professional papers publication july 2015

Professional Papers on Selected Key Issues in Somaliland

July 2015

Disclaimer The content of this publication does not reflect the official opinion of the SDF Secretariat or the Government of Somaliland. Responsibility for the information and views expressed in the different papers lies entirely with the authors.

Preface

The papers in this publication have been written by civil servants of Somaliland, with support of the Somaliland Development Fund’s (SDF) Capacity Surge Project (CSP).

SDF finances projects aligned to Somaliland’s National Development Plan. These projects are implemented by Project Management Teams (PMTs), mainly staffed by civil servants of the concerned Ministry or Agency.

CSP is a dedicated initiative, funded by DFID as additional support under SDF, to improve project management capacities of civil servants in the SDF partner Ministries and Agencies. The first round of CSP training, which took place between September 2014 and July 2015, targeted PMT members and other senior staff of six Ministries and Agencies, taking them through the key aspects of developing and managing projects. The Government partner of CSP is the Civil Service Institute (CSI).

To those who were interested, CSP offered an additional learning opportunity of another nature: developing and writing a professional paper. The objective of this exercise was to enhance conceptual and writing skills, encourage the use of secondary data, and promote structured, professional analysis. Supported and coached in person and through frequent e-mail contact by senior CSP expert Martin de Graaf, fifteen people started this process in February 2015, focusing on subjects mostly related to the sector they work in. Eleven of them brought this to conclusion, resulting in the six papers in this collection.

It is encouraging to see that the various authors have been able to produce well-structured, properly documented and highly relevant papers. This confirms, once more, that middle and senior staff in Ministries and Agencies in Somaliland have an active interest in their work, are capable and motivated to take an in-depth look at issues in key sectors, and come up with constructive proposals.

It also confirms that this Government staff can investigate and document issues themselves, with only minimal initial support, rather than relying on external consultants. The leadership in the various Ministries and Agencies may take note of this and provide more opportunities for staff to investigate important issues and come up with proposals and recommendations for their sector.

It may not be a coincidence that three papers concern water, one of the scarcest resources of Somaliland. The authors come up with well-argued recommendations on how to make better use of water, through reducing and diverting run off water, exploiting seasonal rivers, and improving management of rural water supply systems.

Another paper considers the fragility of the environment from another angle and comes up with realistic proposals for reducing the use of charcoal, by facilitating the use of other sources for fuel.

Another paper looks at the agricultural sector and analyses the need for more and better coordinated research, feeding into extension work with farmers, and being informed by this.

The last paper addresses the larger context of Somaliland and its strained relationship with Somalia. This is an insightful analysis of the history of the two countries, the differences feeding the conflict and possible steps to resolve it.

All papers are worth a wider audience, within and beyond the concerned Ministries and Agencies. They prove that motivated civil servants can investigate, analyse and document important issues and come up with relevant and realistic proposals.

In the end, the most important resource of Somaliland is its people, within and outside Government institutions. Their commitment, focus and skills are crucial factors in understanding and tackling the challenges of the country.

These papers are a small but significant proof of that.

Martin de Graaf, CSP Capacity Development Expert

Contents

Title Page

Negative Impact of Water Runoff and Possible Mitigation Measures 1

Ahmed Hassan Mohamed and Hodan Ahmed Aden

The Environmental Impact of Charcoal Production in Somaliland 15

Ilyas Hassan Osman

Improving the Exploitation of Seasonal Rivers of Somaliland for Agro-pastoral Use 28

Abdirahman Farah Omar, Abdirahman Abdisalam Sh. Ali, Khadar Ali Hassan

How Can Agricultural Research Contribute to Improving Agricultural Production in Somaliland? 42

Abdirisak Abdilahi Ibrahim

The Deep Rooted Conflict between the Republic of Somaliland and Somalia and Steps to Settle this 54

Ahmed M. Dalmar

Sustainable Management of Rural Water Supply 66

Eng. Saeed Dualeh Mohamed, Mohamoud Hussein Nuue, Yussuf Hassan Ismail

Negative Impact of Water Runoff and Possible Mitigation Measures

Ahmed Hassan Mohamed and

Hodan Ahmed Aden Ministry of Water Resources

June 2015

Authors’ Address: Main road, next to Immigration Department, Ministry of Water Resources, 00252-63-4401201/00252-63-4450060

SOMALILAND TOPOGRAPHIC MAP (LAND SCAPE AND WATER RUNOFF PATHWAYS) [Source: Ministry of Water Resources]

Contents

1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 3

2 Background ................................................................................................................ 3

3 Causes of Surface Water Runoff ................................................................................ 4

4 Negative Impacts of Water Runoff in Somaliland ....................................................... 7

5 Possible Mitigation Measures of Surface Water Runoff .............................................. 8

6 Conclusions ..............................................................................................................13

7 Recommendations ....................................................................................................13

Tables Table 1: Quantity of surface water harvesting infrastructure in Somaliland in 2013 .................... 6 Table 2: Estimated costs of forestation and protection of plants ................................................. 8 Table 3: Estimated costs for management of chemicals and eradication of existing chemical wastes ....................................................................................................................................... 9 Table 4: Estimated costs for controlling water runoff on mountain slopes ..................................10 Table 5: Estimated costs for increasing surface water harvesting infrastructure ........................10 Table 6: Estimated costs for changing nomadic herding behaviour ...........................................11 Table 7: Total estimated costs for the proposed mitigation measures .......................................12 Table 8: Timeframe for the proposed mitigation measures ........................................................12 Figures Figure 1: Calculation of rain water in liters .................................................................................. 4 Figure 2: Gully erosion, MoERD ................................................................................................. 7 Figure 3: Water table recharging process ................................................................................... 8 Figure 4: Surface water runoff in Hargeisa (April, 2015) ............................................................13



Ahmed Hassan Mohamed and Hodan Ahmed Aden 3

1 Introduction

Water runoff is the flow of water over the earth’s surface. It occurs in Somaliland mostly in the rainy season, when you may have seen surface water running over in cities or a heavy flood crossing the main road that connects Hargeisa and Berbera or Hargeisa and Borama, where you had to wait for several hours until the flood ended. It is worth mentioning that this surface water runoff has negative effects beyond flooding. Water runoff is a major factor that causes loss of quality and fertility of the soil in Somaliland, which is often termed soil erosion. Four types of soil erosion among the five types that occur in Somaliland are caused by surface water runoff; these are sheet erosion, rill erosion, gully erosion and splash erosion. Water runoff also has social impact, such as loss of lives and damage of property, such as carrying vehicles moving through river crossings in the main road networks between the regions of Somaliland, especially in the rainy season. These negative effects are a major problem to the people, livestock population and agricultural production in Somaliland. The contribution of livestock to the national economy is estimated around 60 to 65%. About 60% of Somaliland’s people rely mostly on the products and by-products of their livestock for daily sustenance. Taking into account average annual rainfall and soil fertility and depth, it is estimated that Somaliland has a total potential agricultural area of about 13,760KM2. Land under cultivation is currently estimated at 4,128KM2. Surface water is the major water supply for most of these cultivated areas. Most of the farms which are situated along the banks of streams are subject to floods and in danger of being washed away. This paper will discuss the negative impact of surface water runoff, which is a pressing problem in Somaliland and in need of immediate intervention.

2 Background

Somaliland has many mountains, hills and valleys. It has mountain ranges rising up to six and seven thousand feet in the centre and in the east of the country respectively. Although exact figures have not been collected yet, the mountainous range known as the Golis range horizontally cuts through the country, extending from the west near the border with Ethiopia to the border with Somalia. The Golis range ends at cape “Ras casayr” in the north east of Somalia. These mountains and hills cause water to move more rapidly than would be the case on flat surfaces. In addition, in urban areas most of the paved roads and rooftops do not allow



Figure 1: Calculation of rain water in liters

infiltration of water into the soil, which greatly increases the amount of precipitation that is converted into runoff water. The infiltration of water into the soil has been affected by people, mainly by removing vegetation for charcoal production, overgrazing and overcultivation. Somaliland has limited infrastructure for water harvesting, therefore most of the water received in the two rainy seasons ends in running off, instead of being harvested and benefiting mankind. This creates a situation where the potential benefits of utilising rain water are lost and where runoff causes problems in the environment such as soil erosion. Somaliland consists of three main topographic zones: The Coastal Plain (Guban), a zone with high temperatures and low rainfall; The Coastal Range (Ogo), a high plateau to the immediate south of Guban. Rainfall is

heavier in Ogo zone than in Guban, although it varies considerably within the zone; The Plateau (Hawd) lies to the south of coastal range (Ogo). It is generally more heavily

populated during the rainy season and receives similar rainfall when compared to coastal range zone. It is also an important area for grazing.

3 Causes of Surface Water Runoff

3.1 Rainfall and Soil Characteristics in Somaliland 3.1.1 Rainfall Generally Somaliland has a semi-arid climate. Rain is common in two of the four seasons in the year, in the spring (Gu’) and the autumn (Deyr). The spring is the major rainy season and runs from late March to early June while the autumn runs from September to early November. The minimum average annual rainfall in the country as mentioned in Country’s statistics of 2010 is 14.5 inches (368mm), but a significant amount of the water received as rainfall ends up running off and infiltration is not at the required rate while limited surface water harvesting occurs. Infiltration is known as the process by which the water on the ground surface enters the soil. When we assume the infiltration and evaporation rate at zero, this means that one feet square of soil receives 34 litres of water. This calculation is based on the assumption that one inch of rainfall on one square feet



brings 2.35 litres of water. Hence, Somaliland which has an estimated area of 137,600KM2 receives some 50 trillion litres of water. Figure 1 on the right has more elaboration on the calculation. 3.1.2 Soil Characteristics If the top soil of sandy soils is absent and the bedrock is visible, water cannot soak in and will run off rapidly. On the other hand, if soil is present, but is very fine-grained and clay-rich, the pore spaces that water must pass through are extremely small; hence, water will infiltrate very slowly compared to sandy soils that readily soak up water. Somaliland has types of soils that reduce infiltration. Silt soil which is known to have slow infiltration capacity is common in the coastal plain zone, while sandy calcareous soil type is common in most of the coastal range zones and clay soil in either black or red colour is common in the plateau zone. This means that the water infiltration into the ground in Somaliland context is slow and there is a high risk of surface water runoff. 3.2 Deforestation The main source of domestic energy in Somaliland is charcoal. In the production of charcoal many trees are burnt each month, while no replacement takes place. This causes the land to be without vegetation and lose the potential water infiltration caused by the plants. Subsequently surface water runoff further erodes the top and fertile soil, hindering the possibilities of future vegetation renewal. This is becoming a major challenge for feeding livestock in Somaliland. 3.3 Mountain Slopes Mountain slopes tend to generate more runoff than lowland or flat areas. On flat areas, water may temporarily pond and later soak in. But on steep mountainsides, water tends to move downward more rapidly and also accelerates the surface water runoff in nearby flat areas. As mentioned, Somaliland is rich in mountainous landscape, which creates highly accelerated surface water runoff in the rainy seasons which will not give good chances for infiltration. 3.4 Urbanisation and Human Influence Urbanisation increases surface water runoff, by creating more impervious surfaces such as pavements and buildings that do not allow infiltration of water into the soil. Surface water instead runs off directly into the streams or water runoff drainages and causes flooding and soil erosion. Somaliland suffers urban surface water runoff especially in cities that have hills like Hargeisa, which is the capital city. In Hargeisa the top soil has been washed away in major areas of the land and bedrock is visible. Most of the houses have no rooftop water harvesting mechanisms and most of the rain water that falls on rooftops contributes to the runoff. Drains which were built in the colonial period are



very limited and were not designed in consideration of water infiltration mechanisms, hence these contribute to surface water runoff. When surface water runoff is contaminated by chemicals, this creates water pollution, environmental damage and health issues. The polluted surface water can reach vast areas such as streams, shallow wells and the Red Sea which will result in chemical changes of these water systems and their related ecosystems. 3.5 Limited Surface Water Harvesting Infrastructure Limited infrastructure for harvesting surface water runoff in Somaliland is also a major factor influencing the surface water runoff. The following table shows the quantity of surface water harvesting facilities available in 2013. Table 1: Quantity of surface water harvesting infrastructure in Somaliland in 2013 No. Description Region Total

M.jeex Awdal Sanaag Sool Sahil Togdheer 1 Communal dams

(Ballys) 10 8 2 3 7 4 34

2 Subsurface dams 16 10 8 4 3 16 57 Source: Ministry of Water Resources Therefore, surface water harvesting infrastructure needs to be increased from 34 communal dams and 57 sub-surface dams to a significant number that can meet the surface water harvesting needs in an estimated area of 137,600KM2 which is the total area of Somaliland. 3.6 Compaction of the Soil Compaction of the soil reduces the size of pore spaces and the infiltration rate. Water commonly runs off in areas that are compacted through repeated passage of people, large animals or vehicles. Nomadic communities in Somaliland, which represent 55% of the population, move from one place to another, seeking water and food. This culture of nomadic herding existed in Somaliland throughout its known history. The regular movement of people and large animals such as camels and the creation of new settlements causes the soil to be compacted, and hence water will not infiltrate into the soil easily but rather run off. Also, raindrops falling on bare soil where vegetation is missing can end up on running off or can even further compact the soil surface leading to increased runoff and erosion.



Figure 2: Gully erosion, MoERD

4 Negative Impacts of Water Runoff in Somaliland

4.1 Soil Erosion and Reduced Crop Productivity If the top soil is eroded, surface water runoff may deposit soil at a considerable distance away and this can even reach the sea. Types of soil erosion that are caused by surface water runoff are the following: Sheet erosion: the flow of the top soil like a sheet

by the act of surface water runoff; Rill erosion: small linear channels are formed by

the act of surface water runoff; Gully erosion: the formation of channels in the

earth, where the soil has been removed to considerable depth by the act of surface water runoff;

Splash erosion: happens when raindrops fall on bare soil and move soil particles over a small distance. Although the effect of this type of erosion is not significant initially, it facilitates surface water runoff, which carries particles away.

Surface water runoff can also negatively affect farmland. The cultivable area of irrigation farms which are mostly situated along the banks of streams is subject to floods and is, therefore, in danger of being washed away. This reduces crop productivity, resulting either from the erosion of the cultivable land or from floods that wash away the new plantations. In Somaliland, it is believed that significant area of the land has become unsuitable for crop farming, due to the soil erosion. 4.2 Transport of Chemicals and Endangering the Ecosystem Surface water runoff can transport water pollutants such as chemicals which ultimately leads to risks for human health, plants and other living things. Some of the contaminants are pesticides, fertilizers and petroleum substances such as engine oil. In the case of groundwater, surface water runoff can contaminate the aquifer of shallow wells or directly reach the opening of wells and springs. Hargeisa town has experienced surface water runoff contamination. A centre, intended to store chemicals to tackle locusts in the entire east Africa region, was established in Hargeisa, nearby the mountain slope of “Isha Borama” village at the time of the British colony and existed until the fall of the Siyaad Barre regime. The centre was destroyed in the civil war and many chemicals stored there were washed away into streams. In the past two decades this has caused major health problems or even death of humans and livestock who made contact with the water supply or vegetation in that area. Many shallow wells located in or near the streams were abandoned and many small farms were destroyed as a result.



Figure 3: Water table recharging process 4.3 Decrease of the Water Table Water table is the highest underground level at which the rocks and soil in a particular area are completely wet with water. Water table is where the ground water comes from. If the surface water infiltrates into the soil, it usually recharges the water table or the aquifer. But the water table goes down if the surface water does not infiltrate to the soil, hence, there would be possibilities of water shortages.

5 Possible Mitigation Measures of Surface Water Runoff

5.1 Forestation and Protection of Plants In general, plants and small animals tend to increase the infiltration rate of soils. A plant cover and a small layer of dead vegetation protects the soil surface from compaction, and also slows the delivery of water to the soil surface. Plant stems help to slow down water that flows over the soil surface. Plant roots also help to create openings in the soil. When the landscape is completely de-vegetated, which is often the case in Somaliland, a dramatic increase of surface water runoff and soil erosion occurs, but if the plants and vegetation are protected, water will rarely run off the surface and the soil will absorb most of the rain water. If we assume that one plant is planted in every 100 square meter of land in Somaliland, some 1,376,000,000 plants are needed, and the estimated costs for this program could be: Table 2: Estimated costs of forestation and protection of plants No Description Lead

Agency Quantity Unit price

($) Total

amount ($) 1 Preparation of plant nursery (assuming

purchase of seeds and plastic bags only and rest of activities undertaken by the community) – 76 plants/person/month by half a million people

MoERD 1,376,000,000 plants

0.2 275,200,000

2 Afforestation (Community led) -76 plants/person/month by half a million people

MoERD Activity undertaken by the community

3 Guarding and watering (Community led) -76 plants/person/month by half a million people

MoERD Activity undertaken by the community

4 Community mobilisation activities (300 days for 100 persons)

MoERD 30,000 man days 30 900,000

5 Overhead costs 3% MoERD 8,283,000 Subtotal 284,383,000



5.2 Management of Chemicals and Eradication of Existing Chemical Waste Industrial waste and agricultural chemicals should have an approving and controlling mechanism for their sale, use, storage and disposal. Farmers can minimise the use of fertilizers or manures by applying these nutrients based on actual needs, identifying soil type, crop yield goals and field features. Farmers may also use natural pest management techniques and reduce reliance on chemical pesticides. Existing chemical waste such as that of the anti-locust pesticide centre in Hargeisa and that of Da’arbudhuq leather factory, should be removed from the environment. The Government should also undertake measurements against motor vehicle users who waste petroleum substances on the land. The following table illustrates possible costs for managing chemicals and eradicating existing chemical waste: Table 3: Estimated costs for management of chemicals and eradication of existing chemical wastes

No Description Lead Agency

Quantity Unit price ($)

Total amount ($)

1 Consultancy (Policy development) MoA 200 hours 50 10,000 2 Consultancy (risk assessment &

developing a mitigation plan) MoA 400 hours 50 20,000

3 Implementation of mitigation plan MoA Lump sum

1,000,000 1,000,000

4 Overhead costs (6%) MoA 61,800 5 Contingencies 139,100 Subtotal 1,230,900

5.3 Controlling Water Runoff on Mountain Slopes Control of water runoff on mountain slopes may include the use of barriers to slow down water runoff, e.g. installation of silt fences, geotextiles filled with sand and fibre rolls, while using fibre and materials that have no negative effect on water quality. These measures can tackle water runoff from sloping land. If we assume that silt fences are installed in 600KM of the Golis Range Mountains, the estimated costs for controlling water runoff on these mountain slopes could be:



Table 4: Estimated costs for controlling water runoff on mountain slopes No Description Lead Agency Quantity Unit

price ($) Total

amount ($)

1 Materials (silt fence) MoWR 600,000 mtrs 1 600,000 2 Labour force MoWR 50,000 hrs 10 500,000 3 Overhead cost (6%) MoWR 66,000 4 Contingencies MoWR 100,000 Subtotal 1,266,000

5.4 Decreasing Impervious Surfaces of Urban Areas As mentioned, impervious surfaces such as roads, pavements and rooftops are major factors that cause surface water runoff by not allowing the infiltration of water into the soil. Hence, Government should develop policies and guidelines to avoid unnecessary impervious surfaces in urban areas, to allow maximum water infiltration in urban areas. For example, pavements can be constructed so that water can pass through and infiltrate into the soil, and streams can be channeled to artificial basins that allow water to soak in. These guidelines can be developed by the central government or local government. The challenge will be the enforcement of such guidelines, most likely by local government. 5.5 Increasing Surface Water Harvesting Infrastructure Increasing infrastructure for harvesting surface water, such as dams and rooftop catchments, will minimise the amount of surface water runoff. Unlike groundwater, rain water is free from salinity and salts. In addition, water quality can also be ensured by using filtration mechanisms e.g. natural filtration and by using series of tanks, withdrawing the water from the last in series. On-site natural features can also be used to stop or slow down the flow of surface water, such as holding ponds on the ground. This increases water infiltration and helps recharge the aquifer. The following table illustrates estimated costs for surface water harvesting infrastructure. Table 5: Estimated costs for increasing surface water harvesting infrastructure No Description Lead

Agency Quantity Unit price ($) Total

amount ($) 1 Rooftop water catchment facilities MoWR 300,000 Can be part of

obligations required from urban households

2 On-site water holding ponds MoWR 1,000 Can be part of obligations required from rural communities



No Description Lead Agency

Quantity Unit price ($) Total amount ($)

3 Earth dams (one at every 200 KM2)1

MoWR 688 150,000 103,200,000

4 Gravity dam (Concrete masonry) MoWR 6 dams 10,000,000 60,000,000 5 Overhead costs (4%)2 MoWR 163,200,000 6,528,000

Subtotal 169,728,000 5.6 Reducing Compaction of the Soil by Changing Nomadic Herding

Behaviour Soil compaction in Somaliland can be reduced by adopting and enforcing a policy that changes nomadic herding to commercial herding, whereby the rural citizens get the opportunity to settle and change their migratory life behaviour. If this policy is successfully implemented, the creation of new settlements and the movement of people, vehicles and animals will be reduced in fragile rural areas, hence soil compaction will decrease. In addition, the quality of livestock and their by-products will improve and life of rural society in Somaliland will be enhanced by people gaining access to basic social services such as health, education, etc. The following table illustrates estimated costs of changing the nomadic herding behaviour. Table 6: Estimated costs for changing nomadic herding behaviour No Description Lead

Agency Quantity Unit

price ($) Total

amount ($) 1 Assessment (100days*50 persons) MoERD 5,000 man days 30 150,000 2 Settlement planning (100days *50persons) MoERD 5,000 man days 30 150,000 3 Re-organise existing settlements in one

settlement per every 200 square kilometre (mobilisation activities) – 200days*100 persons)

MoERD 20,000 man days 30 600,000

4 Basic social services (water, health, education)

MoWR Included in line ministry’s budget

5 Road infrastructure RDA Included in line ministry’s budget

6 Support services (Farming tools, animal health facilities, commercial packages based on number of nomadic people – 55% of the population)

MoA 2,117,500 100 200,117,500

7 Overhead costs (3%) 6,030,525 Subtotal 207,048,025

1 Estimated costs include feasibility and design costs. The same applies to budget item 4. 2 Estimated costs include monitoring costs, consultancy fees, salaries, etc.



5.7 Total Estimated Costs and Time Frame for the Proposed Mitigation Measures

5.7.1 Total Estimated Costs Table 7: Total estimated costs for the proposed mitigation measures No Description Lead Agency Total amount ($) 1 Forestation and protection of plans MoERD 284,383,000 2 Management of chemicals MoA 1,230,900 3 Control of water runoff on mountain slopes MoWR 1,266,000 4 Increase infrastructure of surface water harvesting MoWR 169,728,000 5 Changing nomadic herding behaviour Various 207,048,025 Total cost of the

initiative 663,655,925

5.7.2 Timeframe Table 8: Timeframe for the proposed mitigation measures

Duration (years/quarters) N Activities 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 Preparatory planning 2 Proposal development 3 Mapping exercises

(Donors & Beneficiaries)

4 Feasibility & design activities IMPLEMENTATION PHASE 1 Forestation and protection of

Plants

2 Management of chemicals 3 Control of water runoff on

mountain slopes

4 Decreasing impervious surfaces of urban areas

5 Increase infrastructure of surface water harvesting

6 Change nomadic herding behaviour



Figure 4: Surface water runoff in Hargeisa (April, 2015)

6 Conclusions

Surface water runoff in Somaliland has a strong negative impact in terms of economic, social and environmental aspects and needs to be addressed quickly. Somaliland is now losing every year the potential benefits of utilising 50 trillion litres of rain water. Based on the figures of surface water harvesting infrastructure mentioned in table 1 of this paper, not even 1% of this rain water is saved. In contrast, if we assume that 10% of annual rain water runs off, 3.4 litres of water will move on in every single one feet square of land in Somaliland, we can imagine what happens to the soil if you pour 3.4 litres of water on one feet square of land and then think about what the scale of the water runoff problem looks like (see figure 4 on the right). Hence, as Somaliland urgently needs economic development and a sustainable environment, factors causing water runoff in Somaliland, as well as the consequences resulting from water runoff, should be tackled by both public and private institutions. The next stage of this paper will be to circulate it to the Ministries of Agriculture, Environment and Water Resources, as well as non-governmental organisations that have stake in the development of Somaliland’s environment and surface water, to provide their input and turn this paper into a draft proposal ready for consultation with stakeholders.

7 Recommendations

Surface water runoff is happening in Somaliland because of nature and mankind, and the causes of surface water runoff have not been tackled, although country-wide effective mitigation measures are needed. Possible reasons for not tackling the causes of surface water run off can be lack of awareness, lack of technical expertise, lack of funds and lack of commitment. Although the current Government has made a lot of efforts to improve the environment, few government-led campaigns have been launched to tackle the negative effects of surface water runoff. Government budget policies towards the water and environment sectors are a major factor that hinder the implementation of country-wide strategies to tackle the negative effects of surface water runoff. For example, the 2015 Government budget only allocates 0.92% to the water and environment sectors.



One reason is that the Government has not yet been recognised and receives very limited international support, while the local budget is very limited and needs to cover other government priorities such as security, administration, social services such as health and education. A possible way out of the existing problems could be: The international community should commit more funding for the water and environment

sectors. Although some funding has been provided by the international community, the situation needs broader funding, whereby infrastructure development such as water dams and forestation should be emphasised.

The Government’s allocation to the water and environment sectors should be increased

from 0.92% which is really a very insignificant amount, to about 5% in the next few years.

The Government should mobilise the general public and initiate country-wide campaigns to improve the water and environment situation, especially surface water runoff.

Some of the causes of surface water runoff can be tackled with minimal efforts such as

reducing unnecessary impervious surfaces and controlling water runoff on slopes, while other causes need huge investment, especially afforestation, changing rural life from nomadic herding to commercial herding and infrastructure development for surface water harvesting.

Consulted documents Department of Statistics and Research (2010 Edition). Somaliland in figures. Somaliland:

Ministry of National Planning and Development. Eng. Abdirashiid Omar Osman (2009). Soil and water conservation manual: Ministry of

Environment and Rural Development. 2015 Government Budget.

The Environmental Impact of Charcoal Production in Somaliland

Charcoal production is damaging the environment and will lead to loss of vegetation cover, soil, water and fertile land. But people in Somaliland do not have other affordable and effective sources of energy. Can alternative sources of energy be developed and marketed, instead of using biomass energy?

Ilyas Hassan Osman Ministry of Environment and Rural Development

June 2015

Contents

1 Introduction .................................................................................................................17

2 Background .................................................................................................................17

3 The Problem ................................................................................................................20

4 Possible Energy Alternatives .......................................................................................21

5 Comparison of Energy Alternatives .............................................................................22

6 Conclusions .................................................................................................................26

7 Recommendations ......................................................................................................26

Tables Table 1: Extent of prevalent land degradation types in Somaliland ...........................................19 Maps Map 1: Land degradation types-Somaliland ..............................................................................19



Ilyas Hassan Osman 17

1 Introduction

Charcoal is produced by slow pyrolysis, which is the heating of wood or other substances without oxygen. Pyrolysis, or carbonisation, is initiated by heating a pile of wood under controlled conditions in a closed space such as a charcoal kiln, with a very limited supply of air, which triggers endothermic and exothermic reactions. The biomass converts, as a result of the pyrolysis process, into a mixture of gas, liquid and charcoal. Charcoal production is an important economic activity in rural areas of developing countries, and an important source of energy in developing countries. Energy demands have increased significantly in recent times as a result of population increase and urbanisation, and this increase leads to higher consumption of wood fuel, particularly in the shape of charcoal1. Fuel wood consumption in Africa is predicted to increase to 544.8 million m3 for firewood and 46.1 million tons for charcoal by 20302. Biomass is the main and, indeed traditional source of energy for the Somaliland population. Charcoal is the principal source of energy in urban households and institutions for cooking and heating whereas firewood is commonly used in rural settlements. This energy is generated from Acacia trees that mostly grow in plateau zones. The natural regeneration of these trees is very slow. As demand generally exceeds regeneration, deforestation becomes a serious problem. Trees have many environmental, socio-cultural and economic benefits, apart from being essential for the control of soil erosion and land degradation. On the other hand wood fuels also serve as an income source of livelihood for most rural people and for the large number of urban dwellers engaged in the charcoal and fuel wood trade. Traditional economies can be defined as biomass economies. Rural livelihoods are intricately linked to the natural environment and this makes the charcoal problem a delicate one to solve3. This paper seeks to provide answers to the following questions: What are the environmental consequences of charcoal production? Can alternative sources of energy be developed and marketed? What are the preferences of charcoal consumers for more efficient and affordable energy sources? Answers to these questions will provide insight into how to deal with the environmental problems presented by charcoal production, in order to ensure sustainable management of the environment, particularly of forest resources.

2 Background

Somaliland, previously North West Somalia, is located in the Horn of Africa bordering the Gulf of Aden in the north, Somalia in the east, Ethiopia in the south and the Djibouti in the west. Somaliland was in the past known as the Somaliland Protectorate under the British rule from 1 Duku MH, Gu S, and Hagan EB (2011). A comprehensive review of biomass resources and biofuels potential in Ghana. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 15(1), pp 404–415. 2 Arnold M and Persson R (2003). Reassessing fuel wood situation in developing countries. International Forestry Review, 5 (4). 3 Gelder B and O’Keefe P (1995). The New Forest. International Technology Publications. London.



1884 up to the 26th of June 1960 when it got its independence from Britain. It then quickly merged with former Italian Somalia to form the Somali Republic. The merger did not fulfil the ambitions of the people and led to a civil war in the late 1980s. In 1991 the clans of Somaliland got together and decided to sever ties with Somalia and reinstate its sovereignty. Somaliland is semi-arid and has a warm climate, with low and erratic precipitation, high evaporation, and a high risk of severe and frequent droughts. The country comprises three main ecological regions: the coastal plains (Guban), the watershed mountains region (Golis) and the higher altitude plateau (Haud). Since the colonial period up to the collapse of Somali central government in 1991, there were rangeland management systems, including legislations, laws, laws enforcement and different development interventions that focused on the development of rangeland management. Different grazing reserves were established and put in operation to cover the needs of the pastoral society and their livestock, and avoid the depletion of rangeland resources. Moreover, fodder banks and fodder production sites were established for different purposes, including seed conservation, demonstration sites for extension and training. The production of wood charcoal in locations where there is an abundance of wood dates back to a very ancient period, and generally consists of piling billets of wood on their ends so as to form a conical pile, leaving openings at the bottom for admitting air, with a central shaft to serve as a flue. The whole pile is covered with turf or moistened clay. Firing is begun at the bottom of the flue, and gradually spreads outwards and upwards. The success of the operation depends upon the rate of combustion. Under average conditions, 100 parts of wood yield about 60 parts by volume, or 25 parts by weight, of charcoal. Small-scale production on the spot often yields only about 50%, and large-scale production can be as efficient as about 90%. The operation is so delicate that it was often left to colliers (professional charcoal burners). They often lived alone in small huts in order to tend their wood piles. For example, in the Harz Mountains of Germany, charcoal burners lived in conical huts called Köten which are still much in evidence today4. Two main direct causes of land degradation in Somaliland are identified by experts: overuse of vegetation and agricultural intensification. Over exploitation of vegetation occurs mainly through gathering wood for fuel, fencing and construction materials, over grazing of livestock and charcoal production. This is an un-controlled activity which selectively clears trees cover (especially Acacia busei). Its effects are further complicated by the diminishing natural resilience of the vegetation occasioned by frequent and prolonged drought in the last few years5. Prevalent land degradation types in Somaliland are: loss of topsoil by water and wind, reduction of vegetation cover, gully erosion aridification, decline of palatable plant species, and soil fertility decline in agriculture potential areas (Map 1). Although these types of degradation occur in combination in many parts of Somaliland, generally the loss of topsoil by wind erosion is dominant in the north-western coastal areas, aridification is dominant in the centre, and loss of vegetation in the south-western parts of Somaliland. Loss of topsoil by water erosion affects the largest area and can therefore be said to be the most widespread type of land degradation in Somaliland (Table 1). 4 Wikipedia. 5 SWALIM Project Report L- 15 of 2009.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billets

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany

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Table 1: Extent of prevalent land degradation types in Somaliland6 Degradation type Area (sq. km) Area affected (%) Soil erosion by water 76661.09 45.21 Biological degradation 51673.45 30.48 Water degradation 16055.44 9.47 Soil erosion by wind 13520.54 7.97 Chemical soil deterioration 1365.61 0.80 Urban 47.44 0.03 Non-degraded areas 10235.75 6.04 Total 169559.32 100

Map 1: Land degradation types-Somaliland

The central areas towards the eastern part of Somaliland have more loss of vegetation cover compared to the other areas. Some parts of south-western and western Somaliland also have significant loss of vegetation cover. The dominant types of vegetation in these areas are grass, forbs, sparse shrubs, and short trees. These vegetation types of grass and Acacia type of trees are prime targets for pasture for livestock and charcoal production in Somaliland7. Another example is the strong vegetation loss pattern around Taleex settlement. In this area, the Tiger bush landscape of mainly Acacia busei (Somali name: Galool) associated with Andropogon kelleri (Somali name: Duur) is exploited for charcoal production and grazing for

6 SWALIM Project Report L- 15 of 2009. 7 Ibid.



livestock. A study by SWALIM on tree cutting monitoring in this area revealed an annual tree density change rate of about 5%8. Somaliland has the lowest consumption of modern forms of energy in Sub-Saharan Africa. Firewood and charcoal are the major sources of energy for the majority of urban people in Somaliland. As a result, cutting trees in Somaliland is steadily increasing, following demographic trends and changes in the traditional Somali nomadic way of life. Rural people rely on firewood as their source of energy, while urban inhabitants use charcoal. Since most are poor, their access to electricity is limited and unreliable, if not absent9. Somaliland is rich in energy resources, as it has un-tapped reserves of oil and natural gas and an abundance in sunshine and wind, which could produce cheap energy. However, people of Somaliland are still practicing their traditional ways of getting energy from biomass as a source of energy, particularly in the urban areas. Meanwhile, 65% of the Somaliland people are pastoralist10, which means that every single tree is valuable to their grazing activities, apart from environmental considerations.

3 The Problem

Wood charcoal is the main fuel used for cooking, across rural sub-Saharan Africa and to a large extent in urban centres. More than 90% of urban households in sub-Saharan Africa use charcoal as their main source of cooking energy and the demand is likely to increase with growing urbanisation11. Fuel-wood as charcoal is the preferred fuel for domestic use for the majority of the population in Somaliland. It is also used in a number of small urban industries. Unlike other forms for energy, fuel-wood does not require complex or expensive equipment to be used or procured, and it is seen as part of the traditional way of life. Only a few people in the capital use electric, gas and / or kerosene stoves. Charcoal consumption for the whole of Somaliland in 2000 was estimated at 480, 000 tonnes12. In Somaliland the main species of tree used for charcoal making is Acacia busei (Galool). Local preference is usually given to this because of its high quality, but other species are also used as well. The over-exploitation of this tree will eventually deplete these species, because regrowth is slow13. Charcoal burning is often practiced by pastoralists who do not raise sufficient income by selling livestock, and as a result they often neglect their livestock as charcoal burning is very time consuming. Charcoal production is an important source of income and part of the coping strategies of subsistence farmers and pastoralists as the scarcity of alternative jobs makes this business attractive for many of the young and unemployed male population14. The rapid process of urbanisation in the country over the past years changed charcoal production trends. Many 8 (SWALIM Project Report L- 15 of 2009). 9 Ahmed Jama (2004). Impact of Charcoal Production on Environment and the Socioeconomic of Pastoral Communities of

Somaliland case study. 10 Somaliland National Plan 2011. 11 Arnold, J. E. M., G. Kohlin & R. Persson (2006) Wood fuels, livelihoods, and policy interventions: Changing perspectives. World

Development, 34, 596-611. 12 WSP (2005) ‘Rebuilding Somaliland: Issues and Possibilities’. 13 Ibid. 14 Kirkland E. mongabay.com, 23.01.2011. http://news.mongabay.com/2011/0123-somalia_kirkland.html, 2011.



wealthy people joined the business and the number of charcoal traders who deliver charcoal to Hargeisa, Buroa and Berbera also increased. Stiff competition over market opportunities and woodland resources started between charcoal traders15. During the last 20 years, rangeland resource competition led to the establishment of private enclosures in communal rangeland, especially in potential rangelands. Traditional nomadic and livestock movements were restricted and marginalised. This affected both the socio-economy of the pastoral society in particular and the Gross Domestic Product. Moreover, it contributed to much environmental degradation and decreasing biodiversity, and most nutritious plant species are now threatened or nearly depleted. The lack of rangeland management system and extensive charcoal burning in the pastoral environment had the following impacts: reduced carrying capacity, biodiversity depletion, development of unplanned water points serious soil erosion/ gully formation, development of unplanned feeder roads, increased settlements and increase of pastoralist’s vulnerability on droughts, reduced grazing areas, and rangeland resource conflicts16. These are clearly negative effects and this leads to the question: what are affordable and effective alternatives to the use of charcoal?

4 Possible Energy Alternatives

There are a several energy alternatives to the traditional fuels of charcoal and firewood in Somaliland However, there are few fuels which could be affordable and accessible to the public. The available fuels and forms of alternative energies are: Kerosene: Kerosene is a fuel that can be used in most households and institutions in

Somaliland. It is a better option than charcoal because it is a low carbon fuel of the paraffin type with a lot of energy especially for cooking and lighting. Considering the delicate balance of the biomass, due attention should be given to kerosene as domestic fuel.

Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG): Petroleum fuel is used in electricity production,

transportation and households. It is a promising alternative to charcoal for domestic use.

Wind Energy: Wind energy is a great source of renewable energy in the country; it has potential to contribute to the national electricity and mechanic power needs. Wind energy applications in Somaliland are more suitable in the coastal area due to the wind.

Solar Energy: Radiant heat from the sun is a promising source of alternative form of energy

in the country. In recent years it is becoming familiar in Somaliland.

Biogas: Biogas is produced by the breakdown of organic matter in the absence of oxygen. Biogas is slowly becoming popular in Somaliland; it is produced in Sheikh Technical Veterinary School by using waste from the slaughter house in Sheikh. It is also used as a source of power in Buroa University and a few hotels. This form of renewable energy is promising and needs further exploration.

15 Ahmed Jama (2004). Impact of Charcoal Production on Environment and the Socioeconomic of Pastoral Communities of

Somaliland case study. 16 Ahmed Jama, Report on Energy survey consumption and supply conducted in Somaliland, 2015.



5 Comparison of Energy Alternatives

Somaliland has multiple energy sources, both renewable and non-renewable ones. Renewable energy is potentially abundantly available, but needs investment, technology, regulations, time to learn, research and development. Unfortunately, Somaliland energy end users are not acquainted with renewable energies and the least problematic to environment energies like solar power, wind turbines, kerosene, LPG and biogas. Somaliland people have a background of a nomadic culture, which may hinder the process of developing an alternative to biomass energy. However, things are changing, as today’s culture is accepting urbanisation, the level of literacy is growing, per capita incomes are gradually increasing, levels of poverty are declining, and the rate of using of LPG and kerosene is increasing growing, particularly in towns. In the short term the best alternative energy sources would be kerosene and LPG, because of good availability in local markets and good affordability, while solar and wind energy would be the best sources in the long term. Solar and wind turbines energy need much research, development and huge subsidies. It is difficult to start all possible alternatives at the same time and it may be better to focus on one or two and take serious actions on these. Therefore, let us compare available and possible energies that can be an alternative in the short run, in order to reduce environmental damages caused by biomass energy. Recently the Ministry of Energy and Minerals (MoEM) and Ministry of Environment and Rural Development (MoERD) are busy with developing new techniques of energy conservation and substitution like the introduction of improved stoves, the introduction of kerosene stoves, increasing the quantity of imported kerosene and LPG, and encouraging solar cooking and heating so as to at least minimise usage of woody forest products. 5.1 Technical Aspects Kerosene: There are many different kerosene stove designs, but they can be broadly categorised into two broad types, depending on how the fuel is burned: wick stoves, which rely on capillary transfer of fuel, and the more efficient and hotter burning pressure stoves with vapour-jet nozzles that aerosolise the fuel using manual pumping or heat. In low-income households, wick stoves are more commonly used, because they are cheaper, they easily provide simmer heat for some staple foods, and they have no nozzles that can get clogged by soot. LPG: also referred to as simply propane or butane, is a flammable mixture of hydrocarbon gases, used as fuel in heating appliances, cooking equipment, and vehicles. It is increasingly used as an aerosol propellant and a refrigerant, replacing chlorofluorocarbons in an effort to reduce damage to the ozone layer. Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the sun, harnessed by a range of ever evolving technologies. It is an important source of renewable energy and its technologies are broadly characterised as either passive solar or active solar power, depending on the way they capture and distribute solar energy and convert it into power. It is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propane

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentrated_solar_power



power (CSP). Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. Photovoltaics convert light into electric current using the photovoltaic effect17. Wind energy, also known as wind power, harnesses the power of wind to generate electricity or power a mechanical process. Wind power is extracted from air flow by using wind turbines or sails to produce mechanical or electrical power. Wind energy is an alternative to fossil fuels, as it is plentiful, renewable, widely distributed, clean, not producing greenhouse gas emissions during operation and not requiring much land. The effects on the environment are generally less problematic than those of other power sources. It is a form of green power. Wind power depends on three main factors: wind speed, turbine size and air density. The bigger the windmill, the more power it produces, which is why the newest turbines have blades longer than a blue whale (although somewhat lighter in weight). Biogas: typically refers to a mixture of different gases produced by the breakdown of organic matter in the absence of oxygen. Biogas can be produced from raw materials such as agricultural waste, manure, municipal waste, plant material, sewage, green waste or food waste. It is a renewable energy source and in many cases exerts a very small carbon footprint. Biogas can be produced by anaerobic digestion with anaerobic bacteria, which digest material inside a closed system, or fermentation of biodegradable materials18. Biogas is mostly methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) and may have small amounts of hydrogen sulphide (H2S), moisture and siloxanes. The gases methane, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide (CO) can be combusted or oxidised with oxygen. This energy release allows biogas to be used as a fuel; it can be used for any heating purpose, such as cooking. It can also be used in a gas engine to convert the energy in the gas into electricity and heat19. Biogas can be compressed, in the same way as natural gas is compressed into Compressed Natural Gas (CNG), and used to power motor vehicles. 5.2 Financial Aspects Kerosene and LPG are the two principal clean energy sources that could be substituted for charcoal for cooking in the short term. However, the initial cost and the cost of refilling the cylinder together with safety issues present serious barriers to the regularly use of LPG for cooking. Unlike LPG, kerosene is available in adequate quantities in the market, particularly in big towns. In addition, kerosene can be purchased in any quantity, so low income households can buy small quantities, like they do in the case of charcoal20. Kerosene is feasible for domestic use, although it is costlier than charcoal but the difference is not too high. A family who uses three sacks of charcoal per month, at a cost of $30, can alternately use 40 litres of kerosene at a cost of $39. And users with cash constraints would be able to purchase it in small quantities like charcoal. And the price gap can be reduced with the intervention of the Government.

17 "Energy Sources: Solar". Department of Energy. Retrieved 19 April 2011. 18 National Non-Food Crops Centre. "NNFCC Renewable Fuels and Energy Factsheet: Anaerobic Digestion". 19 Biogas & Engines, www.clarke-energy.com. Accessed 21.11.11. 20 Ahmed Jama, Report on Energy survey consumption and supply conducted in Somaliland, 2011.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentrated_solar_power

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaic_effect

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_turbine

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sail

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_power

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_wind_power

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaerobic_organism

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermentation_(biochemistry)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_sulphide

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siloxane

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_monoxide

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressed_natural_gas

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_fuel_vehicle

http://www.energy.gov/energysources/solar.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Non-Food_Crops_Centre

http://www.nnfcc.co.uk/publications/nnfcc-renewable-fuels-and-energy-factsheet-anaerobic-digestion

http://www.clarke-energy.com/gas-type/biogas/



LPG is available in the country, although there is only one vendor, which might lead to high prices. In Somaliland most of the families using LPG are highly-income families with sophisticated arrangements. The cost of the LPG for average families, with six to eight people, might be $65 but will be higher when families are larger, but middle and high income families can afford this. Biogas still needs research and development and the MoEM is now involved in research on how to utilise agricultural waste, manure, municipal waste, plant material, sewage, green waste or food waste in positive ways, while local municipalities are now tackling solid waste and its control. The MoEM has already started to exempt solar appliances from taxation, to get cheap and affordable energy. The Ministry is also committed to explore different kinds of solar appliances and whether bringing a huge number into Somaliland would make these cheaper than the presently available solar panels. However, both solar and wind energy need more research and development as well as investment, apart from simple domestic use. Solar energy that people are using now can only reduce energy consumption of electricity harnessed from gas oil. People are not aware of wind power and do not know that this could generate energy. 5.3 Logistics and Marketing Kerosene is the most readily available energy source in the market throughout the country, because it comes together with other fuels like diesel and petrol. The fuel stations are the main places for households to purchase kerosene. A litre is the unit of quantity for kerosene but the common quantities in which household purchase kerosene for cooking range from 5 litre to 10 litre. This is bought three to five times in a month by large households which cook with kerosene only, or less for those households use that use it as a secondary energy source or that are small. Currently there are a good number of kerosene importers from Gulf countries and China via the Berbera oil terminal, while some businessmen import from Ethiopia. Unlike other energy sources, it has well-functioning market structures where it is available in quantities that are adequate for multiple uses throughout the towns of the country. Kerosene can be purchased in any quantity as is the case with charcoal. For households with cash constraints, the possibility to buy kerosene in small quantities is attractive. In terms of energy efficiency and environment impact, LPG is the cleaner energy source that could be substituted for other energy sources used for cooking and heating. There is a sole vendor called SOMGAS which imports LPG. This company has established a storage site in Hargeisa, where it refills cylinders. Additionally, there are about 27 distributions sites across the country sites which sell LPG but more are needed21. Solar equipment and materials are now becoming a self-driven engine. Without the encouragement of people by Government or any other organisation, people are getting familiar with this and are adopting this for lighting purpose, even in semi urban places. If these efforts succeed many people will adopt solar power and it will attract more businessmen.

21 Ahmed Jama, Report on Energy survey consumption and supply conducted in Somaliland, 2011.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manure

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipal_waste

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_material

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewage

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_waste

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_waste



5.4 Risks and Disadvantages There are some risks and obstacles to these alternative energies which compete with the wide availability of charcoal in the market. People will not stop using charcoal as a source of energy unless the Government develops and enforces a policy which bans charcoal production throughout the country. Another obstacle is the initial cost and the cost of re-filling of cylinders. This may deter low-income end users, which are the majority of end users, to take up and regularly use LPG. In addition, the perceptions of people towards LPG and kerosene are quite negative, because they believe that it is dangerous, as they believe that it causes fire in houses and that the young cannot handle it for cooking in the kitchen as simply as they do when they are using charcoal. Moreover, the high cost of kerosene stoves and the relatively high cost of kerosene present serious barriers to the wider use of kerosene stoves for low-income end users, who are the majority of energy users in the country. There are obvious challenges, which serve as a disincentive against taking up and regularly using LPG by the low-income end users, which is the majority of end users. On the demand side, the initial cost and the cash needed for refilling, fear and lack of familiarity are major barriers. On the supply side, transportation, storage, distribution network, unreliability as well as lack of financial support during establishment of a company involved in the transportation and distribution are among the major challenges in the sector. A house mother told the author that she sometimes involves her children in the kitchen in cooking but that she cannot leave the kitchen to a girl of 10 to 14 years old to handle the kitchen if LPG or kerosene is used, while she can leave handling the kitchen if charcoal is used. Most mothers are illiterate and they cannot believe that young children can be educated and could easily understand any given instruction or read this from a leaflet. 5.5 Effort to Develop and Introduce Changing traditional source of energy from biomass to renewable and less problematic sources of energy is not easy. It needs more efforts and determination from all the stakeholders, including government institutions, national and international NGOs, UN agencies, World Bank and the private sector to make this change happen. Synergy of all stakeholders would have a meaningful impact and the environment will benefit. Each of the stakeholders can play a significant role in converting biomass energy users to alternative energies like solar, wind, kerosene, biogas and LPG. Government institutions can formulate policies and arrange for monitoring and enforcement, and even ban charcoal and wood production. Government can also exempt tax on imported wind and solar materials, kerosene and LPG and other materials needed for alternative energies. Local Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) and Community Based Organisations (CBOs) could take the role of promoting community awareness and of providing demonstrations, and also implementing projects for enhancing alternative energies. In addition to that, International NGOs, UN agencies and World Bank can play a role in financing projects for enhancing and introducing alternative energies. Business institutions can also have an important role to play which is making all goods and services required for alternative energy available in the market and also advertising for these goods and services so people become aware of what is available.



A Commission for Quality Control should control and ensure quality and safety of imported materials and the Fire Extinguishing Department should provide some lessons, particularly through local media, on how to prevent and deal with fires from kerosene and LPG. Efforts are also needed to create awareness within different target groups of environment consequences of cutting trees for energy and of the advantages of alternative energies. This can be visible by using all kinds of media, bill boards, role plays, radio, TV, newspaper, theatre, puppet show etc.

6 Conclusions

Extensive charcoal burning in the pastoral environment has the following impacts: reduced rangeland carrying capacity, biodiversity depletion, soil erosion, land degradation and gully formation. Moreover, development of unplanned feeder roads and unplanned water points will increase the number of settlements and increase the pastoralist’s vulnerability to droughts, reduced grazing areas and create rangeland resource conflicts. Introducing and adapting alternative energies might improve the condition of the environment and the livelihood of pastoralists, since it will reduce deforestation and more people will get the benefit of employment in new sectors. Stakeholders need to take up their roles within their respective mandates and capabilities in order to move from biomass to alternative energies (biogas, solar, wind, Kerosene and LPG). This is quite a long process but it needs the commitment, determination and consistency of all stakeholders. Government has to take the lead and coordinate with all stakeholders for realising their commitments. In a nutshell, kerosene and LPG can become leading alternative sources of energy at this time, while the use of solar power is growing day by day. The MoE&M is encouraging this, although solar power is still used for limited purposes like lighting and heating. Wind and biogas need more commitment and support for research and development and then for introducing these, especially to industries and hotels for testing. Kerosene is abundant in the market and only needs some intervention from Government such as exempting this from taxation to make this cheaper. For many people it is preferable and affordable because they can buy any quantity as they do with charcoal and incur less initial cost than LPG and other alternatives. LPG is also the second alternative which is feasible and affordable, and which middle and highly income households could afford.

7 Recommendations

Proper utilisation of trees and natural resources will enhance and ensure a sustainable environment and natural resources conservation. This will gradually improve the environment and pastoralists’ livelihood. Meanwhile ecosystems are interrelated to each other and if the environment would have better quality, the conditions for people and livestock would also improve. Appropriate natural resources management is required to at least reduce the adverse impact on the environment.



Therefore, to ensure the recovery of degraded environment and to rehabilitate degraded and depleted areas, it is necessary to take several actions to initiate change from scratch to some possible level. This will never be credible or effective unless all stakeholders unite their potential, whether it is Government, LNGOs, INGOs, World Bank, UN agencies or local communities. This kind of commitment and solidarity can make a real difference. In this paper the author is recommending the following: The Ministry of Environment and Rural Development (MoERD) has to lead a campaign of

developing and enforcing a policy which bans charcoal production for the protection of the environment which has suffered over the last two decades due to cutting of trees and improper utilisation of the environment. MoERD should also promote community awareness of energy alternatives for introducing biogas, solar, wind, new kerosene stoves and also LPG, and promote cost reduction. It has to effectively coordinate all stakeholders interested to be involved in environmental issues including local communities, bring these together and enhance their capabilities.

INGOs, World Bank and UN agencies, especially those who are interested in environmental

concerns should think over and play their roles in financing development projects for introduction of alternative energies and reduction poverty. So as to reduce deforestation and high dependence of biomass energy. Research and development projects are needed to develop the best alternatives that have the lowest price for low income households and are least problematic to the environment.

Local NGOs work regularly with the community and the community is listening and

accepting what they are telling, since they have been working since the collapse of the Somali Republic government. Using that advantage, national NGOs can raise awareness so people become aware and change their habits. National NGOs have good relations with donors so they can advocate and lobby for funding projects to develop and disseminate alternative sources of energy.

In order to attract private sector and business institutions, the Government should take

actions like exempting taxes, so all alternative energy appliances could get easily in the market.

Community leaders and CBOs should also engage themselves to get involved in these

interventions and take steps with the community.

Government media should also get engaged in this commitment to reach each and everyone in the country.

Dacar-budhuq River taking away a Land Cruiser with passengers

Improving the Exploitation of Seasonal Rivers of Somaliland for Agro-pastoral Use

Abdirahman Farah Omar, Abdirahman Abdisalam Sh. Ali, Khadar Ali Hassan

Ministry of Water Resources June 2015

Target audience: WASH members (MoWR, Line Ministries, UN/International Org. LNGOS). The purpose of the paper is to attract the attention of the major stakeholders of the Somaliland WASH sector, under the leadership of the Ministry of Water Resources and the Ministry of National Planning and Development as the mandated government institutions for water affairs and development respectively, to the safe and wise exploitation of runoff water from rains that are now lost to the sea, for domestic, livestock and agriculture food security and its incorporation in planning of water development programmes. The purpose of the paper is also to advocate for the establishment of a Somaliland rain water harvesting association.

Contents

1 Introduction .................................................................................................................30

2 Background .................................................................................................................31

3 Key Aspects ................................................................................................................32

4 Major Water Catchments to the North and their Potential ............................................34

5 Relevant Experience Elsewhere ..................................................................................34

6 Conclusions .................................................................................................................36

7 Recommendations ......................................................................................................37

Annexes Annex 1. Rainfall Records for Northern Somaliland up to 1982 ..............................................40

Annex 2. Surface Drainage and Classification of Catchments in Somaliland ..........................41

Tables Table 1: Main water sources in Somaliland ...............................................................................32 Table 2: Major Water Catchment in the North and their potential ..............................................34 Table 3: Estimated costs of river water source development .....................................................35 Table 4: Estimated costs of developing a strategy for exploiting river water ..............................36



Abdirahman Farah Omar, Abdirahman Abdisalam Sh. Ali, and Khadar Ali Hassan 30

1 Introduction

Somaliland covers an area of 137,600 km2 and its population is estimated at about 3.5 million inhabitants. Livelihood mostly depends on livestock food products and the economy of the country depends on livestock export and remittances by the Somaliland Diaspora. There is small-scale but growing agricultural production from rain-fed and small irrigated farms near the banks of the seasonal rivers. The economy and livelihood of Somaliland depend highly on the availability of water, which in turn relies on rainfall. Climatically Somaliland is arid and semi-arid and it has two rainy seasons - the GU’ (March-May) and Dayr (September-November) - and two dry seasons - Hagaa (June-August) and Jilaal (December-February). Average annual rainfall is 350 mm but varies between different geographical regions, as it is below 100 mm in the coastal areas, 300 mm in the Haud plateau and 600 mm in the mountainous areas. There is high evapo-transpiration which exceeds rainfall in the entire country. There is drastic environmental degradation, partly due to the bad habit of charcoal production and to very active soil erosion. Many cultivable areas have turned into bad land and this, in turn, has a negative impact on rainfall patterns and the hydrological cycle. This much reduces production from livestock and agriculture and the consequences are extreme poverty and hunger, which makes the realisation of the first Millennium Development Goal (MDG 1) to eradicate the extreme poverty and hunger, impossible. Water scarcity in the rural areas affects school enrolment as most of the students lose their time to look after water instead of going to school. This especially affects the female students and undermines the realisation of MDG 2 to achieve universal primary education. Hydro-physical conditions that negatively impact on the availability of freshwater include the draining of nearly all available rainfall water into the Red Sea with minimal exploitation, taking away fertile soil and damaging cultivable land. This is a chronic disease which makes the country handicapped, as available water drains to the sea while people are suffering from water scarcity. Women are an especially vulnerable group in relation to water scarcity, since they are traditionally responsible for fetching water and they have to travel long distances and lose much time and energy due to this. This goes against the MDG 3 which is to promote gender equality and women empowerment. Water scarcity also increases the occurrence of water borne diseases, particularly for vulnerable groups, and as a result child mortality under five is very high in Somaliland, which is not in line with the MDG 4 to reduce child mortality. A country is said to be water scarce when its annual per capita water availability falls below 1000m3. Somaliland and Somalia have less than 500m3 per capita per year (UNICEF/MoWR MICS, 2006). This is attributed to erratic spatial and temporal distribution of rainfall with average



annual amounts between 100 and 800 mm, high evaporation, and human activities that exacerbate land degradation resulting in drastic deforestation that can definitely affect the hydrological cycle. Meanwhile, the impact of global warming and climate change is a reality in Somaliland as in most other Horn countries, and there are increasingly prolonged dry seasons and recurrent droughts. These do not only affect most of the agro-pastoralist communities, but also urban communities which are faced with drastic water scarcity, particularly during the dry seasons when the levels of the aquifers drop enormously and sometimes dry up completely.

2 Background

Although many organisations have been involved in the water sector of Somaliland, the demand for water is still first priority. Previous interventions were limited to relief and rehabilitation projects, but Somaliland has now to move into the development stage and tackle the problems of water scarcity and the proper exploitation of the water resources of the country. There are two types of water resources in Somaliland: 1. Ground water, including bore wells, dug wells and springs; 2. Surface water, including dams, barkads and roof catchments. Surface water is the primary water resource that could be easily tapped for quick impact in meeting the increasing demand for water while ground water is considered a secondary water resource which most of the rural and urban people use during the dry seasons. There are four major catchments in the country which drain runoff water to the Red Sea, and there are six water catchments which also drain to the Indian Ocean. The quantities of water that pass through these catchments are enormous, and the flow period sometimes takes four to six hours. These flows block transport and travel between the regions, and the floods from the runoff water take away trucks and passengers every year, causing death and loss of resources. This shows the strength of the runoff water which also takes away the top fertile soil, leading to soil erosion and land degradation. The communities and Government of Somaliland are well aware of the waste of these valuable resources which are not properly used and cause substantial damage, but no adequate action is taken. So there is the need for initiatives since water demand is increasing exponentially and the droughts and long dry seasons are becoming more common. The Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR) has developed a regulatory framework for the administration of water resources of the country which highlights the importance of water resources for development, health and livelihood, in particular of agro/pastoralist communities, which suffer from water shortage. However these valuable documents are still not being fully applied.



3 Key Aspects

3.1 Water Resources Somaliland can be broadly classified into four zones. These are: Guban or Low Coastal plain, Mountainous range and the Hawd and Sool Plateau/plains. Each zone has specific types of water sources suitable to the geographical characteristics of the area: In the coastal areas the most common water sources are shallow hand dug wells and

springs. There are also a few strategic boreholes, mostly used by pastoralists. In the mountainous areas the most common water sources are shallow hand dug wells and

springs. There are no bore wells. Most water use is for agricultural and pastoral purposes. Most irrigated farms are located along river banks and cultivate cash crops. These farms are vulnerable to floods during the rainy season, which always damage the farms and the water abstraction equipment.

The water sources in the Sool plateau are mostly shallow hand dug wells, open karsic wells and a few boreholes. A major problem in these areas is very high salinity due to the existence of Gypsum anhydrite which is dominant in the area.

The major water sources in the Haud plateau are barkads, dams and very deep boreholes. There are good grazing areas, but few permanent water sources.

Most of the shallow wells and boreholes are located in or near a river bed and, as mentioned above, are the only means for meeting the demand for water for all types of uses. Some temporary water catchments are located in the upper or lower stream of these seasonal rivers, such as earth dams or cemented barkads, but these dry up within a very short time. This leads water users to concentrate on the quasi permanent shallow hand dug wells near the dry rivers. The majority of shallow wells used for irrigated farms, livestock watering and rural domestic use also dry up before the rainy season, due to drastic drop down of the water table. The major reason for this is the lack of sufficient adequate recharge of ground water from runoff water during the rainy seasons. As a result of this, many farmers abandon their farms since they cannot get enough water from their hand dug wells. The same applies to nomadic people who travel long distances for getting permanent water for their livestock and families. Table 1: Main water sources in Somaliland SN Region Number of

boreholes Number of shallow wells

Number of springs

Number of earth dams

1 Awdal 32 92 37 10 2 Sanag 30 104 31 5 3 Sool 17 95 7 10 4 Togdheer 83 90 25 25 5 North west 84 213 27 20 Total 246 594 127 70

Extract from FAO/SWALIM report1. 1 Somaliland Strategic Water Sources Inventory, 2012, Dr. Abdirazak Jama Nur (Project Coordinator).



The only appropriate coping mechanism is to harvest and store the runoff water to store or recharge underground water so that shallow wells can hold water throughout the year, but this is beyond the capacity of the rural communities and the Ministry has not yet put this into practice. 3.2 Droughts and Long Dry Seasons Water shortage and droughts are common and both nomadic people and their livestock are suffering much during the dry season. Water trucking is common in Sool Plateau and Hawd and people suffer much during prolonged dry seasons and droughts which are recurrent during the past two decades. For nomadic people it is too expensive to pay for the water for domestic use and livestock needs (sometimes the price of one drum of water reaches $10), so they have to travel long distances which requires more time and energy than they can afford. The most vulnerable communities are the poor agro-pastoralists, and most of them go to urban centres as internally displaced people, where they start another, even more difficult life. 3.3 Water Borne Diseases The water in the barkads and dams is often highly polluted with organic matter, silt and sometimes garbage, since it is not protected and sanitation measures are not introduced during construction. There is also a high likelihood of biological contamination and water borne diseases are common in these areas and vulnerable groups of the communities suffer every year, especially old aged people, women and children. 3.4 Water-based Conflicts Water can be the cause of conflict when it is scarce and it can create conflicts between the various users if there are no strong and properly enforced regulations for the allocation of water between different users. There often is strong rivalry between pastoralist and farming communities and there often are confrontations, particularly during the implementation of new water schemes, when tribal conflicts occur between communities in connection with water resources and grazing areas. 3.5 Lack of Data There are not enough data on water availability throughout the country, as there were no studies carried out after the collapse of Siyad-Barre Government. Knowledge on both underground and surface water is limited, and there are no representative rain gauge network systems in the country. FAO/SWALIM have installed a few in the country (twenty), but these are dispersed across a few agricultural districts. There are no meteorological agencies which can predict droughts and possible floods from heavy storms, so people could be warned and prepared for the disasters and climate change. The Ministry of Water Resources has a very small data bank, assisted by FAO/SWALIM, but this does not provide adequate information for decision making.



4 Major Water Catchments to the North and their Potential

There are four major water catchments in the west of Somaliland which drain the runoff water towards the Red Sea. Large quantities of water pass through these every year as indicated in the following table. These four catchments alone can provide a total of 3,702 million cubic metres per year which is enough for 3.7 million people using 1000 cubic meters per year including their economic dependents (which is nearly the population of Somaliland). We can imagine that the problem of water scarcity can be solved if all catchments are exploited. Table 2: Major Water Catchment in the North and their potential SN Name of the

catchment Area (in Kms2)

Average annual rainfall

Water in million m3/year

Remarks

1 Toga Waheen

3,000 300 mm/year 900 Can cover the demand of 900,000 persons/1000CUM year

2 Toga Biji 3,560 300 mm/year 1,068 Can cover the demand of 1,068,000 persons/1000CUM year

3 Toga Durdur 3,850 300 mm/year 1,155 Can cover the demand of 1,155,000 persons/1000CUM year

4 Toga Salel 1,930 300 mm/year 579 Can cover the demand of 579,,000 persons/1000CUM year

Total 12,240

300 mm/year 3,702

Can supply 3,702,000 person

Source: Faillace C. and E.R. Faillace, Water Quality Data Book of Somalia. Hydrogeology and Water Quality of Southern Somalia. Vol 1, 1986. Dag Hammarsk joid-Weg 1+2 Postfach 5180, D 6236 Eschborn, Federal Republic of Germany.

5 Relevant Experience Elsewhere

The principles and technologies applicable to rainwater exploitation are wide and different. There are many countries in the Middle East and Sub-Sahara Africa that receive less rainfall than Somaliland, but which effectively manage the meagre amount they receive throughout the year. The best example may be Tunisia, where available rainfall throughout the year is nearly 100mm, and where no drop is wasted or drained to the sea. An 18 years Master Plan was drafted and adopted for the safe exploitation of rain water of the major water catchments and rivers, complete with designs and Bills of Quantity. Financial support by bilateral and multilateral aid institutions was mobilised, and valuable wadi development schemes were implemented, such as the construction of different water storage facilities, subsurface and sand dams for recharge of underground water and water diversion schemes for irrigation, livestock and human consumption.



The techniques that were used fall into three broad categories namely: In-situ, Internal (Micro) and External (Macro) catchment RWH. Typically, a river water harvesting system consists of three basic elements: collection system, conveyance system, and storage system. Collection systems can vary from simple types for a household to bigger systems where a large catchment area contributes to an impounding reservoir from which water is either gravitated or pumped to use for livestock, agriculture or, after treatment, for domestic use. The categorization of river water harvesting systems depends on factors like the size and nature of the catchment areas and whether the systems are in urban or rural settings. Tunisia has properly managed runoff water, using appropriate major techniques for human, livestock and crop production.They implemented water harvesting schemes along the upper, middle and the lower streams. In rural areas, they constructed micro and macro water catchments which can hold rain water throughout the year and they have also established water diversion schemes for irrigation and domestic use. These schemes help to eliminate or reduce the effects of the droughts and the long dry seasons, to a considerable extent. The water harvested from the rains can contribute to meeting the vast demand for water in the major towns. Communities in water scarce regions are mobilised to better understand the benefits of runoff water exploitation in solving the problems of water scarcity which is their first priority. They are motivated to organize themselves by establishing water user associations in each water catchment and the National Rain Water Harvesting Association, with representation from all regions and the districts of the country. Such organisation can speak with the voice of the water users and can support the Government as well as the people in reducing water based conflicts and attracting financial and technical support and it has worked well in Tunisia. It is very important for Somaliland to learn about this and to replicate the success events. Construction of runoff exploitation schemes is essential, but requires funds. The following table shows the estimated costs of the construction of the river water sources development: Table 3: Estimated costs of river water source development S/N Water source/facility Cost estimate

in US Dollars Remarks

1 Drilling borehole 200m including equipment

120,000 Strategic borehole is Haud and plain areas

2 Construction of Shallow well 6m with concrete rings

9000 Livestock and rural use

3 Construction/excavation of earth dam 200mx100mx3m

110,000 Haud plateau and the plain areas

4 Construction of cemented barkad 20mx12mx4m

18,000 Hill sides and rocky areas

5 Roof catchment 300msq 200 House level and public construction

6 Construction of sand dam/sub surface dam 25m

20,000 Dry river bed

7 Diversion canals 1000m long 50,000 For irrigation



S/N Water source/facility Cost estimate in US Dollars

Remarks

8 Construction of min water system solar powered with infiltration gallery including all infrastructure

35,000 Village water supply including livestock

9 Construction of RCC elevated water reservoir 25 CUM

12,000 Village/rural water storage

10 Animal troughs 5mx1mx1m 3,800 Livestock watering 11 Public kiosks 3,800 Public use

Source: Manual for Water Sources and Water Works 2012.

6 Conclusions

Somaliland still has a good potential for harvesting runoff water for domestic, agricultural and livestock use, and tapping this potential could reduce the hardship of many farmers and pastoralists. In order to tackle the above mentioned interrelated problems a strategic action should be prepared, which can help the Ministry of Water Resources in developing safe and wise exploitation of river water and prevent losing this water to the sea, while people and their economic dependents need it. In order to tackle the problems of water shortage in the country there is the need to stop runoff water of seasonal rivers and use it for domestic use, livestock watering and irrigation. This will require large, complex and costly efforts and so there is, first of all, the need to prepare sound plans for a comprehensive twenty years programme. Based on that, this paper is proposing the following activities and funds which are very important for preparing for exploiting the seasonal rivers of Somaliland for agro/pastoral use, summarised below: Table 4: Estimated costs of developing a strategy for exploiting river water SN Activity Costs in US $ Remarks 1 Carry out a study tour for six members

of the Somaliland WASH sector to learn about dry river water techniques

70,000 Tunisia or any other relevant place

2 Installation of 100 rain gauge in 60 districts and 6 weather stations in the 6 six regions

150,000 Collect all previous data, engage Ministry technical staff

3 Collection of all available data and compile it in the data centre of the Ministry

60,000 Put all collected data into the data centre

4 Draft 18 years strategic plan (Phase I 18 months, Phase II 5 years and phase III 8 years) on river water harvesting and develop designs for model sand

120,000 Hire two consultants and engage Ministry technical staff to draft designs with BOQs



SN Activity Costs in US $ Remarks dam, subsurface dam and water diversion pilot activities

5 Conduct workshop for all stakeholders on runoff water exploitation and establish Somaliland rainwater harvesting association

15,000 Invite 60 participants from the WASH sector decision makers

6 Implement Phase I 6 sand dams, 6 shallow wells with infiltration galleries and all infrastructure in 4 catchments as pilot project

1,472,000 Implement the pilot project in 18 months

7 Implement Phase II 60 sand dams, 126 shallow wells with infiltration galleries and all infrastructure in major catchments, construction of 20 high capacity Dams, 10 diversion canals for irrigation 2-10 kms and 100 roof catchment for schools/health post

14,720,000 Implement phase II in all seasonal rivers for human, livestock and agriculture use

8 Phase III Carry out review meeting to evaluate the achievements/constraints and the planning for the phase III activities

12,000 Invite all the partners 68 partners

Total $ 16,619,000

7 Recommendations

This paper has highlighted that, despite the scarcity of water in Somaliland, available rainwater could be sufficient to meeting the vast demand for water for both domestic use and livestock and agriculture food production. This can be realised through several steps, including: Collecting all available hydrological data which exist within or outside of the country and

making these available for decision making.

Installation of a comprehensive rain gauge network and regular river flow measurement, to determine the quantity of water from each major water catchments, including those passing through seasonal rivers.

Participatory planning for an eighteen years strategic plan, consisting of short term (phase I,

eighteen months), intermediate (phase II, five years) and long term (phase III, eight years) dry river water harvesting schemes, and of systematic construction of upper stream, middle and downstream in order to reduce the velocity of runoff water coming into the streams.

Transfer of the most appropriate technologies from relevant countries, and design and

develop easily implemented water works for optimal water harvesting, in particular



subsurface and sand dams, diversion canals for irrigation and high capacity storage facilities which can store water throughout the year in drought prone areas.

Develop and enforce a regulatory framework, guidelines, standards and specifications for

the wise use and allocation of water and introduce environmentally safe technologies for its sustainable management.

Develop a local and international trust fund for eighteen years program with private, state

and international participation.



Bibliography

Faillace C. and ER. Faillace (1986). Water Quality Data Book of Somalia. Hydrogeology and Water Quality of Southern Somalia. Vol 1. Muthusi F.M., Mahamud G., Abdalle A., Gadain H.M. (2007), Rural Water Supply Assessment, Technical Report No-08, FAO-SWALIM. Alaya, K.; Viertmann, W.; Waibel, T. (1993): Les tabias, Direction générale des forêts (Ministère de l’Agriculture), Tunis. Rainfall Records for Northern Somaliland up to 1982.



Annex 1. Rainfall Records for Northern Somaliland up to 1982



Annex 2. Surface Drainage and Classification of Catchments in Somaliland

How Can Agricultural Research Contribute to Improving Agricultural Production in Somaliland?

Abdirisak Abdilahi Ibrahim

Ministry of Agriculture

June 2015

Contents

1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................44

2 Background ......................................................................................................................44

3 Potential Contributions by Agricultural Research .............................................................46

4 The Need to Link Research to Extension .........................................................................47

5 Conclusions .....................................................................................................................48

6 Recommendations ...........................................................................................................49

Annexes Annex 1. Proposal for a Department of Agricultural Research, Monitoring and Evaluation .....51



Abdirisak Abdilahi Ibrahim 44

1 Introduction

Somaliland needs to improve and expand agricultural production to meet the needs of the people and the economy. Agricultural research can play a major role as is shown in most developed countries, where agricultural research has been a major factor in increasing production. This paper analyses current arrangements for agricultural research in Somaliland and explores how these can be improved. In addition, it presents important, possible improvements in agricultural research and discusses how to establish a new Department of Agricultural Research in the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA). Finally the paper explores how agricultural research can contribute to improving agricultural production in Somaliland.

2 Background

Agriculture is currently the second most important economic activity in the country, coming after livestock, with 20 to 25% of the population depending on it for their livelihoods. The majority of Somalilanders (about 85%) are agro-pastoralists who practice rain-fed farming. While agriculture is an underdeveloped sector, it has a considerable potential, especially for both cereal and horticultural production, and for creating employment opportunities - primarily, but not only in the rural areas (Ministry of Planning, 2011). However, agriculture is faced with huge challenges: Land degradation through soil erosion; Inadequate rainfall; Poor agronomic and cultural practices; Low level of capitalisation of farmers; Lack of appropriate technology; Loss of labour through rural-urban migration; Lack of agricultural research that could help tacking these challenges. The Somaliland Government, and especially the Ministry of Agriculture, is planning how to improve agricultural research. Currently the Ministry is considering how to train the MoA staff who are working in this field. After that, the Ministry will improve the research centres it has. It also will improve the quality of research centres for the Ministry of Agriculture in Somaliland like the Aburin research centre. The Ministry of Agriculture of Somaliland does not use research findings from Ethiopia, Kenya, and other places because it does not have an assigned department and data centre of research. The MoA is not a member of any research network, e.g. with nearby countries such as Ethiopia.



2.1 The Ministry of Agriculture The productivity of Somaliland agriculture depends on wider availability and better use of the factors of production (farmland, water, and labour), agricultural inputs (fertilizers, irrigation, seeds, capital equipment), access to markets and farmers’ skills. The MoA does not have any research department to improve and expand agricultural production, but the Ministry has three main research centres which come under the Crop Production Department: the Aburin Research Centre, Laboratories Research and Green House Research Centre. In addition, the Ministry has a large area of land in the Wajale Project which can be used to conduct research and show farmers how to apply innovations that generate benefits to their farms, bringing together experts who can offer theories and practical lessons, with participants from various areas of Somaliland. Furthermore, staff of the Ministry will establish new demonstration farms which will develop new varieties of crops, fruits and vegetables. 2.2 Universities In Somaliland there is no university working in agricultural research. There are the Amoud University, Admas University, Hargeisa University, Burao University and Golis University. Each university was interviewed and after interviewing, it became clear that all these universities, except Admas University, have an agricultural research department, but that these departments are not working at all. In developed countries universities are the main centres of research which contribute both innovation and academic people working on research. These universities have contributed much to the success of their countries, through research development. 2.3 Private Sector Private institutions can help to bring about increased production. However, these institutions cannot operate in a vacuum, irrespective of how good they may be. There are a number of prerequisites for research and extension to operate successfully. Firstly, there must be government commitment to cooperation with private institutions. Economic policies must be supportive of agricultural development and the institutional environment must be supportive of research and extension. Second, public research and extension should not work in isolation but feed each other, as shown in the figure below.



Figure 1: Relations between research and technology transfer

Source: FAO website. Research and extension are long-term processes and returns on investment in these may take at least 10 to 15 years to be realised. Public sector research and extension require considerable investment of capital and operational budgets to be effective. Agriculture is a strategic sector in the economies of sub-Saharan Africa, e.g. about 80% of the total labour force is engaged in agriculture and agriculture accounts for between 35 and 60% of foreign exchange earnings. Agriculture contributes about 35 to 50% of the gross domestic product of the countries under consideration. 2.4 Development Projects There are many development projects under the MoA, like the Marodijeh Upper Catchments (MUC) and the Farmers Field Schools (FFS), but unfortunately these do not conduct ongoing agricultural research, except some activities by the extension staff of the Ministry. These extension staff undertake many activities, such as growing different varieties of sorghum and maize and testing some fruits. In such projects researchers and extensionists are working together and projects are intended to improve agricultural production. The location of this project is the Aburin research centre and it has good results.

3 Potential Contributions by Agricultural Research

Somaliland has not developed agricultural research, while developed and other developing countries are increasing their applied research. Let us consider how research increases production in sub-Saharan countries. The productivity of sub-Saharan Africa agriculture depends on climate, efficient and effective use of the factors of production (farmland, water, and labour), agricultural inputs (fertilizers, irrigation, seeds, and capital equipment), and farmers’ skills. The region’s agriculture involves diverse crops and livestock and increasing productivity is



particularly important for cereals and starchy roots, which provide two-thirds of the total energy intake for the population (three-quarters for the poor)1. Agricultural research can help to develop more productive and nutritious varieties of staple crops, grown and consumed by farmers. These include varieties adapted to local conditions that deliver the specific benefits that farmers seek, such as increased yields, better use of soil and water resources and reduced crop loss due to spoilage, weeds, pests, disease, and other threats. According to the Africa Human Development Report 2012 (United Nations Development Programme [UNDP], 2012), more than 75% of cereals and almost all root crops come from domestic agriculture. Farm incomes continue to be crucial to the survival of 70% of the extremely poor population living in rural areas. This is because rural non-farm activities (accounting for 30% to 40% of earnings) tend to expand when farm incomes are rising. As in the rest of sub-Saharan Africa, nearly two-thirds of the economically active populations in the selected countries are involved in agriculture; in some countries, such as Burkina Faso, that proportion exceeds 90%. Data obtained from National Statistics Offices in the selected countries depict erratic cereal production patterns, probably due to overreliance on the weather and low adoption of technology. With the exception of Nigeria, most countries in Africa recorded steady increases in cereal production. This can be attributed to numerous productivity enhancing initiatives, such as increased use of agricultural inputs, modern farming techniques, and reduced market inefficiencies. The huge growth potential of the region’s agriculture continues to attract the private sector. Public–private partnerships are emerging to mobilise new resources and develop new agricultural technologies throughout agricultural value chains2.

4 The Need to Link Research to Extension

The linkage under discussion is research-extension linkages in relation to efforts to increase crop production. Research in this context can be defined as the development of better crops and cropping methods, to suit demand for new technology and to solve particular constraints. “Extension can be defined as the furthering and popularisation of knowledge. It signifies the stimulation of desirable agricultural illumination. It can also mean information flows to farming communities and the flow of information from farmers to researchers, input and services suppliers and policy makers. Extension plays an important role in the formulation of policy for agricultural development and sits at the centre of the agricultural information network. It is not a passive conduit but an active system that can be directed, it seeks out and organises information and then channels it to and, equally important, from farmers”3.

1 Diao, X., Thurlow, J., Benin, S., & Fan, S. (Eds.). (2012). Strategies and priorities for African agriculture: Economy wide

perspectives from country studies. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute. 2 Willis Oluoch- Kosura and Geophrey Sikei, 2013, Afican agriculture status, Nairobi, Kenya. 3 M. L. Kyomo, FAO Corporate Document Repository, 2014.



This paper argues that research-extension linkages are very important in transferring developed technologies from those who generate them to the users. To communicate effectively, research must be as strong and efficient as extension. Both must have well-qualified and motivated staff who have an adequate resource base to work from. 4.1 Information Flows between Research and Extension It has been stated that agricultural development begins with increased control over the environment and increased output of desirable plants and animals. This development must be a sustainable one, and should promote agricultural technologies that are ecologically sound, economically viable, socially just and meet the needs of the present population without compromising the ability of future generations to satisfy their own needs. Hence, for both research and extension sustainable agriculture must be the key strategy. An agricultural system performs well if the developed or generated technology is comprehensively transferred to the users.

5 Conclusions

The Ministry of Agriculture does not have an Agricultural Research Department which is responsible for all agricultural research. In addition, the Ministry does not store any data which are related to agricultural research and which could be useful in the future. If such a Department would be established, it could assist in many ways. For example, there are many indigenous varieties of sorghum, like Cilmi jama, adan gab variety and exogenous varieties like C12 varieties and research will help to know the differences between these varieties. Further research can help in the distribution of farms in Somaliland and in keeping up with the demand of the growing population for more food, by significantly expanding the area under production. Technological advancement seems to have gained momentum. But Somaliland is still facing numerous challenges, including lack of research facilities, poor infrastructural services, low skills development, and few institutions to support use of research and technology. Somaliland agricultural research still is not active enough and most of the Somaliland people do not understand how to improve this field. In addition, most Somalilanders are not aware of these issues and they need to be informed by the Ministry of Agriculture and academics who understand this field.



6 Recommendations

It is recommended to establish a Department of Agricultural Research in the Ministry of Agriculture.

The Government of Somaliland, agricultural institutions like international and local NGOs

and the Somaliland Development Fund (SDF) should assist to improve and expand agricultural research, transfer technologies, improve yields AND develop drought resistant crops, through agricultural research and subsequent dissemination.

The Ministry of Agriculture should collect and share all available information on research

and related fields and play a leading role in improving agricultural research in Somaliland. The Ministry should explore various means to strengthen extension services via audio-visual materials, study tours and movement among farmers. Farmers should interact, from region to region, so they can share experiences to learn from each other. Linkages should be strengthened between government organisations and donors and academics like SDF, UN agencies, and other international agencies.

MoA also needs to raise awareness amongst the agribusiness community to bring good

quality and environmentally friendly products.

MoA should try their best to enhance the capacity of the ministry staff through training, for example in soil survey, mapping and pest and pesticide management. Pesticides for instance should only be allowed if farmers are properly trained; otherwise these are harmful for people and the environment.



Bibliography

Ministry of Agriculture (2014). Yearly report. Hargeisa. Diao, X., Thurlow, J., Benin, S., & Fan, S. (Eds.). (2012). African agricutural status report. Washington, DC. M. L. Kyomo, FAO coorporate document respository. (2014). Future of livestock industries in East and Southern Africa. Southern African Centre for Cooperation in Agricultural Research and Training. Minnistry of Planning. (2011, October). Somaliland National Development Plan. Retrieved from www.longlivesomaliland.com/Draft%20Somaliland%20National%20Dev. Ministry of Planning (2011, October). Somaliland National Development Plan. Retrieved from www.longlivesomaliland.com/Draft%20Somaliland%20National%20Dev. Sikei, W. O.-K. (2013). African agricutural status. Nairobi, Kenya.

http://www.longlivesomaliland.com/Draft%20Somaliland%20National%20Dev

http://www.longlivesomaliland.com/Draft%20Somaliland%20National%20Dev



Annex 1. Proposal for a Department of Agricultural Research, Monitoring and Evaluation

Introduction The Ministry of Agriculture is enhancing the activities of the departments in the ministry to achieve the short and long term strategic plan. In that context, the ministry needs to launch a Department of Agricultural Research, Monitoring and Evaluation (DAREME), which will develop applied and pure research on soils, crops, seeds, horticulture fruits and vegetables, by organising the potential areas and their suitability according to climate conditions and soil fertilities. This Department could also facilitate research on citrus fruits such as orange and lemon, to achieve food security and quality control. Monitoring and evaluation will be conducted for all activities and guidelines should define the scope of tasks and job descriptions, so all will know how to work in regular follow up activities. In addition the Department will undertake data collection and analysis, compile and store documentation activities of the ministry. This department will handle all development activities in the Ministry in collaborating with the other department of the ministry, regional and districts staffs, and also coordinate with the partners of the ministry such as Communities, local NGOs, INGOs, and UN Agencies. Vision Statement To establish connections with all departments of the Ministry of Agriculture to share information and activities in order to produce effective and efficiency researches. To develop systematic data and documentation on all activities of the ministry to make the performances of the ministry visible. Mission Statement To prepare job descriptions, organise work plan and collecting activities each month in order to maintain a documentation and data management system, in order to follow up on active and inactive departments. To generate and disseminate applied research and product-oriented agricultural technologies and provide technical support and advisory services that can be directly utilised by the farming community and other stakeholders for increased agricultural productivity and to conduct monitoring and evaluation activities. Objectives Develop high yielding and early maturing crop varieties that are tolerant to drought, pests

and diseases. Develop appropriate technologies that support agriculture, and natural resource

diversification. Establish and initiate palm date and rice to the coastal range area of the country of

Somaliland. Increase and improve new and good variety of citrus fruit and mango, to increase the

production of Somaliland.



Activate, coordinate and connect with different departments, and other regions and districts of the country, Somaliland.

Establish and control new variety of food crops, fruit and vegetables by using research and technology.

Establish a quality control team responsible for food control, plant quarantine poison protection in collaboration with the Department of Plant Protection to research good pesticide, insecticide, fungicide and other chemicals uses. In addition, show techniques to protect against insects like biological control, crop rotation, inter cropping etc.

Store data and information of research and document strategies and policy of the ministry. Search for scholarships and trainings both internal and external to increase employee

knowledge and skills in collaboration with local universities like Gollis University, University of Hargeisa and universities outside of Somaliland, such as in Ethiopia. In addition this department will follow up on Scholarships which are provided to the Ministry by the UN Agencies, African Development Bank, European Union, Islamic Bank, etc.

Area of Research The Department of Agricultural Research, Monitoring and Evaluation (DAREME) will carry out applied agricultural research, provide Monitoring and Evaluation services and make available information. In order to deliver these, DAREME will have one major research station (the Aburin research station), one main laboratory section and one green house at the Headquarter of the Ministry of Agriculture, in Hargeisa Somaliland. Proposed Structure of the Department of Research, Monitoring and Evaluation

Functions of the Department of Agricultural Research, Monitoring and Evaluation The department will conduct applied and pure research, Monitoring and Evaluation, and data information activities. For this, the department will have sections and each section will have specific functions. Functions of Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) Ensuring planned results are achieved. Improving and supporting management. Generating shared understanding. Data collection and field work.

Department of Agricultural

Research, M&E

Monitoring and

evaluation

Data Collection

and Analysis

Data storing and

Documentation

Applied and pure research

Soil Analysis Crop and seed Analysis Horticulture Quality

control



Data entry, analysing, presentation and reporting. Storing and documentation of all information, monitoring reports, strategic and policy

documents which are prepared for the Ministry of Agriculture. Conducting general monitoring and evaluation on performance appraising of the staff of the

Ministry of Agriculture including headquarter and the regional and district levels. Preparing job descriptions for the staff of the ministry. Documenting Ministry staff grades and their qualifications, experience and skills to

communicate when they need. Building capacity of those involved. Motivating stakeholders. Ensuring accountability. Fostering public trust in Government. Functions of Applied and Pure Research Improving the effectiveness and efficiency of applied and pure research. Conducting research on high yield production and good quality seed by using laboratory and

testing in the field like headquarter and the Aburiin Research centre, to help the farmers in Somaliland.

Establishing a quality control team responsible for food control, plant quarantine, and poison protection in collaboration with the Department of Plant Protection in order to conduct research on pesticides, insecticides, fungicide and other chemicals and to show techniques for protection against insects, such as biological control, crop rotation, inter cropping etc.

Conducting horticultural research on fruits and vegetables at Head quarter and Aburiin research station.

Establishing a team for research for the quality of seed coming into Somaliland, to determine poor and quality seed and protect hybrid seed.

Ahmed M. Dalmar

The Deep Rooted Conflict between the Republic of Somaliland and Somalia and Steps to Settle this

Ahmed M. Dalmar Hargeisa Water Agency

Bachelor of Development and Management Studies, Civil Service Institute

[email protected]

00252 (0)63 4422175

June 2015

Hargeisa

mailto:[email protected]

Ahmed M. Dalmar

Contents

1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 56

2 Background ................................................................................................................ 56

3 Developments in the Conflict ...................................................................................... 58

4 Causes of the Conflict ................................................................................................. 60

5 Triggers of the Conflict ................................................................................................ 60

6 Key Issues .................................................................................................................. 60

7 Types of Conflict Management ................................................................................... 63

8 Conclusions ................................................................................................................ 64

9 Possible Scenarios for a Solution to the Conflict ......................................................... 64

10 Recommendations ...................................................................................................... 65

Tables Table 1: Major differences between the two communities in 1960 ............................................. 58



Ahmed M. Dalmar 56

1 Introduction

This paper will discuss the conflict between two sides: Somalia is claiming the greater Republic of Somalia after Somaliland restored its independence in 1991 and re-established its inherited British protectorate borders. After the two states united in 1960, Somalilanders were confronted with injustice and inequalities of the United States constituency, followed by human rights violations, genocide, bombardment of entire Somaliland cities and towns. As a result, the relationship between these two states was negatively affected. The two countries have many problems and they need to ensure a better relationship. This paper intends to shed light on the conflict, its root causes, stages and dynamics. It also discusses how a conflict management process could be applied. It will then discuss possible steps towards a solution, in order to avoid a revenge war again between the two sides. The objectives of the paper are: Increase understanding of the root causes of the conflict between Somalia and Somaliland. Listing points of differences and determining the profile of the conflict. Presenting conclusions and recommendations.

2 Background

Like many African nations, Somalis are composed of a variety of heterogeneous ethnic groups scattered around five horn African countries. The people in Northern Somalia (Somalilanders) are composed of one main ethnic group and of some different minorities, while the southern parts are composed of three main ethnic groups and some mixed minorities. The two Somali countries are different in culture (attitudes, social customs, traditions), language nuances, lifestyle and heritage as they descended from different ancestors, The only thing they share is the religion, although there are differences in mad-hab (religion sub-divisions), as the vast majority of Somalilanders believe in Qadiria (a non-violent system within the Islam), whereas some southerners believe in Wahabia (extreme system of Islamist fanatics). The Somalilanders have managed to solve their issues in their rich cultural background of conflict management and established a stable, democratic and progressive state without the help of the international community. Whereas the rest of Somalia is a failed state, war torn and home of piracy, where the Al-Qaida linked group of Alshabab operates and controls over eighty percent of the country. Colonial rule began in the mid-1800s, with the British protectorate creating a country called British Somaliland in the northern Somalis, the Italians creating the Italian Somaliland in Southern Somalia, and the French governing the spot bordering Somaliland which was called French Somaliland, and currently Djibouti. The British also ruled Somalis residing in the North Eastern region of Kenya called Northern Front District, and some other Somalis residing in the Eastern region of Ethiopia “Hawd and reserve area”, currently called zone five, were ruled under


Ahmed M. Dalmar 57

the British Somaliland Protectorate. In 1948 the British Government agreed with the Ethiopian leader (Emperor Milinic) to change the border between the Somaliland Protectorate and Ethiopia, abandoning a piece of land to Ethiopia. This was executed in 1954 and shaped the current Somaliland borders. During World War Two, the British Government captured the Italian Somaliland territory and in 1946 the British Government proposed the idea of a “greater Somalia1”, bringing the five Somalis under one Somali Government. The British Government, together with the UN, consulted each constituency separately but the result was fruitless because: 1. The Italian Somaliland elders indicated that they wanted the Italian coloniser, which was not

possible, as Italy was defeated by allied forces and could not come back at that time. Therefore Italian Somaliland was handed over to the United Nations with Italian trusteeship, until independence. In the reserve area (the Ethiopian region inhabited by Somalis) most of the elders insisted on being part of Ethiopia, using the Somali proverb “ushaada waxa loo dhiibtaa Nin aadka qaadan karto”. This means “Better the devil you know (Ethiopian ruler) than the devil you don’t know (British)”. Later the Siyad Barre regime went to war with Ethiopia in 1977, capturing the Somali Region, but this attempt failed because the Ethiopian regime received military support from the former USSR.

2. French Somaliland, currently Djibouti, kept its sovereignty separately because Djibouti had learned lessons from Somaliland’s attempts of unity.

3. The people in the North Eastern region of Kenya were not asked for their ideas and this

region continued to be part of the territory rules by Kenya.

4. Somaliland obtained independence on 26th June 1960 and was recognised by 35 countries However, Somaliland was an independent country only for a short period of five days. It then voluntarily united with Southern Somalia.

The elections of Somaliland in 1960 took part with three parties, namely the National United Front (NUF), Somali National Liberation (SNL) and the United Somali Party (USP). The SNL got a majority in parliament, consisting of 33 seats, and formed a Government of five Ministers and the Prime Minister. Local councillors were elected in 1959. Italian Somaliland peacefully obtained independence on the 1st of July 1960 and the two countries merged to form the Republic of Somalia.

1 The idea of “greater Somalia” is from the British Government. It was a dream that turned into a nightmare. Some historians argue

that the idea originates from Egypt, which was interested in disturbing Ethiopia, so it would not exploit the River Nile. The flag with the five star logo of Somalia was meant to symbolise the unity of the five Somali regions.


Ahmed M. Dalmar 58

3 Developments in the Conflict

During stage 1, the conflict was latent. In 1960 a number of mistakes happened during the unification process, namely: The two states united poorly and without conditions and transparency, as a result of rapid

unity with a very limited preparation of integration. There was no Act of Union. “Independence euphoria” and Somali nationalistic fervour, emerging from the colonial

secession of the Somali territory of the recent transfer of the Haud and Reserve Area to Ethiopia.

Italian legal experts drafted the Constitution in an undisguised attempt to graft the Italian multi-party democracy to independent Somalia.

Stage 2: The conflict was perceived. The 1961 Referendum (assessing the wish for unity) was believed by the Somalilanders to have a negative outcome, but the Government did not announce the results and hid the truth. Thus, making the unity illegal. Stage 3: the conflict became open and the two sides began to focus on differences such as listed below. Table 1: Major differences between the two communities in 1960 # Description Somaliland community Somalia community 1 Cultural profile Nomadic background with egalitarian

society. Agricultural background with dynamic culture.

2 Political culture

Conservative and democratic tendencies. Authoritarian tendencies.

3 Colony type Protectorate by British Empire: The Somaliland elders and British Empire had signed agreements (in 1827 and 1884), consisting of seven main articles and obliging the British to protect their borders and not to interfere in their social life. Great Britain had no influence on their culture, life-style, social structure etc.

Full colony under the Italian system that interfered in their social life and owned major properties in Southern Somalia (especially banana farms).

4 Governance Transparent administration system. Weak accountability. 5 Education

system British curriculum with two secondary schools (Sheikh and Amoud) linked to the British Examination Board, which used to provide scholarships for UK universities.

No secondary schools. The first secondary school was Banaadir, built in 1965.

6 Commerce Business people were Somalilanders who had business with Turkey, Gulf (Aden, Emirates, and Iraq), Persia and India.

Business people were Arabs and Italians.

Stage 4: the conflict became manifest, when, in the first Government, southern leaders took up the key positions, including President, Prime Minister, Minister of Interior, Minister of Foreign Affairs, and Chairman of the Supreme Court. They also took up more than 74% of Parliament


Ahmed M. Dalmar 59

and created new regions and army ranks. They also decided that he capital city of the country would be in the southern part2. Stage 5, the conflict suddenly turned into action. After the above actions disappointed the Somaliland community, their military officers staged an abortive coup in 1961, led by Hasan-kayd. The first veteran of Somaliland who died in this coup was Abdilahi Saed Abbi, a graduate of the Sandhurst Military College in the UK. While united with Somalia, the Somaliland community faced cultural shocks and language barriers. In 1960 a civilian government was established, which then allied itself with the USSR as a way to distance itself from its prior colonial rulers. In 1969, General Mohammed Siad Barre himself southerner led a coup, creating a socialist military government with himself as President. In the early years of his government Barre enjoyed popular support, but as he became increasingly oppressive, his support waned. The Barre Government was accused of many human rights violations including bombarding entire towns and cities, including Hargeisa, the 2nd capital city of Somalia, which was destroyed in 1988 by shelling and airstrikes. Planes took off and landed for refuelling in Hargeisa and caused more than 50,000 deaths and created half a million refugees, who fled to Ethiopian camps. The regime also committed crimes against humanity including torture and genocide (the Bashe and Samatar case, ruled by the USA Supreme Court). In 1977 Barre broke off the ties with Moscow after the Soviets began providing aid to Ethiopia during the Ogaden War. With this realignment, the United States began supplying military and economic aid to Somalia, but eventually suspended these efforts in 1989 because of the Barre Government's human rights record. In addition, in the late 1970s and early 1980s opposition militias developed in order to overthrow Barre. In 1981 a rebellion military organisation, the Somali National Movement (SNM), was established and announced in London. This was followed in 1982 by a youth organisation, called UFFO. Its members were mainly young scholars from the Northern part of the country. They produced an independent newspaper but the dictator captured them and sentenced them to the death penalty and to a life sentence of confinement. In the same year, the most prominent northern politicians were sentenced to death, such as Omer Arte Qalib and Ismail Ali Aboke. In 1986 forty innocent persons, including businessmen from Burao, Somaliland, were shot. An outright civil war erupted from 1988-1991, culminating in the exile of Barre in January 1991.

2 Government headquarters were positioned at Mogadishu, HQ’s are important in Africa.


Ahmed M. Dalmar 60

4 Causes of the Conflict

The causes of the conflict included the following: Structural causes: Virtually all state bureaucracy was centralised to Mogadishu, including: Business licenses, passports, communication etc., Somalilanders had to travel thousands of kilometres for normal legal services. The main business port of Northern part (Berbera) was almost closed. Proximate causes: No Act of Union. Before the British had agreed to grant independence to Somaliland, Italian officials had

finalised the Constitution. Hence, Northern politicians and lawyers had virtually no chance to make even marginal changes in the draft.

The outcome of the referendum of the will of the people was neglected.

5 Triggers of the Conflict

In 1988 Somalia and Ethiopia conducted negotiations, mediated by IGAD member states at Djibouti, They concluded an agreement, including: Ethiopia and Somalia would not support rebel militias; War prisoners of 1977 should be released as soon as possible by the two sides; Rebel bases of former Rifle countries should be moved back 10 km from the borders; Disarming rebel armies by the host countries. The rebel groups (S.N.M and E.P.R.D.F) subsequently decided to operate inside their home countries.

6 Key Issues

The conflict between two sides lies in the fact that Somalia is insisting on the Unity of the Somalia Republic, while Somaliland restored its independence in 1991. Somaliland is currently facing a lack of recognition, investment and trade by the international community, lack of direct assistance, loans and travel constraints of its citizens. The key issue is: How to solve the conflict between two states that were united thirty years and then separated 24 years ago? Below we will look at the requirements for forming a sovereign state and the possible process of resolving conflicts related to this.


Ahmed M. Dalmar 61

6.1 Terms and Conditions of Sovereignty Sovereignty is understood in jurisprudence as the full right and power of a governing body to govern itself without any interference from outside sources or bodies and its terms include: a. Well defined borders: Somaliland has its own international borders inherited from the

Somaliland British protectorate. b. A defined population: According to UNFPA report about Somaliland population in 2009,

Somaliland had a population of 3.95 million in 2009. According to some estimates, this figure may double within ten years, resulting in a population of 8 million for Somaliland.

c. A functioning Government: After the dictator was ousted, Somaliland unilaterally restored

its independence from the rest of Somalia in 1991. The collapse of the central government of Somalia in 1991 disrupted all aspects of the state apparatus - institutions collapsed and disintegrated. In 1993, after the successful Borama grand conference of Somaliland, the elected president (the late Egal) and his administration managed to restore the functions of the state institutions. Efforts were then initiated to establish a multi-party system which managed to conduct free, fair and democratic local elections, parliament elections, and presidential elections with a peaceful transfer of power of at least four presidents - both the winners and losers were abiding by the law.

Somaliland has fulfilled the terms for being a sovereign state. It uses its own currency, has a banking system, issues passport etc. It has a democratically elected Parliament consisting of two houses, a judiciary and a Council of Ministries. 6.2 OAU Accord about Colonial Borders The north-south union followed the independence and recognition of both the British and Italian Somali territories, and its dissolution therefore would constitute a unique case of returning to the boundaries inherited from the colonial era.

The former president of Somaliland requested and invited the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) to see Somaliland’s de facto situation, and, in response, the OAU sent a fact-finding mission, led by the former OAU Deputy Chairman, which made a detailed report, recommending the recognition of Somaliland. The OAU, African Union Charter of Human Rights states: Article 14 “All people shall have the right to existence. They shall have unquestionable and

inalienable right to self-determination. They shall freely determine their political status and shall pursue their economic and social development according to the policy they have freely chosen”.

Colonized or oppressed peoples shall have the right to free themselves from the bonds of domination by resorting to any means recognized by the international community.

All people shall have the right to the assistance of the state parties to the present charter in their liberation.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisprudence


Ahmed M. Dalmar 62

6.3 Somaliland and International Law Somaliland de facto: Somaliland actually exists and as a matter of fact is a functioning state. In law, it often means "in practice but not necessarily ordained by law" or "in practice or actuality”. Somaliland de jure: Somaliland is lacking political recognition. When discussing a legal situation, de jure designates what the law says, while de facto designates action of what happens in practice. Besides the international law, when recognising a country there must be also an interest, based on political entities (e.g., the Balkans) and wealth attraction. Somaliland has potential and untapped resources including offshore and inshore oil, natural gas, minerals, food, livestock and variety of marine organisms. According to FAO, Somaliland’s abundant fisheries are virgin and could maintain a sustainable yield of 40,000 tons of sustainable harvest per year without endangering the stock. 6.4 UN Rules and Human Rights Universal human rights include: Solidarity and collective rights such as right to peaceful existence.

Participation: people have the right to participate in making decisions regarding the

protection of their rights.

The right of nations to self-determination is a cardinal principle in modern international law (commonly regarded as a jus-cogens rule), binding, as such, on the UN as authoritative interpretation of the Charter’s norms. It states that nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and fair equality of opportunity have the right to freely choose their sovereignty and international political status with no external compulsion or interference. This can be traced back to the Atlantic Charter, signed on 14 August 1941, by Franklin D. Roosevelt, President of the USA, and Winston Churchill, Prime Minister of the UK who pledged The Eight Principal points of the Self-determination in General Assembly Resolution 1541 (XV), 12 Principle, defining free association with an independent State, integration into an independent State, or independence as the three legitimate options of full self-government compliance with the principle of self-determination.." National aspirations must be respected; people may now be dominated and governed only by their own consent. Self-determination is not a mere phrase; it is an imperative principle of action. . . . "

6.5 Somalia and Somaliland - Current Status According to international law, Somalia is a failed state. It has been helped by the international community since 1991. Support given to Somalia includes but is not limited to: humanitarian aid, relief aid, Governance, stabilisation and facilitation of about thirty reconciliation meetings, paying the salaries of the three main branches of the Government (Cabinet of Ministers, parliament and judiciary). Also, the international community provides foreign forces to protect the weak Government.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_law

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_law

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jus_cogens

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equal_opportunity

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_status

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Charter

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winston_Churchill

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-government


Ahmed M. Dalmar 63

But, all these efforts are not yet realised because the international community did not fully understand the Somali culture and the real context on the ground. On the other hand, the international community ignored Somaliland’s de facto status that could, if recognised, help to stabilise the southern part. Peacemakers have so far opted to tackle the issues sequentially: first trying to establish a government for Somalia and only then addressing the Somaliland question. This approach risks both sides becoming more entrenched and the dispute over Somali unity to be more intractable. If the Federal Government’s authority expands, the dispute over Somaliland’s status is likely to become an ever increasing source of friction, involving serious dangers of a revenge war by the two sides. Somaliland has reacted angrily to the FG’s calls for the UN arms embargo on Somalia to be lifted so it could arm itself and has threatened to increase its own military strength if this happens. The prospect of a return to the major violence of the late 1980s is sufficiently real to merit urgent AU and international community attention. For both sides, the issue of recognition is not merely political or legal – it is existential. Most southern Somalis are viscerally attached to the notion of a united Somali Republic, while many Somalilanders – scarred by the experience of civil war, flight and exile – refer to unity only in the past tense. For a generation of Somaliland’s youth, which has no memories of the united Somalia to which young southerners attach such importance, Somaliland’s sovereignty is a matter of identity (ICG report 2006).

7 Types of Conflict Management

Conflict management follows the following processes: Negotiation: This means two and more sides meet and solve their issues, with facilitation by

a third party. This is the type which Somalia and Somaliland use in their ongoing talks in Turkey. This type of conflict management has limitations: − It issues a number of agreements but it is difficult to implement these; − There are no mediators giving comments and judgements; − It is not suitable for two states with a deep rooted conflict; − Currently the facilitator (Turkey) is biased.

Mediation: This is a type of conflict management process, whereby a third party acts as

mediator. Arbitration: This is the last stage - it continues up to the international court of The Hague. 7.1 Experience elsewhere Under international law, Somaliland has the right to abrogate that union, as they did in 1991. Examples abound in the second half of the twentieth century of international recognition of countries that have emerged from failed states, including East Timor, Eritrea, Gambia, and the successor states of the former Soviet Union and of Yugoslavia (the Balkan republics). The same legal principle should be applied to Somaliland (Shraeder 2008).


Ahmed M. Dalmar 64

Somaliland’s recognition would serve as a bulwark against the further expansion of radical ideologies in the Horn of Africa by offering a shining example (along with Mali and Senegal and other predominantly Muslim Sub-Saharan African democracies) of how Islam and democracy are not mutually exclusive, but rather mutually reinforcing. Somaliland leaders were also eager to cooperate with the US administration in a variety of counter-terrorism measures, including working with the Combined Joint Task Force—Horn of Africa (CJTF-HOA) based in Djibouti.

8 Conclusions

The political basis for Somaliland’s claim includes: a. There was no Act of Union. b. The voluntary union of 1960 was derailed in 1969 by a military coup d’état in Mogadishu that

ushered in more than two decades of brutal military rule under the dictatorship of General Siad Barre. Himself a southerner, Barre destroyed the foundations of the north-south democratic compact, most notably by unleashing a murderous campaign (bordering on genocide) against northern civilians that resulted in more than 50,000 deaths and created over 500,000 refugees as part of a widening civil war during the 1980s.

c. A “point of no return” had been reached for Somalilanders’ intent on reasserting their

country’s independence. In May 2001, a popular mandate was given to dissolving the union, when a resounding number of ballots cast (97 percent) in a national Somaliland referendum favoured the adoption of a new constitution that explicitly underscored Somaliland’s independence.

9 Possible Scenarios for a Solution to the Conflict

a. Recognising each other can solve the problem.

b. Any foreign country recognising Somaliland can improve the situation; Somaliland can then help the international community by sharing common conflict resolution methods, to solve the southern problems.

c. A second referendum among the Somalilanders, and witnessed by the UN and international

community.

d. The international community to take part in the mediation process.

e. The International Court of The Hague. This will be the last option for the conflict resolution. Either option requires strong and purposeful arrangements and solid commitment and international support.


Ahmed M. Dalmar 65

10 Recommendations

For the international community, especially UK, AU and USA: Lead the continuation of the negotiations and transform this to the next stage of conflict management which is mediation. Thus, the recommended type for conflict engagement (Somalia and Somaliland) is collaboration (Win/Win).

AU/EU: To mediate the conflict.

Somalia: Avoid cultural violence; this means: do not support injustice or war criminals.

Both sides: Respect each other.

Somaliland: Continue talks with Somalia, stimulating AU/EU to mediate the conflict.

Somaliland: Create a lobbying group which campaigns for and guarantees recognition.

Invite international human rights organisations to investigate human rights violations and

genocidal actions, war crimes and ethnic cleansing that happened during the 1980s – 1990s and disseminate the findings to the international community and The Hague.

Somaliland: Arrange for a budget and initiate a legal case against the failed state of Somalia

to investigate whether the Somalia Government currently: − defends the war criminals against international courts; − nominates Somaliland’s war criminals as decision-makers; − claims the Somaliland territory and interferes with Somaliland’s internal affairs by

encouraging the establishment of armed militias within Somaliland territory.

Sustainable Management of Rural Water Supply

June 2015

Eng. Saeed Dualeh Mohamed

Mohamoud Hussein Nuue

Yussuf Hassan Ismail

Ministry of Water Resources

Contents

1 Background ......................................................................................................................68

2 Causes of Deterioration ...................................................................................................68

3 Improve the Capacities of Water System Recipients and Operators ................................70

4 Conclusions .....................................................................................................................72

5 Recommendations ...........................................................................................................73

Tables Table 1: Indicators tracked in implementing the Mozambique Rural Water Supply Activity .......72 Figures Figure 1: Household members by source of drinking water .......................................................68 Figure 2: Intervention logic of MCC support to Mozambique Rural Water Supply Activity .........71



Eng. Saeed Dualeh Mohamed, Mohamoud Hussein Nuee, and Yussuf Hassan Ismail 68

1 Background

Somaliland is a Sub-Sahara country, where climate conditions range from arid to semi-arid. Average annual rainfall varies from place to place, depending on the physiographic features of the respective areas. The highest rainfall is received by the mountain ranges, while the lowest is received by the coastal plains. The pastoral livelihood is predominant. The growth of domestic production of Somaliland depends on livestock export, which accounts for a major part of all export. However, the rural communities of Somaliland do not have access to safe, adequate and affordable water for human consumption and livestock watering. As shown in the figure, many of them depend on unprotected and unimproved sources. And while water supply systems are crucial to these communities, they often deteriorate due to lack to sustainable management, and they require frequent rehabilitation. In this paper we will discuss the causes of the deterioration of rural water schemes and possible responses to this.

2 Causes of Deterioration

Studies and information from stakeholders suggest that the root causes of this problem are the following: Lack of community understanding of the system ownership; Absence of stakeholders involvement before construction; Inconsistency between the technology and the capacities of the recipients; Adoption of inappropriate technology; Lack of skills and knowledge; Absence of institutional arrangement for maintenance and cost recovery.

Figure 1: Household members by source of drinking water



2.1 Lack of Ownership The rural communities that are the major recipients of the water infrastructure do not always understand that the outputs are for them. Because of this, the rural communities assume that the supporting institutions will once more repair or replace any broken parts of the system. For this reason, they do not give much attention to maintenance of the water systems. The rural communities are also often in migration throughout the year and they prefer to rely on free of charge water points for their domestic use and for their livestock watering. Last but not least, the rural communities do not know much about protecting water sources, and to them hygiene or sanitation measures are of no use. 2.2 Weak Stakeholders Involvement In many rural water and sanitation projects, the implementing partners go to villages and have separate discussions with one or two of village heads of elders, at times giving them small an amount of money, and asking them to avail land to construct the water point and also committing them to handover the infrastructure after completion. Primary, secondary and tertiary stakeholders are often not aware of what the project is about, because they were not involved in planning, choice of technology, implementation and handover. For these reasons, the water system will not be of value to them, and it can happen that they may sabotage, loot or steal essential parts of system components for their personal use (e.g. inverters or batteries for solar powered systems). 2.3 Inconsistency between the Extraction Technology and Capacities of the

Recipients In many rural water systems that operate in our country, it is routine to encounter a system which does not function because of minor parts which need to be replaced. This is often due to the inconsistency between the skills of the caretakers and the technology for abstraction, which often is solar power or wind power or a hybrid of both of these. The caretakers do not know how to replace or repair parts, or where to obtain spare parts. 2.4 Lack of Skills and Knowledge Rural communities are mainly engaged in herding and busy with attaining fodder and water for their herds. They often do not have much understanding or information about water system planning, implementation and management. In addition, the rural communities of our country do not have easy access to education, other than training for herding, and they trade their products with goods they require from towns. Because of this, the skills and capacities of such project beneficiaries are inadequate, and this often results in system failure.



3 Improve the Capacities of Water System Recipients and Operators

3.1 Identify and Understand Stakeholders When projects are developed, it is crucial to know and understand the relevant stakeholders. For this a stakeholders’ map can be useful. A stakeholder map identifies the stakeholders and visualises the relationships between them. Stakeholders can be linked to each other by the provision of water or materials, transfer of money, delegation, supervision or monitoring of tasks, training, or a contractual relationship. Stakeholders influence each other to varying degrees. Mapping stakeholder relationships helps to get a better understanding of the situation and can serve as a basis for identifying weaknesses and challenges and for discussing potential improvements. Another tool is the stakeholders’ diamond, developed by the Swiss Development Cooperation (SDC). This shows the six strategic fields guiding its programmes in the water sector. These are the three pillars of sustainability: social, environmental and economic, and the three thematic fields: institutional, technological, and knowledge. A “SWOT Diamond” helps to analyse Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats, by considering the six strategic fields, thereby promoting a comprehensive assessment analytical framework 3.2 Establish Ownership for Rural Water Supply Systems In order not to encounter any further deterioration of the water systems, it is essential to sensitise and mobilise the rural community with regards to their ownership of the water system. This requires much effort and various endeavours towards establishing an enabling environment for this. 3.3 Incorporate Income Generating Activities in any Rural Water Project We found in practice that a number of rural water supply systems linked to side-business initiatives are self-sustaining, in comparison to those without side-business initiatives. For example, when a complete solar powered system is established in a village it is hard for to cover the costs of any repairs the system may require, without parallel side business initiative (such as selling power for lighting). This may help to cover the operation and maintenance costs the system may require in the future. 3.4 Conduct Training in Management, Operation, Maintenance and Business

Planning In any water related intervention it is vital in the Somaliland context to incorporate a software package which runs in parallel with the hardware package of the project. This can ensure that the beneficiaries will have access to training on:



Water management schemes and models; Operation and maintenance; Water quality; Sanitation measures and hygiene practices and required behavioural changes. 3.5 Plan and Organise Handover and Takeover for each Project During the handover of the project the results of the project need to be handed over to and be taken over by the recipient community, which the access to safe, sufficient and affordable drinking water for the beneficiaries. In that regard the roles and responsibilities of all the concerned parties need to be identified and consolidated in an operating contact agreement between the Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR) and the operators, community and autonomous agencies that will assume responsibility. 3.6 Monitor and Evaluate all Rural Water Projects during Construction and thereafter Monitoring and evaluating the development and establishment of rural water supply systems is necessary to identify problems and weaknesses in time, and to learn lessons from experience, which will help in future projects. An organisation like the Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC) uses multiple data sources for measuring results. Monitoring data are used during and after implementation, and help to track progress on all steps, as shown in the figure. Figure 2: Intervention logic of MCC support to Mozambique Rural Water Supply Activity

Monitoring data are typically generated by the program implementers, and include programme participants who receive support. However, monitoring data are limited in that they cannot tell us what these participants would have done in absence of the MCC-funded intervention. For example, when implementers report that time to access a non-private water source has decreased, we do not know whether this has occurred because of an MCC-funded borehole or not. This is the reason why MCC invests in independent impact evaluations, which establish a



counterfactual in order to assess what would have happened in the absence of the MCC investment. As an example, the following table summarises performance on output and outcome indicators specific to the Mozambique Rural Water Supply Activity1. Table 1: Indicators tracked in implementing the Mozambique Rural Water Supply Activity Indicators Level Actual

Achieved Target Percent

Complete**

Water points constructed Output 615 600 102 People trained in hygiene and sanitary best practices Output 8,400 7,200 117 Percentage of rural population in intervention areas with access to improved water sources Outcome 23.4* 22.1 106

Time to get to non-private primary water source (Rural) Outcome 76 112.6 176 Residential water consumption (Rural) Outcome 19.5 21.5 53

* Benefiting an estimated 317,000 household members from six intervention districts. ** Percent complete is calculated relative to the baseline value: the actual achieved minus baseline divided by the

target minus baseline. In this project, the average completion rate of output and outcome targets was 110.8%. Targets were exceeded on four of the five indicators. With regard to the “rural residential water consumption” performance indicator, it is worthy to note that although consumption only increased by 2.3 litres per capita per day, 75.8% of all Phase 2 treated community’s median total household water consumption is from an improved water source.

4 Conclusions

Sustainability in Rural water supply schemes is often undermined by poor financial management. Addressing this challenge will require action by implementing agencies (including local government), donors and national government alike. Revenue collection is often weak in villages, but can be improved by introducing a private operator. Flat-rate contributions and a punitive bond can be important elements in the private operator’s contract. Monitoring and regulation at the village level are often weak, a role that could usefully be performed by District Water and Sanitation Teams (DWSTs). Ownership and participation have a valuable role to play in achieving sustainability, but create their own challenges. In particular, how realistic is participatory decision making where community members have very little understanding of the various technological and management options and their implications?

1 Source: Impact Evaluation of the Mozambique Rural Water Supply Activity under a Cooperative Agreement between MCC and

Stanford University”, MCC, Maputo, 2014



Sustainability is a crucial aspect of rural water supply systems. The drive behind attempts to meet the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) is drawing attention towards increased coverage to meet targets. However, these can harmfully distract from the need for long-term maintenance of water schemes: maintenance of both the soft- and the hard-ware, which is so critical for ongoing service provision

5 Recommendations

In order to mitigate and address the constraints and challenges encountered by rural water supply systems in relation to sustainable management, the following options may be explored, fine-tuned, applied and practiced: 1. Establish village water committees, and train these on all relevant aspects. 2. Propagate the idea that water is an economic good and develop mainstreaming and

sustainability packages for all interventions. 3. Put in place policies, norms and regulations designed for follow up, monitoring and

evaluation of rural water supply schemes or systems. 4. Establish vocational training centres for technicians for water works in all regions.

5. Strengthen and scale up the handing over and taking over of rural WASH interventions by

preparing and enforcing the required agreements and other documents relevant to the specific technology.

6. Gather information and conduct analysis that will make it possible to determine the price of

water in order to achieve full cost recovery in a range of contexts and with different technologies. If full cost recovery is not realistic, this has implications for the suitability of the National Water Policy and for current investment plans, and this needs to be addressed.

7. Undertake efforts to introduce effective financial regulations of village water schemes.

Managers and service providers must be made accountable to the community. Voluntary regulation as well as external regulation should be explored.

8. Increase the number of private operators, as this is likely to have a positive impact on the

size of village water funds. However, regulation of the private operators must be introduced at the same time, to avoid excessive profits and weak contractual arrangements.

9. Investigate the feasibility of installing meters, to improve monitoring of and to enforce

contractual arrangements and determine suitable flat-rate payments by the Private Operator. 10. Enable community members to visit other schemes so that they can share problem solving

strategies.

11. Arrange for exchange visits by District Water Department staff, to facilitate information sharing at district level regarding issues such as contractual arrangements and water pricing.

professional papers publication july 2015

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