product life cycle - mit.edu slides/lectures 9 & 10 lca-lci.pdf · (discussion of hybrid...
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Product Life CycleProduct Life CycleProduct Life Cycle
Mining
Manufacturing
Use PhaseEnd of Life
ReadingsReadingsReadingsReadings
1. Sullivan, J., et al, “Life Cycle of US Sedan…..” 1999, p 1-14. (handout)
2. Allen and Shonnard, Ch 13 “Life Cycle Concepts…” by Rosselot and Allen, in Green Engineering. (click here for PDF)
3. Graedel, Evaluating the LCA Process, pp 69 -86 (handout)
4. Graedel, Appendix A SLCA (handout)
5. Leontief, Input/Output Economics, pp19 – 24 (handout)
6. CMU I/O website• Tutorial: http://www.eiolca.net/tutorial.html
• Economic Input-Output LCA: http://www.eiolca.net/
Additional ReadingsAdditional ReadingsAdditional ReadingsAdditional Readings1. (alternative to Allen and Shonnard) LCA 101, (41 pages, but less than 26 of
text) see http://www.epa.gov/ORD/NRMRL/lcaccess/lca101.htm
2. (discussion of hybrid analysis with extensive example) Joshi, S., “Product Environmental Life Cycle Assessment Using Input-Output Techniques” , J. Industrial Ecology, Vol 3, Number 2 & 3, 2000, p 96-120 (from VERA).
3. (review of alternative methodologies and sources of errors) Suh and Huppes, “Methods of Life Cycle Inventory of a product”, J Cleaner Production, 13 (2005) pp 687-697 (available on line)
4. Toffel and Horvarth, “Environmental Implications of Wireless Technologies: News Delivery and Business Meetings” 2004, ES&T, 38, 11 2961-2970
5. Mokhtarian, “Telecommunications and Travel”, 2003, JIE, 6,2, 43-57
OutlineOutlineOutlineOutline
1. Introduction
2. Streamlined Life Cycle Analysis (SLCA)
3. Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)
4. Input/Output Models (I/O)
5. Product Examples
6. LCA Critique
Mining Primary Mfg Distribution Use Disposition
0m& 8m&
kipm& kopm&
0m& 8m&
kipm& kopm&
0m& 8m&
kipm& kopm&
0m& 8m&
kipm& kopm&
0m& 8m&
kipm& kopm&
0m& 8m&
kipm& kopm&
Recycle, Remanufacture, Reuse
Life Cycle AnalysisLife Cycle AnalysisLife Cycle AnalysisLife Cycle Analysis
Light Bulbs and MercuryLight Bulbs and MercuryLight Bulbs and MercuryLight Bulbs and Mercury
Allen and Shonnard
Light Bulbs and MercuryLight Bulbs and MercuryLight Bulbs and MercuryLight Bulbs and Mercury
Allen and Shonnard
Life Cycle PerspectiveLife Cycle PerspectiveLife Cycle PerspectiveLife Cycle Perspective
• boundaries start from earth as the source, and
return to earth as the sink
• evaluation is often focused on a product or
service
• tracking is of materials
• time stands still
• some analyses look at land use
2. Streamlined Life Cycle 2. Streamlined Life Cycle 2. Streamlined Life Cycle 2. Streamlined Life Cycle AssessmentAssessmentAssessmentAssessment
• qualitative assessment
• value judgments by experts
• for each stage of the life cycle
• in broad categories of impact
• “first cut” at the problem
• See SLCA by T. Graedel 1998
Evaluation Matrix for SLCA, Evaluation Matrix for SLCA, Evaluation Matrix for SLCA, Evaluation Matrix for SLCA, MMMMijijijij
5554535251Refurbishment, Recycling, Disposal
4544434241Product Use
3534333231Product Delivery
2524232221Manufacturing
1514131211Extraction andRefining
Gaseous
Residues
Liquid
Residues
Solid
Residues
Energy
Use
Materials
Choice
Life Cycle
Stages
Graedel
Scoring M21 (mat’ls used in mfg)
• M21 = 0 when product mfg requires relatively large amounts of restricted mat’ls(limited supply, toxic, radioactive) and alternatives are available.
• M21 =4 when mat’ls used in mfg are completely closed loop and minimum inputs are required.
Automobile Example; Automobile Example; Automobile Example; Automobile Example; Manufacturing Ratings 0Manufacturing Ratings 0Manufacturing Ratings 0Manufacturing Ratings 0----4 (best)4 (best)4 (best)4 (best)
Small amounts of volatile hydrocarbons emitted3Volatile hydrocarbons emitted from paint shop125Gas residue
Some liquid residues from cleaning and painting3Substantial liquid residues from cleaning and painting224Liq. Residue
Some metal scrap and packaging scrap produced3Lots of metal scrap and packaging scrap produced223Solid residue
Energy use during manufacture is fairly high3Energy use during manufacture is high122Energy use
Good materials choices, except for lead solder waste3Chlorinated solvents, cyanide021Matls. choice
Element Value & Explanation: Element Value & Explanation: Element Value & Explanation: Element Value & Explanation: 1990s Auto1990s Auto1990s Auto1990s Auto
Element Value & Explanation: Element Value & Explanation: Element Value & Explanation: Element Value & Explanation: 1950s Auto1950s Auto1950s Auto1950s Auto
Element DesignationElement DesignationElement DesignationElement Designation
taken from Graedel 1998
Product Assessment Matrix for the Product Assessment Matrix for the Product Assessment Matrix for the Product Assessment Matrix for the Generic Generic Generic Generic 1950s1950s1950s1950s Automobile [Automobile [Automobile [Automobile [GraedelGraedelGraedelGraedel 1998]1998]1998]1998]
Environmental Stressor Life Cycle Stage Materials
Choice
Energy
Use
Solid
Residues
Liquid
Residues
Gaseous
Residues
Total
Premanufacture 2 2 3 3 2 12/20
Product
Manufacture
0 1 2 2 1 6/20
Product
Delivery
3 2 3 4 2 14/20
Product Use 1 0 1 1 0 3/20
Refurbishment,
Recycling,
Disposal
3 2 2 3 1 11/20
Total 9/20 7/20 11/20 13/20 6/20 46/100
Product Assessment Matrix for the Product Assessment Matrix for the Product Assessment Matrix for the Product Assessment Matrix for the Generic Generic Generic Generic 1990s1990s1990s1990s Automobile [Automobile [Automobile [Automobile [GraedelGraedelGraedelGraedel 1998]1998]1998]1998]
Environmental Stressor Life Cycle Stage Materials
Choice
Energy
Use
Solid
Residues
Liquid
Residues
Gaseous
Residues
Total
Premanufacture 3 3 3 3 3 15/20
Product
Manufacture
3 2 3 3 3 14/20
Product
Delivery
3 3 3 4 3 16/20
Product Use 1 2 2 3 2 10/20
Refurbishment,
Recycling,
Disposal
3 2 3 3 2 13/20
Total 13/20 12/20 14/20 16/20 13/20 68/100
Target plotTarget plotTarget plotTarget plot of the estimated SLCA impacts for of the estimated SLCA impacts for of the estimated SLCA impacts for of the estimated SLCA impacts for generic automobiles for the 1950s and 1990sgeneric automobiles for the 1950s and 1990sgeneric automobiles for the 1950s and 1990sgeneric automobiles for the 1950s and 1990s
4
3
2
1
0
(1,1)
(1,2)
(1,3)
(1,4)
(1,5)
(2,1)
(2,2)
(2,3)
(2,4)
(2,5)
(3,1)
(3,2)(3,3)(3,4)
(3,5)
(4,1)
(4,2)
(4,3)
(4,4)
(4,5)
(5,1)
(5,2)
(5,3)
(5,4)
(5,5)
1950s
1990s
[Graedel 1998]
Mfg: Mat’l choices
Use
Primary Mat’ls
Mfg
distribution
End of Life
energy
gas residues
3. Life Cycle Inventory3. Life Cycle Inventory3. Life Cycle Inventory3. Life Cycle Inventory
• counting up inputs and outputs
• define the “activity”
• establish the boundaries
• get the data
Process Models for InventoriesProcess Models for InventoriesProcess Models for InventoriesProcess Models for Inventories
Inputs
“Activity”
1
2
3
4
5
Sullivan et al 1998Sullivan et al 1998Sullivan et al 1998Sullivan et al 1998
• “family sedan”
• 120,000 miles life time
• estimate from 644 parts
• 23 mpg
• total mass 1532 kg
• solvent based paints with controls
1.Material Production2.Manufacturing3.Use4.Maintenance & Repair5.End of Life
Inputs
Output and Energy Use
Total Energy Use by Lifecycle Stage
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
Material
Production
Manufacturing Use Maintenance
and Repair
End of Life
Lifecycle Stage
Total Energy Use Per Car (GJ)
Sullivan 1998
Total Energy 973 GJ/car
Use phase of the automobileUse phase of the automobileUse phase of the automobileUse phase of the automobile
• products design factors
• human behavior
• prepared by Lynette Cheah
A majority of the environmental burden of an auto occurs during the
use phase
0
20000
40000
60000
80000
100000
120000
CO2 emissions (lb)
Material
Prodn
Mfr &
Assembly
OperationMaintenance EOL
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900HC & SOx emissions
(lb)
Material
Prodn
Mfr &
Assembly
OperationMaintenance EOLSource: Sullivan & Cobas-Flores (2001),Full Vehicle LCAs: A Review, SAE 2001-01-3725
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
Energy value (MMBTU)
Material
Prodn
Mfr &
Assembly
OperationMaintenance EOL
87%
87%
79%
Less than 15% of input energy is useful
Source: Pinkus and Wilcock, The Role of Tribology in Energy Conservation, Lubrication Engineering, 34 (11), pp. 599-610 via www.chevron.com
Factors affecting automobile fuel use and emissions during the use
phase (1)• How well the automobile is maintained
– 5-10% of vehicles (gross polluters) account for > 50% of the CO and NMHC emissions from the fleet
• Driving patterns/conditions
– Fuel economy decreases at
• High speeds
• Low temperatures
– Oil viscosity � friction
– Greater aerodynamic drag
– Idling to warm up interior
Source: Beaton et al (1995), On-Road vehicle emissions, Science 268, 991-993
Factors affecting automobile fuel use and emissions during the use
phase (2)• Technology
– Fuel type
• Diesel-powered cars achieve 20-40% better fuel economy than gasoline powered equivalents
– Transmission
• Manual transmissions are lighter than conventional automatic, and suffer fewer energy losses
– Powertrain
• Hybrids vs. conventional SI gasoline cars
50
Honda Civic
28555628MPG
Regular
Accord
Toyota Prius
Honda Insight
Honda Accord
MY 2006
hybrids
Factors affecting automobile fuel use and emissions during the use
phase (3)• Vehicle design
– Drag (aerodynamic, tires)
– WeightVehicle weight-fuel consumption relationship for US
vehicles
y = 0.0059x + 1.2346
R2 = 0.7303
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000
Curb weight (kg)
Fuel consumption (L/100km)
Factors affecting automobile fuel use and emissions during the use
phase (4)• And, of course, distance traveled!
Source: FHWA, US DOT
Average annual miles traveled per car in the US
8,000
8,500
9,000
9,500
10,000
10,500
11,000
11,500
12,000
12,500
13,000
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
The New York Times March 30, 2006
ElectronicsElectronicsElectronicsElectronics
• References
– Williams, E. et al, The 1.7 Kilogram Microchip,
– Kuehr, R, and Williams, E. “Computers and the Environment” Kluwer Press 2003
– Murphy, C. F. Electronics, in “Environmentally Benign Manufacturing” Gutowski et al 2001
available at http://web.mit.edu/ebm/
1.7 kg microchip1.7 kg microchip1.7 kg microchip1.7 kg microchip
Williams et al
Production of HyperProduction of HyperProduction of HyperProduction of Hyper----Pure SiliconPure SiliconPure SiliconPure Silicon
Extraction
Reduction to Silicon Metal
SiO2 + C → Si + CO2
Conversion to Trichlorosilane,
distillation
Si + 3HCl → HSiCl3 + H2
CVD to produce polycrystalline Si
(Polysilicon)
HSiCl3 + H2 → Si + 3HCl
Formation of monocrystalline
Si ingot
Cutting and polishing to produce Si
wafers
S. Paap
1.7 kg microchip1.7 kg microchip1.7 kg microchip1.7 kg microchip
Williams et al
1.7 kg microchip1.7 kg microchip1.7 kg microchip1.7 kg microchip
Williams et al
Materials and Environmental Concerns - Integrated Circuits
Wafer fabrication
Product materials: Si, SiO2, Al, ± CuEBM Issues: Water, energy, gas emissions (especially PFCs - perfluoro compounds)
Chip packaging
Product materials:Polymers, Ceramics, Ni/Au alloys, Cu, Au
EBM Issues: Energy, metal-bearing liquid waste, flame retardants, material waste
C. Murphy
Materials and Environmental Concerns - Printed Wiring Boards
PWB fabrication
PWB (board-level) assembly
Product materials: Ceramic, epoxy-glass, or other polymers; Cu, Pd, Pb, Au
EBM Issues: Water, energy, flame retardants, Pb finishes, plating solutions
Product materials: Pb/SnEBM Issues: Energy, Pb
C. Murphy
Materials and Environmental Concerns - Computer System
Product materials: NiCdEBM Issues: Cd, life/efficiency
CRT
Batteries
Storage Media
Final Assembly
Product materials: Glass, Pb, phosphors, steel, Al, CuEBM Issues: Energy, Pb
Product materials: Al or glass, Ni, MgEBM Issues: recyclability
Product materials: Al or glass, Ni, MgEBM Issues: recyclability
C. Murphy
Materials Inventory for Fabrication of a Materials Inventory for Fabrication of a Materials Inventory for Fabrication of a Materials Inventory for Fabrication of a 15.5 kg monitor and a 9 kg CPU.15.5 kg monitor and a 9 kg CPU.15.5 kg monitor and a 9 kg CPU.15.5 kg monitor and a 9 kg CPU.
Kuehr and Williams
chips onlychips onlychips onlychips only
Williams et al
Target Plot of the Environmental Impact of a
Desktop Computer and CRT Display
4
3
2
1
0
(1,1)
(1,2)
(1,3)
(1,4)
(1,5)
(2,1)
(2,2)
(2,3)
(2,4)
(2,5)
(3,1)
(3,2)(3,3)(3,4)
(3,5)
(4,1)
(4,2)
(4,3)
(4,4)
(4,5)
(5,1)
(5,2)
(5,3)
(5,4)
(5,5) Toxic mat’ls used, few recycled
Mfg
Distribution
Use
End of Life
Primary Mat’ls
4. Input/Output Analysis4. Input/Output Analysis4. Input/Output Analysis4. Input/Output Analysis
• f = “demand” for activity
• x = quantity produced to meet the demand
• x-αx = f
• x = f/(1-α)
“Activity”
1
2
3
4
5
115154143132121111 fxxxxxx =−−−−− ααααα
Simplified inputSimplified inputSimplified inputSimplified input----output table for a threeoutput table for a threeoutput table for a threeoutput table for a three----sector economysector economysector economysector economy
Table 2.1 from Leontief, Oxford Press ’86
100bushels of wheat
552025Sector 1:
Agriculture
300 man-
years of labor
4018018Sector 3:
Households
50 yards
of cloth
30614Sector 2:
Manufacture
Total
Output
Sector 3:
House-
Holds
Sector 2:
Manufacture
Sector 1:
Agriculture
to
:
From:
Rewrite as table in dollarsRewrite as table in dollarsRewrite as table in dollarsRewrite as table in dollars
Mfg
Ag
x2f2x22x21
x1f1x12x11
Total(pro-
duction)
House(demand)
Mfg.Ag
In matrix formIn matrix formIn matrix formIn matrix form
(x1 – x11) – x12 = f1
-x21 + (x2 – x22) = f2
or using coefficients aij = xij/xj
(1 – a11)x1 – a12x2 = f1
-a21x1 + (1 – a22)x2 = f2
or [I – a] {x} = {f}
let {e} = environmental let {e} = environmental let {e} = environmental let {e} = environmental emissionsemissionsemissionsemissions
[I – a] {x} = {f}
{x} = [I-a]-1 {f}
{e} = [R]{x}
{e} = [R] [I-a]-1 {f}
CMU I/O websiteCMU I/O websiteCMU I/O websiteCMU I/O websitehttp://www.eiolca.net/
Click here to start the tutorial
• You may either find a sector via a keyword search, or browse through the sector list for the Industry Benchmark US Dept of Commerce
EIO model from 1997 (491 x 491) contributed by Green Design Institute.
CMU Input/Output Model Vs. CMU Input/Output Model Vs. CMU Input/Output Model Vs. CMU Input/Output Model Vs. SullivanSullivanSullivanSullivan’’’’s Process Models Process Models Process Models Process Model
emissions (gms)
per vehicle
CMU I/O
(1992 data) Sullivan et al
(1995 ref. vehicle) % Difference
from CMU
CO2 7,536,196 7,002,010 -7%
CH4 69,483 17,307 -75%
SO2 32,484 45,408 40%
CO 51,079 69,727 37%
NO2 31,937 21,166 -34%
VOC 12,008
Lead 28 51 86%
PM10 5,582 34,705 522%
Results for all activities up to and including manufacturing
Normalization of I/O dataNormalization of I/O dataNormalization of I/O dataNormalization of I/O data
• Note: Sector studied: # 590301 = SIC Code # 3711
• Economic activity for 1992 = $ 57 x 109
• (Ref Statistical Abstract of the US 1992)
• Retail Sales = 6.3 x 106 vehicles
• (Ref US Dept of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis)
• $/Auto = $9,047.62 (used to normalize I/O data)
Comparison of Electronic Computers Comparison of Electronic Computers Comparison of Electronic Computers Comparison of Electronic Computers and Motor Vehicles by I/O Analysis and Motor Vehicles by I/O Analysis and Motor Vehicles by I/O Analysis and Motor Vehicles by I/O Analysis
per $1M (1992 data)per $1M (1992 data)per $1M (1992 data)per $1M (1992 data)
.006 Bil Gal (intake).0016 Bil Gal (intake)Water Used
2.02 mt.89 mtToxic Releases
47.4 mt32.1 mtRCRA (Haz.
Waste)
12.6 TJ6.0 TJEnergy
937.2 MTCO2E479.4 MTCO2EGWP
Motor Vehicles and Passenger Car Bodies
# 590301
Electronic Computers #510103
Paper or Plastic?
Paper or Silicon?
Toffel, M.W., and A. Horvath.2004. Environmental implicationsof wireless technologies: News delivery and business meetings.Environmental Science & Technology
38(June 1):2961-2970.
Reading the New York Times
• weighs about 236 kg/yr
• about 2.6 people read it
• paper production
• printing
• delivery
• half to land fill
• half to recycle
• PDA mfg?
• Uses Williams result 12MB/32MB
• energy usage
• telecommunications infrastructure
Newspaper Vs PDANewspaper Vs PDANewspaper Vs PDANewspaper Vs PDA
• New York Times
• 270 kg CO2
• 8730 liters H2O
• 0.9 kg NOx
• 1.4 kg SOx
• PDA
• 5 kg CO2
• 232 liters H2O
• 4 g NOx
• 4 g SOx
Travel Vs Cell phonesTravel Vs Cell phonesTravel Vs Cell phonesTravel Vs Cell phones
• Berkeley – Chicago
• auto, air, train
• average not marginal values
• lodging excluded
• mfg excluded
• mfg included I/O for $100 phone, 3 year life
• includes infrastructure
• 2 hour call
Travel Vs Cell phonesTravel Vs Cell phonesTravel Vs Cell phonesTravel Vs Cell phones
LCI SummariesLCI SummariesLCI SummariesLCI Summaries
Diapers, short life products
End of Life
Use fossil fuels, plug into grid
Use
Microelectronics,
Nano-technology
Mfg
Paper Products: i.e. paper Vs plastics, paper Vs silicon…
Extraction and Refining
Products with major impact in stage
Life Stage
LCA softwareLCA softwareLCA softwareLCA softwarehttp://www.life-cycle.org/LCA_soft.htm
• Boustead Consulting Database and Software• ECO-it: Eco-Indicator Tool for environmentally friendly design - PRé
Consultants • EDIP - Environmental design of industrial products - Danish EPA • EIOLCA - Economic Input-Output LCA at Carnegie Mellon University • GaBi 4 - (Ganzheitlichen Bilanzierung - holistic balancing) - Five Winds
International/University of Stuttgart (IKP)/PE Product Engineering • IDEMAT - Delft University Clean Technology Institute Interduct
Environmental Product Development • KCL-ECO 3.0 - KCL LCA software • LCAiT - CIT EkoLogik (Chalmers Industriteknik) • SimaPro 6 for Windows - PRé Consultants • TEAM(TM) (Tools for Environmental Analysis and Management) -
Ecobalance, Inc. • Umberto - An advanced software tool for Life Cycle Assessment - Institut für
Umweltinformatik
Incorporating ValuesIncorporating ValuesIncorporating ValuesIncorporating Values
• Self-interest
– stakeholders
• Knowledge
– mental models
• Power
– if fish could vote….
Valuation: EcoValuation: EcoValuation: EcoValuation: Eco----indicator 95indicator 95indicator 95indicator 95
Weighting of the damage categories by the panel •http://www.pre.nl/default.htm
LCA critiqueLCA critiqueLCA critiqueLCA critique
• System boundaries
– workers, alternatives, cut-off
• Functional Unit
– comparing services, functionality
• Data Limitations
– cutoff Vs aggregation
• Impact Assessment Considerations
– non-linearities, location, time, values
Substitutes and ComplimentsSubstitutes and ComplimentsSubstitutes and ComplimentsSubstitutes and Compliments
• Substitutes: replacement or elimination
• Compliments: stimulation or generation
• do emails substitute for letters (paper)?
• do telecommunications substitute for travel?
• What were the first words of Alexander Graham Bell over the telephone?
• “Mr Watson, come here; I want you”
ref Mokhtarian (2002) JIE, 6, 2, 43-57
LCA hybrid approaches
• tiered approach
– mat’l & mfg + use + end of life
• disaggregating an industrial sector
– aij = s aij + (1-s) aij
• integration models
– process flow model embedded into a I/O model
– beware of double counting
HomeworksHomeworksHomeworksHomeworks
1. Redo “comparison of electronic computers and motor vehicles using 1997 data in CMU website.
2. Compare the energy intensity of telecommunications and air transport using the CMU website
3. Develop a SLCA for Toyota Vs Ford automobiles (team project)
4. Develop a LCI for same from Company Environmental Reports (team project)
5. Do you think the PDA is a substitute for the newspaper?