destructive impact on a child´s self-view. The do´s and don’ts of giving written feedback to a
student and the effect that this has upon them.
The most important thing about written assessment is that it needs to be a continual process.
Never, ever start with a negative comment in your comment at the end of the work. You put something
positive about the work to not overlap the student with suggestions.
Feedback has been shown to improve learning where it gives each pupils specific guidance on sgrengths and
weaknesses, preferably without overall marks.
Having said this, careful use of marks, if shared with the student in a sensitive way, can be used as an effective
and motivational tool.
Self- and peer assessment (tipos de assessment)
In this section, I will look at self-assessment and peer assessment and its importance in learning. It does not
replace the teacher´s role in assessment. Self-assessment gives a student the chance to step back and look at
their own work and set their own targets. However, it is vital that students are given a framework to work
within. This may be in the form of a check list and then give a space for their own recommendations of how to
improve their work. This exercise is only meaningful if the student then has the opportunity to implement
their suggestions.
Peer assessment could be done as a paired activity where work is simply swapped between two students and
an assessment conducted.
Summary
The most important thing to remember about assessment is that it should be informative and offer advice
about how to improve the piece of work that your student is currently working on. It should also be used as a
tool to raise self-esteem to ensure future productivity and the confidence of the student whose work is being
assessed.
13
Teaching and learning using ICT
Introduction to ICT in the classroom
The use of ICT is key to all areas of the curriculum and is included as requirement for all subjects. Using ICT
has a different style of pedagogy to a number of other subjects. It tends to benefit those students who prefer a
more kinaesthetic style of learning.
Planning to use ICT in your lesson
The use of ICT equipment is not quite as novel as it once was. There are a number of things to consider before
you use it in your lessons. The internet gives access to all sorts of harmful information as well as the useful
things you want the students to look at. Preparation is therefore vital to a successful session and the best
lessons using ICT have a considerable element of work done away from computers.
Letting students have open access to research may be good for some children but it does not require a
considerable maturity which some students will possess and many will not.
Restricting choice – use of the internet in the classroom
It is still important that you check the sites you want the students to use if an internet session is intended. You
want to check for both the content of the sites plus its ability to run on your network. The best thing to do
would be to check with a member of the teaching staff responsible for the delivery of ICT in the school, or
failing that, ask the network manager/technicians.
How do the students access the relevant URL? You could tell the students, but they will forget it and or
misspell it resulting in you going round the class taking valuable time making sure that the correct URL is
entered. The best and more secure method is to include the site address on an online worksheet, which
simply requires the student to click onto the address in the text to be taken to the right location.
Summary
One of the key things to understand when using ICT facilities is that it represents a different pedagogical
approach from the “normal” classroom and that the main issue is not necessarily student engagement but
engagement in the right thing. A good ICT teacher can make this process easy; however, the opportunities
offered with ICT, especially the internet, can make teaching a difficult experience unless you manage to make
your task interesting and accessible. Consequently, careful planning is your key to success in this area.
A second key point from this chapter is the use of VLEs both within and outside school. If VLEs are embraced
and used effectively then they offer a huge range of possibilities for the teacher and the student.
5
Questioning Skills
The art of questioning is…. the art of guiding learning.
What do we know about questioning?
The quality and quantity of student answers increase when teachers provide students with time to think. And
more students will actively participate in the classroom.
The Seven Habits of Highly Effective Questioners
Habits that will improve your use of classroom questions:
1. Asking fewer questions
2. Differentiating questions
3. Questioning for depth
4. Questioning for breadth
5. Using wait time
6. Selecting students
7. Giving useful feedback
1- Asking Fewer Questions
Most teachers today ask too many questions. All of the following reasons have been given to explain the role
of questions in the classroom.
Teachers reinforce their image as the authority figure
The more questions teachers ask, the harder students work, and learn
Questions reduce discipline problems.
2- Differentiating Questions
A teacher formulates questions based on each student´s need. What interests does this student have, and how
can my questions build on those interests? Can my questions tie into this student´s background and
experiences?
Formulating questions that connect not only with student interest but also with their personal experiences
are called authentic questions. “What island experiences have you had?” “Have you ever felt lost and
frightened like the kids on the island?”
3- Questioning for Depth
“When did Columbus come to America?” requires simple recall. However, questions should go beyond simper
recall and deepen a student´s understanding of a topic. “How might the United States be different if Columbus
had arrived a century earlier- or a century later?”
While the questions described above promote a deeper understanding of content, delving or probing
questions focus less on the subject and more on individual students. In order to understand how much a
student knows or doesn´t knows.
What are your reasons for selecting that answer?
What characteristics of this candidate did you find most appealing?
Could you give us an example of that?
Zone of proximal development:
In educational literature, this gap between what a student does know and what a student is capable of
learning, but does not yet know, is called the zone of proximal development. Probing and delving question,
can move the child through the zone and to a higher level of thinking. Social interaction also helps students
move through the zone to greater understanding. Students learn a great deal from each other.
Cues:
When students are unable to answer a question, teachers can also use questions to help them, to cue them to
the right answer. In a sense, cuing is the opposite of probing and delving. In probing, for example, questions
are used to explore the thinking behind the student´s original answer. In cuing, we are using questions to help
a student get to the right answer. By offering more information, or hints, cuing questions put the student on
the road to success. Here is an example: “We are looking for the name Europeans gave to New York City
before the British took control If you remember which European nation settled New York before the English,
that will help you to recall that name”
Scaffolding:
Sometimes a simple cue is not enough, and a more intricate strategy is called for, a strategy educators call
scaffolding.
Educators have borrowed this scaffolding imagery to describe the teacher´s role in “building” a student´s
competencies. The teacher carefully diagnoses a student´s competencies and determines where new
knowledge will need to be built. Once the scaffold is planned the teacher begins to build the student´s
knowledge throught carefully crafted questions, explanations, and activities. As the student internalizes
information, the teacher´s scaffolding can be reduced. Once the student becomes fully competent, the
scaffolding is removed.
4- Questioning for Breadth
Convergent= Closed:
All questions and answers fall into one of two categories: convergent and divergent.
Divergent= open:
A convergent question, also called a closed question, generates a single answer that is clearly right or wrong.
“Who wrote this poem?” Divergent questions always have more than one correct answer and are usually
higher order. Also called open questions. “What does this poem mean to you?” or “How would your life be
different without the invention of the computer?” Teachers use divergent questions when they want to
generate different ideas, infuse breadth into the classroom.
Howard Gardner´s work on multiple intelligences has dramatically increases our ability to question for
breadth. Gardner believes that a problem with today´s schools is their limited focus on only two types of
intelligence:
Draw on different intelligences:
1: Verbal-linguistic: speaking, poetic, and journalistic abilities; sensitivity to the meanings and the rhythm of
word and to the function of language
2: Mathematical-logical: Scientific and mathematical abilities, skills related to mathematical manipulations,
and discerning and solving logical challenges
What are the other areas of intelligence? Here are some suggested by Gardner:
3: Bodily-kinesthetic: physical skills related to controlling one´s body movements, such as athletic and
dancing abilities
4: Muscial: vocal, compositionsl, and instrumental abilities
5: Spatial: abilities to perceive the physical world accurately, such as those of a sculptor, navigator, or
architect
6: Interpersonal: the ability to analyse and respond to the moods, temperaments, desires, and needs of others,
such as that shown by a salesperson
7: Intrapersonal: knowledge of one´s own needs, strengths, and weaknesses and the ability to use this
information to guide hehaviour; useful within and beyond most careers
8: Naturalist: ability to live wisely and respect the world´s resources; associated with careers in conservation
and related fields
Gardner´s vision suggests that all those areas of intelligence should be represented in classroom questions.
Can you express what you are feeling through movement?
Can you create a physical model of your plan?
5- Using Wait Time
Wait time 1 and 2:
In the typical classroom, the teacher waits less than a second after asking a question before calling on a
student to respond. For those students who need more than a fraction of a second to formulate their answer,
class participation becomes a real challenge. Teachers tend to call on the “fastest hand in the class.”
Second wait time occurs directly after a student response. Time 2 can typically be seen in the frequent teacher
interruptions of student answers “okay,” or “I see.”
6- Selecting Students
Giving voice to all students
When teachers allow their classroom dialogue to be dominated by a few animated students, they are
forgetting one of their key educational responsibilities: the responsibility to include all their students in active
learning.
7- Giving Useful Feedback
Lack of feedback opportunity:
The incredibly short wait time afforded by teachers short-circuits their ability to thoughtfully consider what
students have said, much less what their reactions should be.
Practicing these seven habits will be helpful in creating classrooms marked by meaningful learning and by the
active participation of all students.
The Six Levels of the Taxonomy
Bloom´s Taxonomy is probably the best-known system for classifying educational objectives as well as
classroom questions. There are six levels of Bloom´s Taxonomy to encourage their students to engage in a
variety of cognitive processes.
1. Knowledge
2. Comprehension
3. Application
4. Analysis
5. Synthesis or Creation
6. Evaluation
Level 1. Knowledge
To answer a question on the knowledge level, the student must simply remember factors observations, and
definitions that have been learned previously.
Examples of Knowledge Questions:
What is the capital of Maine?
Useful memory questions:
The knowledge, or memory, category is critical to all other levels of thinking. We cannot ask students to think
at higher levels if they lack fundamental information.
Overused memory questions:
The knowledge category does have severe drawbacks to overuse it. What is memorizes is rapidly forgotten.
Assess only a superficial and shallow understanding.
Words Often Found in Knowledge Questions: define, who, what, where, when, identify, etc…
Level 2 . Comprehension
To answer a comprehension-level question, the student must demonstrate a personal grasp of the material by
being able to rephrase it and give a description in his or her own words.
Go beyond recall
Use students´own words
Frequently, comprehension questions ask students to interpret and translate material that is presented in
charts, graphs, tables and cartoons.
Example of Comprehension Questions
What is the main idea that this chart presents?
Describe in your own words what Herblock is saying in this cartoon.
It is important to remember that the information necessary to answer comprehension questions should have
been provided to the student. For example if a student has previously read or listened the material that
discusses the causes of the Revolutionary War and then is asked to explain these causes in his or her own
words.
Words Often Found in Comprehension Questions: compare, contrast, rephrase, and explain.
Level 3. Application
Students must also be able to apply information previously learned to reach an answer to a problem that is at
the application level o the Taxonomy.
Demonstrating what student know
Examples:
According to our definition of socialism, which of the following nations would be considered socialist today?
Write an example of the sexual harassment policy we have just discussed.
Level 4. Analysis
Analysis questions require students to think critically and in depth. Analysis questions ask students to
identify reasons, uncover evidence, and reach conclusions
1. To identify the motives, reasons, and/or causes for a specific occurrence:
What factors influenced the writings of Anne Frank?
Why did the congresswoman decide not to run for the presidency?
2. To consider and analyse available information to reach a conclusion, inference, or generalization
based on this information:
After reading this story, how would you characterize the autor´s background, attitude, and point of
view?
Look at this new invention. What do you think the purpose of this invention is?
Searching for the reason why.
This type of analysis questions calls on the learner to reach a conclusion, inference, or generalization
bsed on evidence.
3. To analyse a conclusion, inference, or generalization to find evidence to support or refute it:
Which of the speaker´s points support affirmative action?
These questions require students to analyse information to support a particular conclusion, inference,
or generalization.
Words Frequently Found in Analysis Questions: Why, compare/contrast, order/sequence, deduce, and
justify.
Level 5. Synthesis or Creation
Original and creative
These kinds of questions require students to produce original communication, to make predictions, or
to solve problems. Although application questions also require students to solve problems, synthesis
questions differ because they do not require a single correct answer but, instead allow a variety of
creative answers.
1. To produce original communications: Write an e-mail to a local newspaper editor on a social issue
of concern to you.
2. To make predictions: What would the United States be like if the South had won the Civil War?
3. To solve problems: How can we successfully raise money to fund our homeless shelter project?
Level 6. Evaluation
Evaluation questions do not necessarily have a single correct answer. They require the students to
judge an idea, a solution to a problem, or an aesthetic work. They may also ask the student to offer an
opinion on an issue.
Examples:
Decide why young children should or should not be allowed to read any book they want.
Defend your choice as to whether or not busing is an appropriate remedy for desegregating schools.
Forming sound judgements: To express your opinion on an issue or to make a judgement on the merit
of an idea, solution, or aesthetic work, you must use some criteria. You must use either objective
standards or a personal set of values to make an evaluation.
The important thing to remember about evaluation questions is that some standard must be used and
different answers are possible.
Words Often Used in Evaluation Questions: judge, argue, evaluate, assess, give your opinion,
recommend, and conclude.
Suggestions for Constructing Questions
Economy of words
Questions should be explitin enough to ensure understanding of your questions but, at the same time,
you should avoid using too many words. When a question is too wordy, students become confused
and unable to respond.
Questions worth asking
As you construct your questions, keep the following in mind. What facts are in the paragraph that you
might want students to recognize or recall (knowledge level)?, (comprehension level)? What
information is there in the paragraph that students could apply to solving problems, classifying, or
giving examples (application level)? What questions can you ask about the reading selection that
require students to consider reasons and motives, examine the validity of a conclusion, or seek
evidence to support a conclusion (analysis level)? Using this paragraph as a springboard, how can you
stimulate original student thought- creative problem solving, the making of predictions, and the
production of original communication- in writing, music, dance, art, and so forth (synthesis level)?
Finally, what issues can you raise from the material in this paragraph that will cause student to judge
the merit of an idea, the solution to a problem, or an aesthetic work (evaluation level)?
14. What if?
What if students are all at different levels?
Some with quite competent English, some whose English isn´t very good, and some whose English is
only just getting started. Teachers regularly face mixed-ability groups where different individuals are
at different levels and have different abilities.
Use different materials/technology
When teachers know who the good and less good student are, they can form different groups while
better group of groups are discussing a topic, the weaker group or might be doing a parallel writing
exercise or sitting round a CD player listening to an audio track.
Do different tasks with the same material/technology
Where teachers use the same material with the whole class, differentiation can still take place. We can
encourage students to do different tasks depending on their abilities. A reading text can have sets of
questions at three different levels, for example.
In role-plays and other speaking or group activities, she can ensure that students have roles or
functions which are appropriate to their level.
Ignore the problem
Within a heterogeneous group, students will find their own level. In speaking and writing in reading
and listening, they will understand more completely and more quickly. The danger of this position is
that students may either be bored by the slowness of their colleagues or frustrated by their inability to
keep up.
Use the students
They can work with them in pairs or groups. When teachers put students in groups, they can ensure
that weak and strong students are put together. This has to be done with great sensitivity so that
students don´t feel alienated by their over-knowledge peers or oppressed by their obligatory teaching
role.
What if the class is very big?
In big classes, it is difficult for the teacher to make contact with the students at the back and it is
difficult for the students to ask for and receive individual attention. It may seem impossible to
organise dynamic and creative teaching and learning sessions. Frequently, bit classes mean that it is
not easy to have students walking around or changing pairs, etc. Big classes can be quite intimidating
for inexperienced teacher.
Use worksheets
To hand out workers for many of the tasks which they would normally do with the whole class, if the
class was smaller. When the feedback stage is reached, teachers can go through the worksheets with
the whole group – all students will get the benefit.
Use pairwork and groupwork
Pairwork and groupwork play an important part since they maximise student participation. When
using pairwork and groupwork with large groups, it is important to make instructions especially clear,
to agree how to stop the activity and to give good feedback.
Use chorus reaction
The class can be divided into two halves- the front five rows and the back five rows, for example, or
the left-hand and right-hand side of the classroom. Each row/half can then speak a part in a dialogue,
ask or answer a question, repeat sentences or words.
Use group leaders
They can be used to hand out copies, check that everyone in their group has understood a task, collect
work and give feedback.
Think about vision and acoustics
Big classes are often in bit rooms. Teachers should ensure that what they show or write can be seen
and that what they say or play to the whole group can be heard.
Use the size of the group to your advantage
Big groups have disadvantages but they also have one main advantage- they are bigger, so that
humour, for example, is funnier, drama is more dramatic, a good class feeling is warmer and more
enveloping.
What if students keep using their own language?
Talk to them about the issues
Teachers should try to get their student´s agreement that overuse of their own language that they will
have less chance to learn English.
Encourage them to use English appropriately
A little bit of the students´ native language when they´re working on a reading text is not much of a
problem, but speaking exercise will lose its purposes if not en English.
Only respond to English use
They can ignore what students say in their own language.
Create an English environment
Together with the use of listening material and video, the students are constantly exposed to how
English sounds and what it feels like.
Keep reminding them
Teachers should be prepared to go round the class during a speaking exercise encouraging, even
pleading with the students to use English- and offering help if necessary.
What if students don´t do homework?
The more time they spend working with English, the better they get at it. Yet homework is often a
dispiriting affair. Teachers sometimes give out homework tasks with no special enthusiasm, students
don’t always do it and teachers don´t especially enjoy marking it. When students are older we cannot
rely on parents to help out.
Ask the students
We can ask the students what they think about homework and get their agreement about how much
we should ask for.
Make it fun
Students are much more likely to be engaged if the tasks are varied, an if the teacher tries to make
them fun. We can give out homework tasks in envelopes or send them in emails. We can have students
do some serious things, but include some slightly crazy tasks too. Homework will then become
something that students want to be involved in.
Respect homework
It is especially inappropriate if they give homework in on the time but the teacher keeps forgetting to
mark it and hand it back. Students need to know that the effort they make in doing the tasks will be
reciprocated by the teacher.
Make post-homework productive
We need to ensure not only that the feedback we give and learn from them before putting the
returned homework away. We need to provide opportunities for them to react to suggestions we
make on their homework or to discuss the task that was set in the light of our comments.
It is often a good idea to get students to correct each other´s homework, provided that this is done in a
supportive and cooperative way.
What if students are uncooperative?
Remember that it´s “just a job”
Teaching is a job in order to act professionally, we need to be able to stand back from what is
happening so that we can react dispassionately, rather than taking instant decisions in the heat of the
moment. Some kind of emotional detachment will always be more successful than reacting
emotionally.
Deal with the behaviour, not the student
It is not the student we want to stop, but the problem behaviour itself.
We need to deal with the student or students who are causing difficulties by talking to them away
from the whole class. Face-to-face discussions has a much greater chance of success that a public
confrontation in front of all the other students.
Be even-handed
The way we deal with problem behaviour has an effect not just on the student who is causing trouble,
but also on the whole class. All the students watch how we react to uncooperative students and come
to their own conclusions about how effective we are.
Students need to be clear about what action we still take if and when problem behaviours occurs.
They will be confused if we react to the behaviour on some occasions but not others.
Go forward
Rather than focusing only on what a student has done, we need to see how their behaviour can be
improved in the future. We can change the activity, for example, or reseat students rather than
discussing exactly who did what and when. We can ask for future good behaviour so that the student
knows that what happens in the future is the most important thing.
Use any means of communications
Enlist help
Teachers should talk to colleagues to come and observe the class to see if they notice things that the
teacher him- or herself is not aware of. Finally, they may need to rely on higher authority and the
school or institute´s polity.
Prevention or cure?
It is always better to pre-empt problem behaviour so that it never takes place than to have to try to
react to it when it does. This might involve making a language-learning contrast in which both teacher
and students say what they expect and what is unacceptable.
What if students don´t want to talk?
Whatever the reason, it makes no sense to try forcing such students to talk. It will probably only make
them more reluctant to speak.
Use pairwork
Pairwork will help to provoke quiet students into talking.
Allow them to speak in a controlled way at first
For example, the teacher can dictate sentences which the student only have to fill in pairs of before
reading them out.
It may be a good idea, at first, to let students write down what they are going to say before they say it.
Use “acting out” and reading aloud
Getting students to act out dialogues is one way of encouraging quiet students. The teacher has to
work with the students like a drama coach, working out when the voice should rise and fall, where the
emphasis goes, what emotion the actor should try to convey.
Use role-play
The use of role-cards allows students to take on a new identity, one in which they can behave in
uncharacteristic ways.
Use recording
If teachers have time, they can tell students to record what they would like to say, outside the lesson.
The teacher then listens to the tape and points out possible errors.
What if students don’t understand the audio track?
Preview interview questions
Students can be given the questions of an interview and are encouraged to role-play what might be
said before listening to it.
Use “jigsaw listening”
When the groups hear about each other´s extracts, they can get the whole picture by putting the
“jigsaw” pieces together.
One task only
We can get them to describe the speaker on the recording- the sound of the voice will suggest sex, age,
status, etc. Such an activity offers the possibility of success.
Play a/the first segment only
Teachers can just play the first segment and then let student predict what´s coming next.
Play the listening in chunks
Break the audio track into manageable chinks so that students understand the content of a part of it
before moving on to the next one.
Use the audioscript
There are three ways of using the audioscript to help students who are having difficulty. Cut the script
into bits. Let the students see the first part of the audioscript before they listen. The students can read
the audioscript before, during and after they listen.
Use vocabulary prediction
We can give students “key” vocabulary before they listen.
Have students listen all the time
Encourage students to carry listening extracts in their car or on their MP3 players. Remind them that
the more you listen, the easier it gets.
What if some students finish before everybody else?
If only one group finishes way before the others, we can work with that group or provide them with
some extra material. If only one group is left without having finished, we may decide to stop the
activity because the rest of the class shouldn´t be kept waiting.
One way of dealing with the problem is for the teacher to carry around a selection of spare activities-
little worksheets, puzzles, reading, etc. Another solution is to plan extensions to the original task so
that if groups finish early, they can do extra work on it.
CRUCIAL COMPONENTS OF EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM DISCIPLINE
Good student management is vitally important for every teacher. Not only will it create a positive climate: it
also will dramatically affect student learning.
The good news is that teachers can learn to become better classroom managers. We believe there are four
components that, when implemented correctly, are crucial for establishing an effective classroom discipline
system: positive teacher-student relations, clearly defined parameters of acceptable student behaviors,
monitoring skills, and consequences.
Five bases of social power teachers use to influence students: referent power, coercive power, legitimate
power, expert power, and reward power.
Referent power, is based on the strong relationship of caring the student has for the teacher.
Coercive power is the power students perceive teachers to have because of their ability to give punishments.
Legitimate power flows from the teacher’s position of authority over the students.
Expert power is the power a teacher has because of his or her special knowledge regarding the curriculum
content and disciplinary strategies.
Reward power is the power students perceive teachers to have because they can withhold or give them
rewards for their behaviors.
Depending on their own personal belief systems, teachers adjust the power bases they use in their
interactions with students.
The trick is to build a classroom discipline system around the first three components – positive teacher-
student relationships, clear parameters, and monitoring skills – and to artfully and naturally integrate them
into your classroom instruction.
The fourth component is the use of negative consequences for misbehavior. Although necessary,
consequences should be the least-used component of the plan.
DEVELOPING POSITIVE TEACHER-STUDENT RELATIONS
When students feel that you value and care for them as individuals, they are more willing to comply with your
wishes.
It’s critical to remember that when you treat students with respect, they tend to appreciate and like you,
which causes them to be more likely to behave appropriately. When it comes to students behavior, it’s far
more often the relationship students have with you than it is the rules themselves that encourages students to
follow those rules.
Strategies to develop positive teacher-student relations should be the largest portion of your discipline plan.
Techniques : - Communicating positive expectations
- Correcting students in a constructive way
- Developing positive classroom pride
- Demonstrating caring
- Preventing and reducing your own frustration and stress
Communicating Positive Expectations
Numerous studies indicate that the expectations teachers have for students tend to become self-fulfilling
prophesies.
Monitor the way you call on students. Make sure that you give all students chances to participate in class. Try
to increase the amount of time you wait between asking a student a question and moving on by either
answering the question yourself or calling on another student. Give students hints and clues to help them
succeed in class. Tell students directly that you believe that they have the ability to do well.
- Call on all students equitably
First of all, you must monitor the equitability of response opportunities.
Putting a check by the name of each student you call on during class discussions is an excellent way to quickly
determine whether you are being equitable. You should monitor yourself.
Keeping a simple checklist on a clipboard during classroom discussions is a great strategy you can easily
implement.
Try to make an effort to call on students who have typically been off task or who have been achieving at a low
level.
- Increase latency periods when questioning students
Increasing latency is another technique you can use to communicate that you have positive expectations for a
student. Latency is the amount of time that elapses between the moment you give a student a response
opportunity and the moment you terminate the response opportunity. It is directly related to the level of
expectation we have for them. These students will begin to pay more attention, become more actively
involved in discussions, and minimize their behavior issues.
- Give hints and clues to help students answer questions
If you provide too many hints and clues, you may actually give the student the answer. The important point,
however, is to use hints and clues with all students to communicate that you have high expectations for the
entire class. This helps build positive teacher-student relations.
- Tell students they have the ability to do well
You can also let students know that you have positive expectations for them by referring to past successes.
And after a student demonstrates good behavior or academic achievement in a specific situation, telling her
you knew she would be successful.
CORRECTING STUDENTS IN A CONSTRUCTIVE WAY
You can actually build positive relationships when you correct students.
The goal in correcting students should be to have them reflect on what they did, be sorry that they
disappointed you, and make a better choice in the future. The difference in students’ reactions to being
disciplines is often related to the manner in which you correct them. Allow students to keep their dignity. The
goal is to provide a quick, fair, and meaningful consequence while at the same time communicating that you
care for and respect the student.
Steps to use when correcting students
1- Review what happened
2- Identify and accept the student’s feelings
3- Review alternative actions
4- Explain the building policy as it applies to the situation
5- Let the student know that all students are treated the same
6- Invoke an immediate and meaningful consequence
7- Let the student know you are disappointed that you have to invoke a consequence to his or her action.
8- Communicate an expectation that the student will do better in the future
Key philosophical precepts when correcting students
1- Correct the student in a private location
2- Treat students as you want your own children treated
3- Stay calm and avoid frustration.
Steps to follow after disciplining a student
1- Touch base with the student
2- Acknowledge postdisciplinary successes
3- Don’t give up too quickly
DEVELOPING POSITIVE CLASSROOM PRIDE
When you recognize student successes, there is a decreased likelihood of fostering negative pride and an
increased likelihood of developing positive pride
Strategies to develop positive classroom pride
1- Display student work
2- Positively reinforce students verbally
3- Show off the class’s achievements
4- Speak to the accomplishments of all your students
5- Be sincere in your pride in you students
6- Look for opportunities for students to be proud in all areas
7- Develop parental pride in student accomplishments
8- Develop pride in improvement in addition to pride in excellence
Let parents know about high attendance rates, high test scores, and the percentage of homework or
assignments completed
DEMONSTARTING CARING
When your actions and words communicate that you sincerely care for your students, they are more likely to
want to perform well for you and enjoy coming to school. Students who feel cared for are more likely to want
to please you by complying with your wishes and policies.
Strategies to show you care
1- Show an interest in your students’ parental lives
2- Greet the students by the front door as they enter the classroom
3- Watch for and touch base with students who display strong emotion
4- Sincerely listen to students
5- Empathize with students
Inquiring about aspects of students’ personal lives. You can do this by asking about a recent trip, a hobby, or a
sports activity.
A proactive way to do this is to have students write a journal at the beginning of the year. With this
information, you can look for opportunities to ask questions or make comments to individual students using
these facts.
Standing by the door and welcoming students. A way to begin the day and the school year on a positive note.
Students display strong emotions. “Are you all right?” “Can I help with anything?”- opportunity to build
positive relationships
Listening intently and sincerely to students. Maintaining eye contact and paraphrasing
Empathize with students. You let them know that you recognize the emotions behind their actions.
PREVENTING AND REDUCING FRUSTRATION AND STRESS
When you will and how you will deal with it.
Signs of frustration or stress can include nervousness, anxiety, shortness of breath, and a tendency to make
irrational decisions. First, you should be able to recognize your own personal signs that frustration or stress is
building so that you can de-escalate them. You should then have a plan that will help you prevent or reduce
frustration when it occurs.
Frustration and stress prevention/reduction techniques
1- Play soft, relaxing music
2- Display posters of peaceful destinations
3- Modify your lesson plans
4- Take your students for a walk
5- Ask a neighboring teacher to take a difficult student for a period of time
6- Assign your students independent reading time
7- Clear off your desk
8- Find a validating colleague
9- Share staff duties
10- Share frustration strategies
Playing soft, relaxing music can have a beneficial effect for both you and your students.
Displaying posters can help keep you calm
Modifying your lesson plans and teaching a lesson that not only meets the student learning goals but also
brings you pleasure.
Taking a short walk can be relaxing and can head off feelings of stress or frustration. This can also help
students relive pent-up energy.
Assigning independent reading time to students is another way to calm the classroom down and provide you
with a break.
Clear off your desk. Easy way to decrease frustration.
Knowing which colleagues you should visit to help validate your work is another technique to use in lowering
levels of frustration and stress.
Sharing staff duties can help, as frustration and stress often occur when a teacher feels overwhelmed and
behind.
Sharing other ideas with teachers on frustration and stress-reducing techniques is a way to increase your
repertoire of strategies.
Additional strategies
Maintaining a healthy lifestyle with good sleeping patterns, free of alcohol and drugs. Continue training and
professional growth tasks, taking a sabbatical, having a faculty exchange, engaging in team teaching,
supervising a student teacher, going back to school, conducting field trips, leading research projects, writing
grants, and instigating technology projects. Keeping a journal.
ESTABLISHING CLEARLY DEFINED PARAMETERS OF ACCEPTABLE CLASSROOM BEHAVIORS
Every teacher should formally take the time to teach and enforce clearly defined parameters of acceptable
student behavior.
Discipline plan
An umbrella policy that specifies rules that apply to all students, at all times, in all locations. A discipline plan
also specifies how you will respond when students comply or fail to comply with the rules.
Your discipline plan should encompass all rules for all students in all locations. The list should not be too long;
that is, five or six rules should be the maximum.
Steps:
1- Select rules that are meaningful, specific, and enforceable.
2- Establish consequences for students who fail to comply with the discipline plan.
3- Teach the discipline plan to the students.
4- Post the discipline plan in an easily seen classroom location.
5- Communicate the discipline plan to parents and the principal.
6- Enforce the discipline plan fairly, consistently, and equitably
Rules of conduct
The policies and rules that apply to specific classroom and building wide locations and events, such as
attending assemblies, working with substitutes, getting drinks, and using the pencil sharpener.
Investing time in communicating and teaching your classroom discipline plan and rules of conduct is
extremely worthwhile.
Your rules of conduct should clearly let students know what the specific behavior standards are for various
classroom and building locations and activities. There are three categories: academic, classroom, and special
situation.
Academic rules of conduct:
- Expectations for participating in class discussions
- Expectation for seat work activities
- What students should bring to class to be prepared
- How to seek the teacher’s assistance
- When, where, and how to turn in completed work.
Rather than simply post academic rules of conduct, you should teach them to your students in the context of
specific academic situations. How to come to class prepared to work.
Another element you should teach students under your academic rules of conduct is how to seek your
assistance.
When, where, and how to turn in complete work is another academic rule of conduct that you should teach to
your students. Students learn what is taught, not what is simply announced.
Academic rules of conduct:
Class discussions:
- Raise your hand
- Wait to be called on
- Listen attentively and respectfully
- Everyone is to participate
Seat work activities:
- Hold up help card for help
- Clear your desk of unneeded supplies
- Sharpen pencils when you enter the classroom
- Read a book when work is completed
Coming to class prepared
- Bring books needed for the subject
- Bring pencils or pens
- Bring paper, a notebook, and a calculator
How to seek assistance:
- Hold up help card during independent work
- Ask your neighbor during reading groups for help
Completed work:
- Place in designated baskets at the teacher’s direction
Homework:
- Place in designated baskets when entering classroom at the start of class
Classroom rules of conduct prescribe specific behaviors that are expected while students are in classroom
and procedures that students are to follow. They include expectations about the following kinds of activities:
- When to use the pencil sharpener
- How, when, and where to get drinks
- How to enter and exit the classroom
- How to respond to the teacher’s signal
- What constitutes a tardy
Special situation rules of conduct prescribe behaviors that are expected when students participate in
special activities.
Going to the library, the gym, lunch, or a specialist
- Wait to be dismissed by the teacher
- Walk quietly and quickly to line up
- Wait silently
Substitutes:
- All building and classroom rules apply with substitutes
Fire drills:
- Stop what you are doing immediately
- Be silent
- Walk quietly and quickly to the designated area
- Wait for the teacher’s instructions
Whatever you decide on for your rules of conduct, there are five steps you should follow in establishing these
rules:
1- Determine the rules of conduct for each category.
2- Teach the rules of conduct.
3- Post the rules of conduct
4- Communicate the rules of conduct to parents and the principal.
5- Enforce the rules of conduct by implementing the consequences that are specified in your discipline
plan.
Teaching your discipline plan and rules of conduct
The truth is that if you don’t teach the rules, your students won’t know what the rules are and they will test
you. This needs to be an ongoing process, with the rules taught and retaught as needed, students don’t resent
the time spent on this process. They want structure, and structure is needed in order to good instruction.
You should follow these six steps when teaching your discipline plan and rules of conduct:
1- Begin with a set. Communicating to the students what they are about to learn and why it is important.
2- Explain the logic and rationale for each rule.
3- Model the behavior that is expected.
4- Allow for questions and answers. Be certain they understand the concepts being taught.
5- Direct students to demonstrate their understanding. The students should be required to repeatedly
practice the rules until it is clear they grasp them.
6- Reteach the discipline plan and rules of conduct.
An excellent way to see how well the students understand your discipline plan and rules of conduct is to give
them a written test.
Discipline plan test:
- List four things you are to do when you hear, “Give me your attention, please”
- List the procedures you must follow before using the bathroom.
- List two things you must do to avoid being tardy.
- What are the four items you are to bring to class always?
- List the two times you are allowed to do to your locker.
PUTTING MONITORING SKILLS INTO PRACTICE
Developing monitoring skills to the success of your classroom discipline plan.
Monitoring skills make up approximately 25 percent of an effective discipline plan. That can prevent student
misbehaviors from escalating to the point where disciplinary consequences are necessary.
There are three major reasons why students get out of their seats or speak out inappropriately in the
classroom.
The student thinks the teacher does not see the behavior.
The student thinks the teacher does not care about the behavior.
The student thinks there will be no significant consequences for the behavior.
When teachers employ monitoring skills, they communicate that they do see the behavior and are
concerned about the behavior and that is not in a student´s best interest to continue with this
inappropriate behavior.
Four monitoring skills that should become part of your repertoire are maintaining proximity, invoking
silence, providing response opportunities and practicing the “teacher´s look”. The fifth skill is the
ability to use all these monitoring skills simultaneously.
Maintaining proximity
To let students know they are being watched being physically within five feet of them. Students feel
your presence and alter their behaviors accordingly.
Moving disruptive students to locations where you can maintain proximity or changing your
proximity patterns are ways to deal with the issue. The first step in the use os this strategy, however,
is to analyze what are you currently doing. Use a video recording of your instruction or enlist the help
of a fellow teacher.
Invoking Silence
Often the loudest sound you can hear in a classroom is silence. In fact, silence can be an immediate way to get
the student attention. When you suddenly break your instruction flow and implement a protracted silence.
Providing Response Opportunities
An effective way to maintain on task student behavior during teacher led discussion is to provide response
opportunities to as many students as possible.
Practicing “the look”
Looking intently at a student who is beginning to get off task can quickly draw his o her attention back to the
matter at hand. This type of look communicates that you are aware of that student is doing and that you wish
the undesirable behavior to stop.
Using all these skills simultaneously
For some students having a teacher in close proximity is all that is needed to get them back on task. For
others, providing a response opportunity, giving them a look or invoking a moment of silence may be
required. In some cases you may decide to use all four of these monitoring strategies at one time.
The key is to know your students and to know with whom you should use the combined strategies and with
whom you should not.
When the monitoring is not enough, however teachers need to have meaningful immediate consequences at
their disposal.
Implementing Consequences
Consequences to misbehavior will be necessary when other approaches are unsuccessful. When overused
they often lack the desired impact.
Inventions that individual teachers can use into five groups:
Teachers reaction
Tangible recognition
Direct cost
Group contingency
Home contingency
It is important that schools empower teachers by enabling them to choose from a variety of strategies
regarding student discipline.
Angry parents
When you work with angry parents to help them to resolve their concerns strong relationships are
developed making it more likely that those parents will support you in the future.
When faced with these situations you can calm a parent down and help him or her become supportive
of you and the school if you remain composed and do the following:
Start the conference with positive statements about the student.
Let the parent vent.
Remain calm and don’t get the defense.
Maintain eye contact
Communicate you are listening (eg take notes)
Let the parent get to his or her agenda first
Discuss the future (don’t get hung up on the past)
End abusive conferences gracefully and swiftly.
Admit mistakes.
There will always be some parents who no matter how skilled you are will not be pacified due
to other issue that are beyond your control. In these situations involve your administrator the
school counselor or other school support staff.
Can’t – Miss Discipline strategies
Certain strategies that consistently have a positive impact on student behavior and academic
performance. These strategies are powerful and easy to use.
Relationship strategies parameter strategies monitoring strategies and consequence strategies.
Relationship Strategies
Don’t be one of the kids
It is important for you to be professional with students and to show clearly by your words and actions
that while you value and care about your students, you are in charge and they must treat you with
respect and not as a friend or peer.
Never use humiliation or sarcasm
Humor that comes at the expence of a student´s dignity is always unwise unprofessional and
inappropriate. It also sets a dangerous pattern that is often emulated by students.
Start parent conferences with positive statements
One of the first messages you should communicate during a parent conference is that you care about
their child. They are more likely to work cooperatively with the school.
Start Difficult conferences with the student outside of the room
After the difficult issues have been settled and a strategy that both you and the parents can support is
in place. The student can be asked to join the conference.
Let the parents get their messages out first
First listen what the parents have to say. If you don’t they won´t hear anything you have to say.
Make some concessions
Find points that a parent makes that you can agree with or apologize for something that you did that
upset the parent.
Talk about the future
Being talking about the future making a plan with parents and students to remedy whatever problem
exists rather than getting stuck on the past.
Call parents before a discipline student gets home
Taking a few minutes to proactively contact a parent before a disciplined student gets home often
saves you a headache. This procedure usually prepares the parent for the student´s stories and
prevent a parent blowup that is based on misinformation.
Actively encourage parents to call the school
Teachers and administrators should continually urge parents to contact the school any time they have
questions or concerns that bother them. When doing so let the parents know that the school
welcomes and appreciate their questions.
You should also provide parents with building and classroom phone numbers and the best times to
call.
Increase the power of praise
Being specific when you give praise to students helps to create a positive learning situation situation
because it clearly lets all your students know the type of behavior and performances you are looking
for. Nonspecific praise can cause students to think they earned compliments. An example is your
writing has improved significantly and clarified your authorial voice.
Another way is to make it personal by simply stating the student´s name.
Be careful to consider the age of your students when giving praise.
Smile and greet the students
Is an effective strategy for both relationship building and monitoring student behavior.
Learn Student´s Names
It dignifies the student and communicates two things (you are important enough for me to know your
name and you are more than just another student to me)
Parameter strategies
Teach the discipline plan and rules conduct
The best time to teach the discipline plan and rules of conduct is at the beginning of the year. You
must however be prepared to reteach any aspect of the discipline plan or rules of conduct.
A key time for such reteaching is after a long break or vacation.
Teach and enforce a classroom signal
A signal should be used during transition periods
Get the “Junk” off the desks
Paperback books, CD players, dolls, and other items. Each of these items is a potential distraction for
the student.
Teach the logic behind the rules
Taking the time to deliberately review rationales for the rules often results in students being more
accepting of them and willing to follow them.
Post Classroom rules
Posting the rules by the classroom door is an extremely effective way to make certain that there is no
question the rules have been communicated to the students on a daily basis.
Post Building Rules
Buildingwide rules should be posted in locations that are clearly visible to the students every day.
Establish a Buildingwide signal
Some schools use a single signal for the entire building. A building signal and what it means to
students.
Provide support for substitutes
Teachers can help substitutes
- Maintaining an accurate seating chart
- Identifying a staff member substitutes can check with if they need help.
- Listing the classroom/buildingwide consequences for the rule violations.
- Communicating to students the expectation that they are to behave for substitutes the same way
they should behave for their teacher
- Asking a neighboring teacher to take the most difficult students while the substitute is in the
classroom.
MONITORING STRATEGIES
Additional monitoring strategies
Move around the room
Ask yourself how you can arrange desk to make it easier to get close to your students, thereby eliminating
barriers between you and them.
The teacher can easily move up to every desk in the classroom. This arrangement can be used at elementary
and secondary levels.
In this arrangement, the teacher can easily monitor two aisles of tables by walking between the rows.
Provides for easy accessibility to students and close monitoring by the teacher. Especially useful and effective
in a classroom in which there are many student discussions.
It’s better practice to place the desk at the back of the room or in one of the back corners because then
teachers can monitor students without letting them know they’re being watched. You need to consider which
is the best for your classroom.
Call on students at any time
Employing a balanced approach by calling on students whether their hands are raised or down helps to keep
all the students attentive and on task.
- Some of the common mistakes to avoid when calling students:
- Using a set and predictable pattern (e.g starting with names that begin with A)
- Calling a student’s name before asking the question
- Calling on the same student repeatedly and not calling on other students
- Calling on a student only once over a long period of time
- Only calling on students with their hands raised
- Some strategies that you can use to communicate to your students that any of them could be called on at any
time:
- Draw student names at random
- Call on students with their hands down more often than those with their hands raised
- Direct all students to give the answer to the question to their neighbors.
- Require every student to write the answers to your questions on scratch paper or on
individual blackboards
Eliminate blind spots during classroom transitions
It is important that your students do not get too spread out when moving from one building location to the
next. Observe them as they go walking behind the students
Go to the students when they need help
In some classrooms, students are instructed to go to the teacher’s desk. This procedure is unwise
You should consider implementing a policy that requires students to raise their hands when they need help
Maximize wait time
Prolong the wait time before calling on someone. Students feel they might be responsible for answering a
specific question, you are also increasing the amount of time students will intently think about the question.
Also, when you use this strategy consistently, it shows that you have high expectations for everyone.
Correct nondisruptive off.task behavior
Ignoring them has a number of negative effects. The student who is involved in the nondisruptive behavior
remains off task and is not involved in the learning process. Also, as other students observe that such
behavior is ignored by the teacher, they absorb the message that these actions are acceptable.
One of the easiest and most effective monitoring techniques is proximity.
Take roll silently
Have the students begin an assignment the moment they enter the room. While the students are completing
their assignment, you can check your seating chart and silently take roll.
Another alternative is for students to take their own roll. The drawback is that one student could move
another student’s name as a way to help out a friend.
Use sponge activities
Sponge activities are learning opportunities provided for students when they might otherwise have free,
unstructured class time.
Sponge activities are typically given to students when they enter the room. During roll taking, and when
students complete their work early. This strategy decreases opportunities for students to misbehave.
Remember the three make or break times
When students enter the classroom, transition times, and the last two minutes of class.
You should do everything possible to create and maintain a structured and orderly environment during these
make or break times. Avoiding free time altogether, teaching routines and procedures for transitions,
continually monitoring your students, and maintaining an academic focus during these times.
Change hall passes
Encourage students to leave the building
Informing students that if they remain in the hallways they will be punished.
Stagger passing periods
Staggering the passing periods in order to lessen the number of students transitioning at one time can help to
improve student behavior and improve supervision issues.
CONSEQUENCE STRATEGIES
Specific strategies that we believe teachers should use when they deliver consequences to students. These
strategies increase the effectiveness of the consequences and decrease the chance that small problems will
become larger problems or that power struggles will occur between staff members and students.
Tolerate no exceptions
You should always check for total student compliance. If a directive is important enough to follow through on.
One of the best ways to increase the likelihood of student compliance is to show courtesy and respect.
Pay attention even to little problems
Any time you fail to enforce a rule, no matter how small it might be, you are undermining the entire discipline
system.
When you fail to enforce small rule violations, more serious problems will occur in the future.
The severity of the consequence should be proportional to the rule violation. (sometimes a verbal reminder is
a sufficient response)
Keep your physical distance when disciplining
The only time you are justified in physically intervening with students is when they pose a clear threat to
another student, a staff member, or themselves. This should be avoided if at all possible.
If a teacher does need to use force, he or she must immediately document exactly what happened and report
it to an administrator in case it becomes a bigger issue.
Refrain from punishing the whole group
Group punishments are unfair to the innocent students. Often create parent and student animosity toward the
teacher. Ask yourself: Would I like to be punished for something another staff member did?
Don’t let students become attorneys
There is no law that says a student has the right to argue about a consequence. If a rule and its consequence
have been clearly communicated, due process has been used, and the student has obviously broken the rule,
the time for arguing is over.
Take notice of misbehavior
Students misbehave to get attention from their peers, not their teacher. Thus, misbehavior is self-rewarding
and ignoring it has no impact.
Assign lunch detention for tardies
Students who are late to class by even a second should receive lunch detention.
FINAL THOUGHT
The responsibility we all have as educators is immense, and it has far-reaching implications into the life of
each child we interact with. Everyone of us can think of a wonderful teacher and a not-so-wonderful teacher
whom we encountered during our own educational career. Each of these teachers affected us in powerful, yet
very different ways. It is up to us to remember to develop powerful and positive relationships with students
while at the same time being consistent and firm in our expectations. When we are able to do this on a daily
basis, we are helping to develop respectful, honest, and contributing members of society for the future.
Be strong role models for your students and form positive, caring relationships. For your efforts, you will be
remembered by your students as one of those wonderful teachers who made a positive difference in their
lives.
BLOOM’S TAXONOMY
It was developed in the 1850s but experienced a revival at the start of the twenty-first century. Now it is often
seen as a way of considering different types of learning and putting them into levels (a hierarchy). Bloom is
usually given the credit for it but actually a team of five authors was jointly responsible. Benjamin Bloom was
fortunate in having the surname that came first in the alphabet.
The stated aim was to provide a classification of the goals of our education system in which teachers could
build a curriculum. As well as a framework for testing pupils, one use suggested for it was a tool to analyse a
teacher’s success in classroom teaching. Now it is used as a checklist in lesson planning and classroom
questioning.
It refers to a classification of the different learning objectives that teachers set for their students.
Bloom's Taxonomy divides educational objectives into three "domains": Cognitive, Affective, and
Psychomotor. Within the domains, learning at the higher levels is dependent on having attained pre-requisite
knowledge and skills at lower levels. A goal of Bloom's Taxonomy is to motivate educators to focus on all
three domains, creating a more holistic form of education.
Cognitive Domain
The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills. This includes the recall
or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in the development of intellectual
abilities and skills. The taxonomy in this domain actually became a hierarchy of six major classes, moving
from simple to complex.
1- Knowledge
2- Understanding
3- Application
4- Analysis
5- Synthesis
6- Evaluation
Affective Domain
The affective domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values,
appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. Awareness and perception of value issues (receiving)
through responding, then valuing, to organizing and conceptualizing values. Not well developed
Psychomotor Domain
The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas.
Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance,
procedures, or techniques in execution. Less well developed.
The main focus of Bloom and the team’s work was the cognitive domain. It involves a high level of
consciousness and awareness in contrast to the affective.
The Bloom team went on to sub-divide the cognitive domain into several subsets:
- Knowledge. It is mainly about remembering and factual recall
- Comprehension/understanding. Divided into: translation (summarizing a piece of writing, giving an
example or illustration of an abstract idea, etc) interpretation (looking for general ideas, interpreting
data, etc) and extrapolation (drawing conclusions, making inferences, etc.)
- Application. Applying abstractions (such as laws, theories, rules or principles) to particular, often
practical situations.
- Analysis. This will involve activities such as seen patterns, identifying key components, dissecting
arguments.
- Synthesis. This involves integrating ideas, creating novel ideas for old ones, producing a unique
communication, connecting and relating knowledge from different areas, producing conclusions and
generalizations.
- Evaluation. This involves assessing, judging, appraising, weighing up, criticizing or defending a
hypothesis, theory or argument.
The taxonomy in the present day
One specific application is in considering the types and the range of questions that teachers should pose in the
classroom in order to stretch pupils and to cater for all abilities. Classroom questioning should include open
and closed questions, and questions at different levels of the cognitive hierarchy. The words, often called
question cues, that teachers might use at each level are:
- Knowledge: recall, list, define, identify, name, describe. Who, when, what, where?
- Understanding: translate, summarize, interpret, contrast, predict, discuss. Why?
- Application: apply, demonstrate how, solve, classify, discover, try in a new context
- Analysis: explain how, infer (what if?), separate, connect, order, compare and contrast, analyse
- Synthesis: design, combine, integrate, modify, generalize, create, compose
- Evaluation: assess, decide, rank, conclude, summarize, compare and contrast, judge.
Classification of the teacher’s questions:
Cognitive domain:
What do you remember of past simple, past continuous, prepositions: in, on, at?
When is a verb regular and when irregular?
When do we use in, at, on?
Affective Domain
Do you understand? Let me help you!
Don’t you remember?
We’ve seen that, try to remember... When do we use...?
Psychomotor Domain
Have you finished? Let’s check all together!
Bloom’s taxonomy can be criticised for its highly behaviourist approach, with its stress on measurable
outcomes and specifiable objectives. It is also weak in its lack of stress on affect or the affective domain. One
could also question whether the levels do indeed form a linear progression and are cumulative, i.e can a
higher level be reached without the previous level?