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Proceedings of the

South Dakota Academy of Science

Volume 962017

ISSN 0096-378X (print)ISSN 0096-1947 (online)

Proceedings of the


Volume 962017

Published by the South Dakota Academy of ScienceAcademy Founded 22 November, 1915

Academy Website: www.sdaos.org

EditorRobert Tatina

Associate EditorsMichael Barnes, SD Game, Fish and Parks, Fisheries

Dave Bergmann, Black Hills State University, MicrobiologySteve Chipps, South Dakota State University, Wildlife

Andy Detwiler, SD School of Mines and Technology, Atmospheric ScienceAndy Farke, Raymond M. Alf Museum, PaleontologyDonna Hazelwood, Dakota State University, BotanyTim Mullican, Dakota Wesleyan University, ZoologyJeffrey Palmer, Dakota State University, Mathematics

Fedora Sutton, South Dakota State University, Molecular Biology

Graphic DesignerTom Holmlund—Minute Man Press

ISSN 0096-378X (print)ISSN 0096-1947 (online)

Copies of articles are available at EBSCO host and at www.sdaos.org

Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science

Since its beginning in 1915, the South Dakota Academy of Science has been a forum for the promotion of scientific teaching, research, and service in the state of South Dakota. The South Dakota Academy of Science meets each spring for the purpose of annual business, awards, and the interchange of ideas, informa-tion, and results from scientists and students of science. The minutes of the annual meeting and the abstracts and full papers of presentations are published annually in the Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science, which is uploaded to the Academy website (www.sdaos.org). Although presentation at the annual meeting is strongly encouraged, each year a limited number of full papers may be considered for publication that have not been. The Instructions for Authors can be viewed at www.sdaos.org.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Consolidated Minutes of the 102nd Annual Meeting of the South Dakota Academy of Science ................................................................................... 1

Presidential Address: Meeting the Mission of the South Dakota Academy of Science. Vicki Marie Geiser ............................................................................. 19

Complete Senior Research Papers Presented at the 102nd Annual Meeting of the


A Survey of Redbelly Snakes in the Black Hills of South Dakota. Charles D. Dieter and Tait Ronningen ............................................................................. 25

Optimal Prey Selection in Eastern Gray Squirrels. Robert Tatina ................................ 33Using Water Quality and GIS to Evaluate Lake Trout Habitat in

Deerfield Reservoir, South Dakota. Lindsey Meiers, Michelle Bucholz, Joellyn Moine and Greg Simpson .......................................................... 45

Feeding Technique Does Not Impact the Growth of Rainbow Trout Receiving Sub-satiation Rations. Patrick A. Nero, Michael E. Barnes, Emily P. Trappe, and Eric Krebs ........................................................................... 50

Importance of Fishing as a Segmentation Variable in the Application of a Social Worlds Model. Larry M. Gigliotti and Loren Chase .................................. 58

Wildlife Value Orientation Stability among South Dakota Residents: Setting the Stage for a Longitudinal Analysis. Larry M. Gigliotti and Andrew W. Don Carlos ................................................................................. 77

A Rare Occurrence of the Fossil Water Mole Gaillardia (Desmanini, Talipidae) from the Neogene in North America. James E. Martin ....................... 94

Preliminary Chemical Characterization of Water from Sites Near the Sanford Underground Research Facility. Joseph M. Barnes and Micheal H. Zehfus ............................................................................................... 99

A Comparison of Types of Information About Weed Distribution From Counties in the Missouri Plateau. Mark Gabel and Grace Kostel ....................... 112

Fates of Ovules in Groundplum Milk-vetch (Astragalus crassicarpus Nutt.) in South Dakota. Arvid Boe and Paul J. Johnson ............................................... 121

Thin Section Microscopy of the Fossil Fish Cylindracanthus. Barbara S. Grandstaff, Rodrigo A. Pellegrini, David C. Parris, and Donald Clements ........130

Ethnobotany at South Dakota State University: An Outgrowth of Regional American Indian Reservation Teaching and Research Collaborations. R. Neil Reese ............................................................................ 144

Atmospheric Sciences at the South Dakota School of Mines & Technology. Andrew G. Detwiler and Paul L. Smith ..................................... 151

Shoot Position Effects on Fruit Characteristics of Brianna Grape. Rhoda L. Burrows .......................................................................................... 169

Erratum: Swanson, D. L. 2015. From Tabeau to SDOU: A Brief History of Ornithology in South Dakota with Special Reference to Works Published in the Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science. Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science 94:29-51. ....................... 174

Abstracts of Senior Research Papers and Posters Presented at the 102nd Annual Meeting of the


Child Obesity in Rural Communities of South Dakota: Community-Based Participatory Research. Manuel A. Guillen, Nicholas J. Wixon, and Tamara K. Pease .......................................................................................... 178

Discovering Genetic Pathways Involved in Soybean Root Nodule Development via Bioinformatic Analysis. Geoffrey Gray-Lobe, Alexandra Suriani, and Etienne Gnimpieba ....................................................... 179

Survival and Drift Behavior of Pallid Sturgeon Free Embryos and Larvae in an Artificial Channel. K. J. Buhl and T. W. Schaeffer .................................... 180

Quantitative Analysis of Tempo and Keys/Modes Effects on Heart Rate and Blood Pressure. Maggie Wallis and Kenneth Tice ....................................... 181

Community-based Participatory Action Research: Adolescent Exercise and Wellness in Rural South Dakota. Nicholas J. Wixon, Manuel A. Guillen, and Tamara K. Pease ....................................................................... 182

Analysis of DNA Double Strand Breaks Induced by Pseudomonas syringae Virulence Factors. Victoria Biach and Andrew R. Russell ................................. 183

Parasitoid Wasps from Soybean Aphid, Aphis glycines Matsumura (Hemiptera: Aphididae), in Eastern South Dakota. Abigail P. Martens and Paul J. Johnson ......................................................................... 184

Cytotoxicity of Urban Dust and Diesel Exhaust Particulate in Murine Astrocyte Cells. Tyler R. Fortuna, Peyton C. Price, Kevin J. Lopez, Andrew J. Schwader, and Paula A. Mazzer ........................................................ 185

Modelling Distribution Functions for Simulation Parameters Using C++ Generating Scripts. Caleb Vangerpen and J. A. Maloney .................................. 186

The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram and Classification of Stars. Cheyanne M. Hardt ....187Composition of Invertebrate Prey in Selected Western South Dakota

Rivers. E. Peterson, N. H. Troelstrup, Jr., S. Jones, K. N. Bertrand, and B. D. S. Graeb ........................................................................................... 188

Simulating Diet Selection of Cattle Grazing Mixed-Grass Prairie. C. J. Zilverberg, J. Williams, J. Angerer, and L. J. Metz .................................... 189

Crystal Structure and Magnetism in Mn2FeSb Heusler Compounds. Jace Waybright, Basanta Bhusal, Yung Huh, and Parashu Kharel ...................... 190

Simple Extraction and Purification of Artemisia cana: Searching for the Malaria Medication Artemisinin. Alec B. Millner, Daniel L. Heglund, Aubree R. Rypkema, Tyler J. Ryther, John A. Dixson,and Margaret Braasch-Turi ................................................................................ 191

Intersexual Displays and Vocalizations of Anolis carolinesis. S. G. Kramer, T. I. Durnin, and A. M. Anderson .................................................................... 192

Felid Food Caching Taphonomy: Preliminary Results of a Controlled Study with Felis catus and Behavioral Correlations with Wild, Predatory Carnivora. Ed Welsh ......................................................................... 193

Application of a Standardized Metric Optimization Process for the Development of Indices of Biotic Integrity in South Dakota. Lyntausha C. Kuehl, Chad Kaiser, Katie N. Bertrand, and Nels H. Troelstrup, Jr. ....................194

Watershed Vulnerability to Forecasted Land-Use and Land-Cover Under Multiple Scenarios of Future Development. A. Suehring and N. H. Troelstrup, Jr. .................................................................................. 195

Effects of Pulsed and Pressed Draw-down on Macroinvertebrate Communities of Temporary Wetland Mesocosms. Lindsey Meiers and Nels Troelstrup, Jr. ..................................................................................... 196

Diversification and Maintenance of Disease Resistant Genes in the Bread Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) Genome. Ethan J. Andersen and Madhav P. Nepal ............................................................................................... 197

Do Native Plants Deploy More Rapidly Evolving Genes Than Their Cultivated Relatives Do? Lauren E. Lindsey, Ethan J. Andersen and Madhav P. Nepal ............................................................................................... 198

Synthesis and Characterization of Polycarbonates from 1,4:3,6-Dianhydro-D-mannitol. J. A. Pallas and Ts. Filipova ............................ 199

Identification of Potential Lectins Useful for Diagnosing Eggs of Different Trichostrongyle Nematode Genera in South Dakota Cattle. A. J. Nikolas, P. Khanal, P. S. Heliso, L. M. N. Monga, and M. B. Hildreth .... 200

The Hetz Gene Regulates Heterocyst Formation in Anabaena sp. Strain PCC 7120. P. Videau, V. A. Swenson, M. O. Gaylor, S. M. O’Hanlon, and L. M. Cozy .................................................................... 201

Exploring Molecular Simulations of a Plausible Prebiotic Reduced Phospholipid Using Hyperchem Software. L. J. Leinen, N. W. Fitch, K. L. Even, P. Videau, and M. O. Gaylor .......................................................... 202

Characterization of the Volatilome of Land-Disposed Sewage Sludge Under Seasonal Temperature Regimes. H. L. Juntunen, L. J. Leinen, V. A. Swenson, R. Honour, R. C. Hale, P. Videau, and M. O. Gaylor .... .......... 203

Assessment of Four Solvents for Extraction and Analysis of the Chemical Composition of Sansevieria Extrafoliar Nectar Drops by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry. H. L. Juntunen, P. Videau, D. Hazelwood, and M. O. Gaylor ................................................... 204

Identification and Characterization of Fungal Isolates from Land-Applied Sewage Sludge. V. A. Swenson, H. L. Juntunen, R. Honour, R. C Hale, M. O. Gaylor, and P. Videau ........................................................... 205

Compounding Theory and Practice in Hydrology: A Case of the Missouri River in 2011. B. A. Shmagin ........................................................................... 206

NSF REU Site: Bringing Us Together, Improving Communications and Lives 2014-2016 Summary. Thomas P. Montoya .............................................. 207

Dual Electrode Detection in LC-EC Analysis of Sanger Derivatized Amino Acids. Dong Wang, Paulina Guerrero, John Becker, Haoran Sun, and Miles Koppang ................................................................................... 208

A Phylogenetic Analysis of the Genus Erigone Audouin, 1826 (Araneae, Linyphiidae). K. Olson, L. B. Patrick, and A. VanTassal ................................... 209

Comparing Spider (Araneae) Diversity in Remnant vs Restored Tallgrass Prairie in Eastern South Dakota. A. VanTassel, L. B. Patrick, L. Winkler, and P. Johnson ............................................................................... 210

A New Species in the Genus Walckenaeria Blackwall, 1833 (Araneae, Linyphiidae), with a Rediscription of W. oregana Millidge, 1983. N. Woslum and L. B. Patrick ............................................................................ 211

Nutritional Competitive Ability in Bromus inermis and Pascopyrum smithii. M. A. Malecek and L. Xu ..................................................................... 212

A Targeted Approach for Analyzing Large Lipidomic Data Sets. D. Paulson and P. Mazzer ................................................................................. 213

Effects of Altered Precipitation Intervals and Simulated Grazing on Vegetative Propagules and Tiller Recruitment of Two Perennial Grasses. Surendra Bam, Jacqueline P. Ott, Jack L. Butler, and Lan Xu .............. 214

The Rejuvenation of Antimicrobials through Competitive Selection. Chris W. Brooks and Andrew R. Russell .................................................................... 215

Genetics and Selection for Simply Inherited traits in Red Clover. Arvid Boe and Robin Bortnem ................................................................................... 216

Analysis of Algal Composition and Nutrient Removal in the Nutrient Removal Facility and Lake Kampeska. Taylor S. Clemmons, Jaime Z. Haueter, Lisa A. Kunza, and Roger Foote ..................................................... 217

Genes and Their Linkage to Dental and Cardiovascular Health. J. Keryakos, A. van Oosbree, and A.M. Kiesow ................................................. 218

Research Papers and Posters Published by Title Only Presented at the 102nd Annual Meeting of the


The Three Oaks of Three Oaks: A Case of Nomenclatural Imprecision. Robert Tatina, Department of Biological Sciences, Dakota Wesleyan University, Mitchell, SD 57301

Experimental Augmentation of MicroRNA-34a Effects: Implications for Human Genomic Studies. A.V. Kofman. Department of Biology, Dakota Wesleyan University, Mitchell, SD, 57301

Rare Single Nucleotide Variations in the Proximity of the Reported Polymorphisms Within Cancer-Associated MicroRNA-Binding Sites. J. Dosch1, T. Fortuna1, E. Hadley1, T. Houwman1, S. Husher1, P. Kinley1, K. Kniffen1, K. Lopez1, B. Oehlerking1, D. Paulson1, A. Schwader1, M. Soderberg1, N. Stadem1, M. Travis1, M. Weidenbach1, C. Wiese1, N. Woslum1, J. Sutherland1, C. Anderson2, M. Larson3, P. Mazzer1, T. Mullican1, M. Catalano1, E. Paryiskaya4, A. D. Kharazova4, A. Lyshhev4, B. Martynov4, A. Ulitin5, Y. Bao6, A. Dolby7, X. Wu8, K. Ding8, J. L. Collins9, A. V. Kofman1. 1Dakota Wesleyan University, Mitchell, SD, U.S.A., 2Black Hills State University, SD, U.S.A., 3Augustana University, SD, U.S.A., 4St. Petersburg State University, Russia, 5Polenov Neurosurgical Institute, Russia, 6University of Virginia, VA, U.S.A., 7University of Mary Washington, VA, U.S.A., 8John Hopkins Medical School, MD, U.S.A., 9University of Tennessee at Martin, TN, U.S.A.

Time-Lapse Microscopic Observation of Rarely Dividing Cells in Cultured Human Osteosarcoma MG-63 Cell Line. E. Hadley1,

C. Wiese1, M. Soderberg1, T. Houwman1, J. Dosch1, Y. Garcia2, M. Honey2, C. Joyce2, S. Sulcer2, A. Dolby3, K. Ding4, B. van Knippenberg5, C. Gregory6, A. Kofman1,7. 1Dakota Wesleyan University, SD, U.S.A., 2University of Tennessee at Martin, TN, U.S.A., 3University of Mary Washington, VA, U.S.A., 4John Hopkins School of Medicine, MD, U.S.A., 5CytoSMART Technologies BV, Eindhoven, The Netherlands, 6Institute for Regenerative Medicine, TX, U.S.A., 7Aging-Cancer Interface Group, LDS-2 Medical Center, St. Petersburg, Russia.

The Influence of Hydrogen Bonding on the Physical Properties of Imidazolium Ionic Liquids. Elianna Isaac, Joshua Tuttle, and Adam Sturlaugson. Chemistry Department, University of Sioux Falls, Sioux Falls, SD 57105

Reviewers of Manuscripts

Michael Barnes (South Dakota Game, Fish and Parks)David Bergmann (Black Hills State University)

Stephen Chipps (South Dakota State University)Charles Dieter (South Dakota State University)

Andy Farke (Raymond M. Alf Museum of Paleontology) Mark Gabel (Black Hills State University)Michael Gaylor (Dakota State University)

Nels Granholm (South Dakota State University)Donna Hazelwood (Dakota State University)

Kenneth Higgins (South Dakota State University)Lana Loken (Dakota Wesleyan University)

Tim Mullican (Dakota Wesleyan University)Darrin Pagnac (New Jersey State Museum)

Jeff Palmer (Dakota State University)Brian Patrick (Dakota Wesleyan University)Cliff Summers (University of South Dakota)

Nels Troelstrup, Jr. (South Dakota State University)

Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science, Vol. 96 (2017) 1

COMBINED MINUTES EXECUTIVE COUNCIL MEETING

AND BUSINESS MEETINGS 102ND ANNUAL MEETING OF

THE SOUTH DAKOTA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE THURSDAY AND FRIDAY 30 MARCH AND 1 APRIL 2017

HOSTED BY DAKOTA WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY MITCHELL, SD

EXECUTIVE COUNCIL MEETING

President George Mwangi opened the meeting at 7:00 pm, welcomed mem-bers of the Executive Council to the 102nd Annual Meeting of the South Dakota Academy of Science at Dakota Wesleyan University, noted that a quorum was present, and expressed thanks to the DWU Local Arrangements Committee. The agenda for the meeting was accepted

Old Business

Reports:The following reports were given; Secretary’s report by Secretary Donna

Hazelwood, Proceedings Editor’s Report by Proceedings Editor Bob Tatina, and Fellow’s report by Chair of the Fellows Committee, Brian Patrick. Two SDAS Fellows were nominated and elected for 2017, Dave Bergmann, from BHSU Andy Detwiler from SDSM&T. Webmaster Tim Mullican reported that the Call for Papers is on the SDAOS website and a copy of the meeting schedule will be added. The Treasurer’s Report was postponed until the fall 2017 Executive Council meeting. Members moved and seconded acceptance of the reports.

Report on BioOne by Bob Tatina who contacted BioOne last year and learned that BioOne provides full text of 200 journals, and that libraries are the only sub-scribers. The cost is $10.00/page, so to offset the charge, the SDAS would need to increase the cost per page for publishing in the Proceedings. The process for applica-tion to BioOne was described and the missing part appears to be the Impact Factor, which can be determined, for a fee, by Thompson Reuters. Brian Patrick moved and George Mwangi seconded to authorize Bob Tatina to move forward with an application to BioOne. Following discussion, Brian moved and Paula Mazzer sec-onded a friendly amendment to authorize Bob to first contact Thompson Reuters to determine the cost of finding the impact factor. The motion carried.

Report on guidelines and rules for poster and paper presentation and publica-tion by Brian Patrick who provided a starting point in the form of a handout of a document from another organization. Following discussion, Brian stated that the SDAS Executive Council will be provided with a revised and updated copy for vote at the fall SDAS Executive meeting.

2 Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science, Vol. 96 (2017)

Report on preregistration for the 2017 SDAS Annual meeting by Paula Mazzer of the Local Arrangements Committee include 50 regular registrations and over 70 submissions.

Old Business:

Discussion on increasing attendance at SDAS Annual Meetings.A concern was expressed that competing activities are occurring this weekend.

Steve Matzner reported that BRIN did not require students submit posters to the 2017 SDAS meeting. No action occurred the following suggestions: 1) moving the date of the SDAS meeting to coincide with that of BRIN and EPSCOR in August in Pierre and 2) considering reinstating periodic joint meetings as in the past with ND and MN, and/or possibly with IA and/or NE. Brian Patrick reported the need to make colleagues aware of the SDAS. Discussion included the need to make the public face of the SDAS more visible and recognizable and increase recognition of the SDAS brand. Consensus was to send ideas on increasing attendance at SDAS meetings to Paul Johnson for the 103rd SDAS Annual Meeting.

Suggestions for Symposia for 2018.Alyssa Kiesow and Meredith Redlin, Professor of Sociology at SDSU are work-

ing on a grant focusing on Equity on the BOR and a social science evaluation of STEM. Steve Matzner suggested that the STEM ED initiative under the direction of Madhav Nepal SDSU would also be a good symposium topic. Paul Johnson moved and Brian Patrick seconded that Alyssa and Steve separately move ahead with symposia for 2018. The motion carried.

Publication criteria.Criteria to have a full paper, or an abstract considered for publication in the

Proceedings. Bob Tatina. (Excerpt from the SDAS By-Laws ARTICLE VI, Publications

SECTION 1. The regular publications of the Academy shall include the Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science, which will contain such papers, presented by members and associate members of the Academy, as are deemed suitable by the Committee on Publications.

SECTION 2. The publication of papers by persons not members of the South Dakota Academy of Science and of papers by members of the Junior Academy shall be determined by the Editorial Committee as stated in Article IV, Section 2.)

Vicki Geiser moved and Brian Patrick seconded to include in the Call for Papers an addition to the instructions authors as follows: Individuals who wish to submit a paper for publication to the SDAS Annual Proceedings are strongly encouraged to present at the SDAS annual meeting prior to submission for pub-lication of a paper in the SDAS Proceedings. The motion carried.

Criteria for Publishing/ Instructions to Authors: A sub-committee of volunteers to redraft draft Instructions to Authors consist-

ing of Tim Mullican, Dave Bergman, Steve Matzner and Brian Patrick will pres-ent a report at the 2017 SDAS Executive Council Fall meeting.


Nomination process for 2018 Fellows:Brian Patrick (Fellows Chair): The nomination process for nomination of Fellows

for 2018 will be similar to that followed for the nomination of Fellows for 2017.

PayPal payments to SDAS: Brian Patrick will present a report at the 2017 SDAS Executive Council Fall

meeting.

Presence of the SDAS on social media and publicity by Tim Mullican and Alyssa Kiesow:

Alyssa Kiesow reported that the SDAS is on Facebook and is in the process of making the Facebook page more active. For example, she will post photos throughout meeting and encourage “like”. Vicki Geiser suggested for about $10.00 the SDAS could sponsor an ad that recommended the SDAS and would be seen SD wide. Although the SDAS page on Facebook is open to public, Alyssa will edit and control content, and has delete power.

Schedule for upcoming meetings: Bob Tatina reported that the schedule includes longer coffee breaks and the ses-

sions are essentially balanced for rooms and topics judged and a longer time slot for the poster session has been scheduled. The Thursday evening slot for spring SDAS Executive Council Meeting will be retained.

Composition of the Executive Council: The SDAS Bylaws ARTICE II, SECTION 1 reads: The officers of the Academy

shall consist of a President; a President-elect who will automatically succeed to the President at the time of the next annual election of officers or as specified in Article II, Section 5; a First Vice-President; a Second Vice-President; a Secretary, a Treasurer; and an Editor of the Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science. These officers, with the exception of the President, the Secretary and the Treasurer, shall be elected annually by a majority vote of those members voting at the annual meeting

Jeff Palmer proposed changing the length of time an individual would serve as President (Vice-President for two years, President for two years, Past President, for two years). Because there was no clear consensus on the duties of the SDAS President and Vice President, Brian Patrick moved and Tim Mullican seconded a motion to table discussion until the 2017 fall SDAS Executive Council meeting, and the motion carried. However, it was decided after the Fall Executive Council meet-ing to move forward with this proposal at the 2017 SDAS Annual Business Meeting.

Junior Academy:The Executive Council voted to look into the possibility of reinstating the

Junior Academy Committee as a separate entity. The Executive Council voted to not sign the MOU with SD EPSCoR. The SDAS would provide access to a venue at the annual SDAS meeting. The Junior Academy would be invited to attend the presentation by the plenary speaker. After a lively discussion, Arvid Boe called the question and no consensus was reached on moving forward with this item.


2017 SDAS Standing Committees. The following standing committees were populated:Audit Committee: Mark Gable and Donna Hazelwood will serve as the Audit

Committee. The audit will be presented at the SDAS Executive Council fall meeting

Poster Judging Committee: members are Dave Bergmann, Alyssa Keisow, and Tara Ramsey.

Paper Judging Committee: members are Brian Patrick, Bob Tatina, and Andy Detwiler.

Resolutions Committee: members are Vicki Geiser, Donna Hazelwood, and George Mwangi.

Nomination Committee: members are Vicki Geiser, Donna Hazelwood, and George Mwangi.

The slate of individuals who have accepted the nomination for SDAS office are:Vice President

Paula Mazzer DWU ChemistryMember-at-Large 2017-2019Nominee to be forwarded by Jack Butler

Mark Gabel, BHSU, Biology (retired)Paula Mazzer. DWU, Chemistry.Brian Patrick, DWU, Biology

Friday evening the newly elected SDAS Fellows Dave Bergmann and Andy Detwiler were honored at the banquet. The interesting and informative Keynote Address by Dr. Jason Bond, Department of Biological Sciences and Curator of Arachnids and Myriapods, Auburn University “From the Devonian to the Neogene: Using Genomics-Based Approaches to Disentangle the Spider “Tree of Life” was well received and generated a good discussion.

BUSINESS MEETING

The annual business meeting of the South Dakota Academy of Science was opened by President George Mwangi at 11:30 am, Friday, 1 April 2017 at Dakota Wesleyan University, Mitchell, SD. Dr. Mwangi welcome all and offered a sincere thank you to DWU for hosting the 102nd Annual Meeting of the SDAS and to the Local Arrangements Committee, then passed the SDAS gavel to incoming President Vicki Geiser. President Vicki Geiser presented a plaque on behalf of the SDAS to Outgoing President George Mwangi. Dr. Geiser then delivered the Presidential Address “Meeting the Mission of the South Dakota Academy of Science,” which focused on the Mission of the SDAS.

The agenda for the 102nd Annual Business meeting of the SDAS was approved.

Reports

Secretary: The report was given by Secretary Donna Hazelwood.Treasurer: The report was postponed until the fall Executive Council Meeting.


Proceedings: the report was given by Proceedings Editor Bob TatinaThe Proceedings are financially solvent and the 2016 SDAS Proceedings are in print and all articles are easily accessed on the SDAOS website.Bob outlined new criteria for submission of articles for Publication in the 2017 SDAS Proceedings. For submitted abstracts, when an edited copy from Bob appears by email, please take action immediately and forward correc-tions to Bob.For full papers: full papers plus two critical technical reviews are due to Bob by 15 July 2017. In addition, an accompanying letter to Bob will discuss the manner in which the comments by the reviewers were addressed. Following receipt of the full paper, plus the two critical reviews and letter addressing how the reviewer’s comments were handled, Bob will then send the full paper out for comments by an external reviewer.Bob’s goal is to have the 2017 SDAS Proceedings in print before 1 Dec 2017

Fellows Elected 2017 to the SDAS: Brian PatrickTwo new Fellows of the SDAS were elected for 2017, Dave Bergmann (BHSU), and Andy Detwiler (SDSM&T)

Web Master SDAOS: Tim MullicanThe Call for Papers is on website. Changes can be made if necessary.Notify Tim if the website or links are not working and Tim will contact the Web developer. Goals for the future: incorporate on line pay by credit card or Pay Pal. A separate membership form will be posted. The date for member-ship renewal shall be January 1 of each year.

New business

Reports from 2017 SDAS Standing Committees

Audit Committee (members Mark Gabel and Donna Hazelwood): report is postponed until Fall 2017 Executive Council meeting.

Poster Judging Committee (members Dave Bergmann and Alyssa Kiesow, Tara Ramsey): will report after the posters have been judged this afternoon. Results will be sent by e-mail, and awardees will be honored at the 2018 SDAS business meeting.

Paper Judging Committee (members Brian Patrick, Bob Tatina, and Andy Detwiler) will report as time allows. Results will be sent by e-mail, and awardees will be honored at the 2018 SDAS business meeting.

Resolutions Committee (members Vicki Geiser, George Mwangi, Donna Hazelwood, Vicki Geiser): read the resolutions.

The Members of the Academy thank the following:1) The Dakota Wesleyan University Provost Joseph Roidt for his welcome to

the SDAS on behalf of Dakota Wesleyan University;


2) the Local Planning Committee Chair Tim Mullican for his enthusiastic and positive attitude, and committee members Paula Mazzer and Brian Patrick;

3) we thank the local registration committee Paula Mazzer, Bethany Melroe Lehrman, and CHAOS, the Dakota Wesleyan Science Club; Kayla Weber (president), Luke Merrill, Micayla Bamberg, Mikayla Street, Kevin J. Lopez, Sara Husher, Chandler Frederich, and Elise Had

4) we thank Dr. Jason Bond, Department of Biological Sciences and Curator of Arachnids and Myriapods at Auburn University, for the interesting and informative Keynote talk, “From the Devonian to the Neogene: Using genomics-based approaches to disentangling the spider tree of life “;

5) we thank the following:a. Robert Tatina for his continued excellence and dedication as editor of

the Proceedings of the SDAS;b. George Mwangi for serving as SDAS President 2016- 2017;c. Donna Hazelwood, Secretary;d. Jeff Palmer, Treasurer;e. Tim Mullican for serving as WebMaster;f. Membership Committee chair Paula Mazzer;g. Fellow Nominations Committee: Brian Patrick;h. Members-at-Large who have served for the last three years: Jack Butler,

Mark Gabel, Paula Mazzer, and Brian Patrick;i. Audit Committee: Mark Gabel and Donna Hazelwood;j. Resolution Committee: Vicki Geiser, Donna Hazelwood, and George

Mwangi;k. Nominations Committee: George Mwangi, Donna Hazelwood, and

Vicki Geiser;l. Andrew Detwiler, Brian Patrick, and Robert Tatina for judging

Student oral presentationsm. Dave Bergmann, Alyssa Kiesow, and Tara Ramsey for judging the

undergraduate student poster contest;n. Robert Tatina, the chair of this year’s symposia: Fellows of the

Academy Symposium;o. moderators Nels Granholm for the Fellows Symposium, and to Mark

Gabel Vicki Geiser, and to Nels Troelstrup, Jr. for moderating paper sessions,

p. Dakota Wesleyan University for providing an excellent venue for the 2017 meeting and to Aramark Food service for providing food and beverage for the meeting.


6) we congratulate our new SDAS Fellows 2017: Dave Bergmann and Andrew Detwiler;

7) we congratulate last year’s 2016 undergraduate poster competition winners:a. AAAS winner: SYNTHESIS OF CdSe/ZnS NANOCRYSTALS

AND THEIR BIOCONJUGATION TO DNA. Casey D. Hanson, Augustana University;

b. AAAS winner: SUB-CRITICAL HYDROTHERMAL LIQUEFACTION OF LIGNOCELLULOSIC BIOMASS FOR LACTIC ACID PRODUCTION. E.E. Kodzomoyo, South Dakota School of Mines & Technology;

c. 1ST Place: EFFECTS OF PROBIOTICS ON XENOPUS LAEVIS. Annika M. van Oosbree, Northern State University;

d. 2ND Place: ASSESSING THE UTILITY OF SIMPLE, LOW-DENSITY POLYURETHANE PLASTIC STRIPS TO PASSIVELY SAMPLE VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUND EMISSIONS FROM LAND-DISPOSED SEWAGE SLUDGE. Tyler Telkamp, Dakota State University;

e. 3RD Place: MORPHOLOGY COMPARISON BETWEEN SMOOTH BROME AND MEADOW BROME. Alyse E. Homala, South Dakota State University;

8) we congratulate last year’s 2016 paper competition winners:a. 1ST Place: PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL HABITAT DRIVERS OF

MACROINVERTIBRATE ASSEMBLAGES IN TWO LEVEL IV ECOREGIONS OF SOUTH DAKOTA. Lyntausha Kuehl, South Dakota State University;

b. 2ND Place: STATEWIDE SURVEY OF NATIVE FRESHWATER MUSSELS IN SOUTH DAKOTA. Kaylee Faltys, South Dakota State University;

c. 3RD Place: MICROBIAL COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF “CAVE SILVER” BIOFILMS FROM THE SANFORD UNDERGROUND RESEARCH FACILITY IN LEAD, SOUTH DAKOTA, AS DETERMINED BY 16S RDNA SEQUENCING. Ethan Thompson, Black Hills State University; and,

9) overall, we thank everyone for their participation in the 102nd SDAS meet-ing, and look forward to announcing the 2017 winners at the 103rd meet-ing in Brookings, SD.

Respectfully Submitted,Vicki Geiser, Donna Hazelwood and George Mwangi

SDAS Resolutions Committee


Nomination Committee (members George Mwangi, Vicki Geiser, Donna Hazelwood): The following slate of individuals have accepted the nomination for SDAS office:

Second Vice PresidentPaula Mazzer

Member-at-Large 2017-2019Nominee to be forwarded by Jack Butler

Mark Gabel, BHSU biology (retired)Brian Patrick, DWU. BiologyAdam Sturlaugson, USF, Chemistry

Tim Mullican moved and Xu Lan seconded acceptance of the slate of individu-als for vote. The motion carried. A voice vote by the members present elected the slate of individuals nominated for office.

The SDAS Executive Council proposes a change to the SDAS By-laws concern-ing the term of the offices of Vice president, President, and Past President.

From: Individuals cycle through a series of one-year terms for a total of six years, the terms being

Second Vice-PresidentFirst Vice-PresidentIncoming PresidentPresidentFirst Past PresidentSecond Past President

To: a series of three offices for two-year terms for a total of six years, the terms beingVice President, two yearsPresident, two yearsPast President, two years

This is an action item requiring a vote by the members present at the 102nd SDAS Business Meeting. After a brief discussion during which concerns were addressed by President Vicki Geiser, a voice vote resulted in accepting the pro-posed change to the SDAS By-Laws regarding a restructuring of the length of terms of Vice President, President, and Past President.

The By-Laws of the SDAS are amended as follows:

From the SDAS By-laws ARTICLE II, OfficersSECTION 1. The officers of the Academy shall consist of a President; a President-elect who will automatically succeed to the President at the time of the next annual election of officers or as specified in Article II, Section 5; a First Vice-President; a Second Vice-President; a Secretary, a Treasurer; and an Editor of the Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science. These officers, with the exception of the President, the Secretary and the Treasurer,


shall be elected annually by a majority vote of those members voting at the annual meeting

To the SDAS By-laws ARTICLE II, OfficersSECTION 1. The officers of the Academy shall consist of a President; a Vice-President who will automatically succeed to the President at the time of the next bi-annual election of officers or as specified in Article II, Section 5; a Past President; a Secretary, a Treasurer; and an Editor of the Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science. The Vice-President, President, and Past-President shall be elected bi-annually by a majority vote of those mem-bers voting at the annual business meeting and serve for two-year sequential terms in office; Vice-President, President, and Past-President.SECTION 1. The officers of the Academy shall consist of a President, a Vice-President, and Past President a Secretary, a Treasurer, an Editor of the Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science and Members-at-Large. The order of automatic succession will be Vice-President, President, and Past President. The Vice-President shall be elected bi-annually by a majority vote of those members voting or as specified in Article II, Section 5, and will serve for three two-year sequential terms, Vice-President, President, and Past-President.

Thank you to the SDAS 102nd Annual Meeting Moderators for Saturday oral paper sessions by Brian Patrick. The moderators were Mark Gabel (plant science), Vicki Geiser (chemistry and biochemistry), Nels Troelstrup (animal science).

Upcoming SDAS Annual Meetings:103rd Annual Meeting hosted by SDSU 2018 report by Paul Johnson

Contact: Paul Johnson Local Arrangements Committee: Paul Johnson, Charlie Fenste, Xu

Lan and Madhav Nepal, Dates: TBA, Possibly one of first two weekends in April 2018. Location: TBA. Possibly the New Comfort Inn and Suites and new

Conference Center

104th Annual Meeting hosted by mmC 2019. (recent update) Contact: Chun Wu Dates: 12 and 13 April 2019 with the Executive Council meeting

scheduled for the evening of Thursday 11 April. Location: Arrowwood Resort & Conference Center at Cedar Shore.

(Same venue with a new name)

105th Annual Meeting hosted by NSU 2020. Contact Alyssa Kiesow Dates: TBA Location: new NSU science building


106th Annual Meeting hosted by BHSU 2021

107th Annual Meeting hosted by DSU 2022

Fall 2017 Executive Council meeting will be held Saturday, 16 Sept. 2017 at 11:00 am at South Dakota Hall of Fame Chamberlain, SD.

George Mwangi moved and Tom Montoya seconded a motion that the meet-ing adjourn 12:35 pm. The motion carried. Meeting adjourned at 12:35 pm.

Recap of the 2017 SDAS 101st Meeting: Friday one symposium was presented, a Fellows of the Academy Symposium

organized by Bob Tatina and moderated by Nels Granholm. Friday evening and two new SDAS Fellows were honored, Dave Bergmann and Andy Detwiler. The Keynote Address given by Dr. Jason Bond, Department of Biological Sciences and Curator of Arachnids and Myriapods at Auburn University, for the interest-ing and informative Keynote talk, “From the Devonian to the Neogene: Using genomics-based approaches to disentangling the spider tree of life, was enjoyed by all. Saturday presentations included a total of 26 papers and 33 posters.

Respectfully submitted,Donna Hazelwood,

Secretary, SDAS


TREASURER’S REPORT—2017

01-Apr-16 Checking Account Balance $12,800.15 Certificate of Deposit $8,719.80 Petty Cash $0.00 Total Assets $21,519.95

Income Expense Date Check # PayeeRegistration Forms for Meeting 27.00 05-Apr-16 1290 DSU Print ShopPlaques for Fellows 161.12 10-Apr-16 1292 Brian PatrickCash from Annual Meeting 745.00 11-Apr-16Plaque for Past President 71.55 14-Apr-16 1293 USFMeeting Refund - Fellow 233.96 14-Apr-16 1294 David C. ParrisBanquet Speaker 750.00 18-Apr-16 1295 Ryan MacLellanMeeting Refund - Fellow 233.96 18-Apr-16 1296 Robert TatinaPoster Award 150.00 19-Apr-16 1297 Tyler TelkampPoster Award 200.00 19-Apr-16 1298 Annika VanOosbreePoster Award 100.00 19-Apr-16 1299 Alyse HomolaPresentation Award 200.00 21-Apr-16 1300 Lyntausha KuehlPresentation Award 150.00 21-Apr-16 1301 Kaylee FaltysPresentation Award 100.00 21-Apr-16 1302 Ethan ThompsonChecks from Annual Meeting 1785.00 25-Apr-16Annual Meeting Expenses 2,880.67 26-Apr-16 1303 USFMeeting Refund - Fellow 116.98 04-May-16 1304 Perry RahnDomestic Nonprofit Filing Fee 10.00 30-Jun-16 1343 SD Secretary of StatePaper Filing Fee 15.00 30-Jun-16 1344 SD Secretary of StateAAAS Membership - Poster Award 95.00 08-Jul-16 1345 AAASAAAS Membership - Poster Award 95.00 08-Jul-16 1346 AAASPast President Plaque 48.23 11-Jul-16 1305 Steve MatznerCk# 1344 voided; payment not required (15.00) 20-Jul-16Membership Payments 150.00 24-Jul-16Meeting Refund - Fellow 233.96 03-Aug-16 1307 David BergmannFall Business Meeting 298.52 10-Sep-16 1306 Al’s OasisMembership Payments 50.00 11-Sep-16Membership Payments 50.00 21-Nov-16Eastern SD Science & Engineering Fair 240.00 24-Jan-17 1308 SDSU FoundationSouth Central Science Fair 240.00 02-Mar-17 1309-1316 Science Fair AwardsNorthern Science Fair 240.00 02-Mar-17 1317-1324 Science Fair AwardsMeeting Preregistrations 3845.00 27-Mar-17Totals 6625.00 6875.95

31-Mar-17 Checking Account Balance $12,549.20 Certificate of Deposit $8,719.80 Petty Cash $0.00 Total Assets $21,269.00

Respectfully Submitted,Jeffrey S. Palmer


PROCEEDINGS EDITOR’S REPORT-2017

Report for the year from April 1, 2016 to March 31, 2017.1. The following libraries were mailed a complimentary paper copy: AC, BHSU,

DSU, DWU, mmC, NSU, OLC, SDSMT, SDSU (2 copies), UND, USD (2 copies), Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., U of WA, and the Booth Fish Hatchery.

2. The following indexing/ abstracting services and institutions were mailed complimentary paper copies: Chemical Abstract Services, AcadSci., Inc., Cambridge Scientific Abstracts, GeoRef Library, Baywood Publishing (Anthropology), Thompson Scientific (Zoological Record).

3. The following book seller was sold 1 paper copy: Curran Associates, Inc. (Red Hook, MA).

4. Electronic files of the 2016 Proceedings have been published to the SDAoS website.

6. File Transfer Protocol was used to send 2016 Proceedings articles and abstracts to EBSCO.

7. For the 2016 Proceedings: No. of paper copies printed = 40 (2015: 40) No. of pages = 198 (2015: 402) No. of full papers published = 10 (2014: 27) No. of abstracts published = 57 (2014: 58) No. of titles only published = 11 (2014:9) No. paper copies distributed to libraries, abstracting services, individuals, etc.= 33 113 pages invoiced @ $20.00 per page = $2200.00 ($2200.00 paid) 8 set of reprints = $540.00 ($540.00 paid) 1 copies sold @ $20.00 = $20.00 ($20.00 paid) Total invoiced = $2760.00 (Total paid = $2760.00)8. First call for papers sent in January; second call sent out in February.9. 2017 Schedule of Events was printed and distributed.10. Proceedings Ledger

Beginning Balance (4/1/2016) 7788.58 INCOME Page Charges & Reprints $2740.00 Subscriptions 20.00 Total Income $2760.00

EXPENSES Postage 105.85 Supplies 198.02 Formatting & Printing 2254.20 Webhosting 600.00 Total Expenses $3158.07Ending Balance (3/31/2017) $7390.51

Submitted by Robert Tatina, Editor


FELLOWS OF THE SOUTH DAKOTA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (1998-2017)

Kenneth F. Higgins 1998Chuck Estee 1999

No nominations 2000Carroll Hanten 2001Emil F. Knapp 2001

No nominations 2002Clyde Brashier 2003Milton Hanson 2003

S. Laeticia Kiltzer 2003Robert Looyenga 2003

Arlen Viste 2003Everett White 2003Perry H. Rahn 2004Robert Stoner 2004

No nominations 2005No nominations 2006No Nominations 2007No Nominations 2008No Nominations 2009Maureen Diggins 2011

Gary Earle 2011H. L. Hutcheson 2011

Waldimar “Wally” Klawiter Jr. 2011Nels Grandholm 2012

The late Audrey Gabel 2012Mark Gabel 2012

Robert Tatina 2012No Nominations 2013No Nominations 2014

Arvid Boe 2015Gary Larson 2015David Parris 2015

The late Norm Miller 2015Robert (Roy) Kintner 2015

James Martin 2016Cliff Lewis 2016

R. Neil Reese 2016Donna Hazelwood 2017David Bergmann 2017


ANNUAL MEETING ROTATION SCHEDULE (Note: locations may vary)

2018 Brookings, SD, South Dakota State University 2019 Yankton, SD, Mount Marty College 2020 Aberdeen, SD, Northern State University 2021 Spearfish, SD, Black Hills State University 2022 Madison, SD, Dakota State University 2023 Vermillion, SD, University of South Dakota 2024 Sioux Falls, SD, Augustana University 2025 Rapid City, SD, South Dakota School of Mines and Technology 2026 Sioux Falls, SD, University of Sioux Falls 2027 Mitchell, SD, Dakota Wesleyan University 2028 Brookings, SD, South Dakota State University 2029 Yankton, SD, Mount Marty College 2030 Aberdeen, SD, Northern State University 2031 Spearfish, SD, Black Hills State University 2032 Madison, SD, Dakota State University 2033 Vermillion, SD, University of South Dakota 2034 Sioux Falls, SD, Augustana University 2035 Rapid City, SD, South Dakota School of Mines and Technology 2036 Sioux Falls, SD, University of Sioux Falls 2037 Mitchell, SD, Dakota Wesleyan University


HONOR ROLL OF SOUTH DAKOTA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE PAST PRESIDENTS

prelim 1914-1915 †Hilton Ira Jones, Chemistry, Dakota Wesleyan University1st 1915-1916 †Hinton Ira Jones, Chemistry, Dakota Wesleyan University2nd 1916-1917 †A. N. Cook, Chemistry, University of South Dakota3rd 1917-1918 †A. N. Hume, Agronomy, State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts4th 1918-1919 †J. Gladden. Hutton, Soils, State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts5th 1919-1920 †Freeman Ward, Geology, University of South Dakota6th 1920-1921 †Charles W. Cuno, Chemistry, Yankton College7th 1921-1922 †Doane Robinson, Historian, Pierre8th 1922-1923 †A.N. Hume, Agronomy, State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts9th 1923-1924 †Arthur M. Pardee, Chemistry, University of South Dakota10th 1924-1925 †L.A. Stout, Mathematics, Dakota Wesleyan University11th 1925-1926 †J. Gladden, Hutton, Soils, State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts12th 1926-1927 †A. P. Larrabee, Biology, Yankton College13th 1927-1928 †Homer Hill, Science, Huron College14th 1928-1929 †H.C. Severin, Entomology, State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts15th 1929-1930 †E.P. Rothrock, Geology, University of South Dakota16th 1930-1931 †V.A.Lowry, Science, Eastern State Teacher’s College17th 1931-1932 †B.B. Brackett, Communications, University of South Dakota18th 1932-1933 †George Gilbertson, Entomology, State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts19th 1933-1934 †A.V. Arlton, Biology, Dakota Wesleyan University20th 1934-1935 †E.P. Churchill, Biology, University of South Dakota21st 1935-1936 †William H. Powers, Librarian, State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts22nd 1936-1937 †Greg M. Evans, Chemistry, Yankton College23rd 1937-1938 †Charles A. Hunter, Bacteriology, University of South Dakota24th 1938-1939 †Ward L. Miller, Botany, State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts25th 1939-1940 †Walter V. Scaright, Geology, University of South Dakota26th 1940-1941 †A. L. Moxon, Chemistry, State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts27th 1941-1942 †Henry Lowsma, Science, General Beadle State College28th 1942-1943 †Edwin H. Shaw, Jr., Biochemistry, University of South Dakota29th 1943-1944 †Orin M. Lofthus, Biology, Augustana College30th 1944-1945 †Lester S. Guss, Chemistry, South Dakota State College31st 1945-1946 †Raymond J. Greb, Biology, Huron College32nd 1946-1947 †F.L. Bennett, Botany, Black Hills Teachers College33rd 1947-1948 †A. L. Haines, Chemistry, University of South Dakota34th 1948-1949 †V. S. Webster, Chemistry, South Dakota State College35th 1949-1950 †John M. Froemke, Chemistry, Augustana College36th 1950-1951 †William E. Ekeman, Mathematics, University of South Dakota37th 1951-1952 †E.R. Binnewies, Chemistry, South Dakota State University38th 1952-1953 John M. Winter, Botany, University of South Dakota39th 1953-1954 H.R. Fossler, Psychology, University of South Dakota40th 1954-1955 †Harlan L Klug, Chemistry, South Dakota State University41st 1955-1956 †Frank W. Jobes, Biology, Yankton College42nd 1956-1957 †Charles R. Estee, Chemistry, University of South Dakota43rd 1957-1958 †John Willard, Chemistry, South Dakota School of Mines & Technology44th 1958-1959 Shapley W. Howell, Science, Yankton College45th 1959-1960 †V.R. Nelson, Physics and Aeronautics, Augustana College46th 1960-1961 †Ernest J. Hugghins, Parasitology, South Dakota State University47th 1961-1962 †Charles M. Vaughn, Science, University of South Dakota48th 1962-1963 †Morton Green, Biology, South Dakota School of Mines & Technology49th 1963-1964 †S.G. Froiland, Biology, Augustana College50th 1964-1965 †George P. Scott, Chemistry, University of South Dakota


51st 1965-1966 †Marvin Hanson, Mathematics, Huron College52nd 1966-1967 †Robert Sandvig, Chemistry, South Dakota School of Mines & Technology53rd 1967-1968 †Walter Morgan, Biology, South Dakota State University54th 1968-1969 †Charles Sidlo, Physics, Sioux Falls College55th 1969-1970 †C.L.Hills, Biology, Dakota Wesleyan University56th 1970-1971 R. Roy Kintner*, Chemistry, Augustana College57th 1971-1972 †Raymond D. Dillon, Zoology, University of South Dakota58th 1972-1973 †Veronica Fasbender, Biology, Mount Marty College59th 1973-1974 David Ballew, Mathematics, South Dakota School of Mines & Technology60th 1974-1975 †Jack K. Saunders, Biology, Northern State University61st 1975-1976 †Harold Foss, Natural Science, Augustana College62nd 1976-1977 Waldemar F. Klawiter, Jr.*, Mathematics and Physics, Sioux Falls College63rd 1977-1978 †James C. Schmulbach, Biology, University of South Dakota64th 1978-1979 James A. Fries, Chemistry, Northern State University65th 1979-1980 †John Landegent, Biology, Sioux Falls High School66th 1980-1981 †Norman E. Miller, Chemistry, University of South Dakota67th 1981-1982 Harry G. Hecht, Chemistry, South Dakota State University68th 1982-1983 Theodore Van Bruggen, Botany, University of South Dakota69th 1983-1984 L. Cliff Lewis*, Chemistry, Sioux Falls College70th 1984-1985 Maureen Diggins-Hutcheson*, Reproductive Biology, Augustana College71st 1985-1986 Don Hopkins, Physics, South Dakota School of Mines & Technology72nd 1986-1987 Stephen R. Metzner, Science, University of South Dakota73rd 1987-1988 †Marvin Selnes, Science, Sioux Falls School District74th 1988-1989 Warren Hein, Physics, NSU/SDSU75th 1989-1990 James Martin*, Paleontology, South Dakota School of Mines & Technology76th 1990-1991 Samuel Gingerich, Chemistry, Northern State University77th 1991-1992 Mark Gabel*, Botany, Black Hills State University78th 1992-1993 Nels Granholm*, Biology and Global Studies, South Dakota State University79th 1993-1994 Keith Perkins, Biology, Sioux Falls College80th 1994-1995 Arvid Boe*, Agronomy, South Dakota State University81st 1995-1996 Tim Sorenson, Mathematics, Augustana College82nd 1996-1997 John Thomas, Biology, University of South Dakota83rd 1997-1998 Sharon Clay, Plant Science, South Dakota State University84th 1998-1999 Royce Engstrom, Chemistry, University of South Dakota85th 1999-2000 Neil Reese*, Botany, South Dakota State University86th 2000-2001 Lenore Koczon, Chemistry, Northern State University87th 2001-2002 Charles Lamb, Biology, Black Hills State University88th 2002-2003 †Steve McDowell, Chemistry, South Dakota School of Mines & Technology89th 2003-2004 Miles Koppang, Chemistry, University of South Dakota90th 2004-2005 Andy Detwiler, Atmospheric Sciences, S D School of Mines & Technology91st 2005-2006 Robert Tatina*, Biology, Dakota Wesleyan University92nd 2006-2007 James Sorenson, Biology, Mount Marty College93rd 2007-2008 Michael Wanous, Biology, Augustana College94th 2008-2009 Nels H. Troelstrup, Jr., Biology, South Dakota State University95th 2009-2010 Krisma DeWitt, Chemistry, Mount Marty College96th 2010-2011 Dave Bergmann*, Biology, Black Hills State University97th 2011-2012 Krisma DeWitt, Chemistry, Mount Marty College98th 2012-2013 Gary Larson*, Biology, South Dakota State University99th 2013-2014 Gary Larson*, Biology, South Dakota State University100th 2014-2015 Chun Wu, Chemistry, Mount Marty College101st 2015-2016 Steven Matzner, Biology, Augustana University102nd 2016-2017 George Mwangi, Chemistry, University of Sioux Falls

*Fellow of the SD Academy of Science†Deceased


2017 MEMBERHIP LIST

SENIOR MEMBERSAnderson, Alyssa M. NSUBaird, Nancy INDBarnes, Michael E. SDGF&PBecker, Heidi A. SDSUBergmann, David J. BHSUBoe, Arvid SDSUBucholz, Michelle SDGF&PBurrows, Rhoda L. SDSUButler, Jack L. USFSDeloughery, Richard SWCDetwiler, Andy SDSMTDieter, Charles SDSUHiggins-Hutcheson, M. AUDroge, Dale DSUDudash, Michele SDSUFeister, Charles SDSUGabel, Mark BHSUGaylor, Michael DSUGeiser, Vicki M. Northeast CCGhosheh, Hani SDSUGigliotti, Larry SDSUGranholm, Nels H. SDSUHatch, DeAnna DWUHazelwood, Donna DSUHeglund, Daniel L. SDSMTHiggins, Kenneth F. SDSUHildreth, Mike SDSUHutcheson, H.L. SDSUJohnson, Gary D. SDSUJohnson, Paul J. SDSUKharel, Parashu R. SDSUKiesow, Alyssa M. NSUKintner, R.R. AUKlawiter, W.F. AUKofman, Alexander V. DWUKoppang, Miles USDKunza, Lisa SDSMTLarson, Gary SDSULewis, L.C. USFMaloney, James A. DSUMartin, James E. U of LAMergen, Daryl E. Mergen Ecological Delineations, Inc.Montoya, Thomas P. SDSMTMullican, Tim DWUMwangi, George K. USF

Palmer, Jeffrey DSUParris, David C. NJ St MuseumPatrick, L. Brian DWUPease, Tamara MMCPurintun, Jordan SDGF&PRamsey, Justin M. BHSURamsey, Tara S. BHSUReese, Neil SDSURussell, Andrew NSUSchaeffer, Travis USGSShmagin, Boris A. SDSUSimpson, Gregory D. SDGF&PStoner, M. Robert USDSturlaugson, Adam L. USFTatina, Robert DWUTroelstrup Jr., Nels H. SDSUVideau, Patrick DSUViste, Arlen E. AUWeisshaar, Duane E. AUWelsh, Ed Badlands NPXu, Lan SDSUZehfus, Micheal BHSUZilverberg, Cody J. TX A&M

STUDENT MEMBERSAndersen, Ethan SDSUBam, Surendra SDSUBrooks, Christopher NSUClemmons, Taylor SDSMTDurnin, Tessa NSUFortuna, Tyler DWUGuillen, Manuel MMCHardt, Cheyanne DSUHusher, Sara DWUIsaac, Elianna USFJohnson, Rachel K. SFCJuntunen, Hope DSUKeryakos, Joseph NSUKhanal, Pratiksha SDSUKramer, Sean G. NSUKuehl, Lyntausha C. SDSULeinen, Lucas DSULindsey, Lauren SDSULopez, Kevin DWUMalecek, Mallory SDSUMartens, Abigail SDSUMergen, Zach BHSUMergen, Alex SDSU


Millner, Alec B. SDSMTNeupane, Surendra SDSUNikolas, Alexander SDSUOlson, Kayla DWUPaulson, Delayna DWUPeterson, Erin SDSURosch, John DWUSchwader, Andrew DWUSuehring, Aaron SDSUSwenson, Vaille DSU

Tuttle, Joshua USFVanGerpen, Caleb DSUVanTassel, Alecia DWUWallis, Maggie MMCWang, Dong BVUWaybright, Jace SDSUWeber, Kayla DWUWixon, Nicholas MMCWoslum, Nick DWU


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS

MEETING THE MISSION OF THE SOUTH DAKOTA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Address to the South Dakota Academy of ScienceDakota Wesleyan University

April 1, 2017Vicki Marie Geiser

Northeast Community CollegeNorfolk, NE

The South Dakota Academy of Science endeavors:• to develop interest in science,• to strengthen the bonds of fellowship between scientists, those interested in

science, and students of science,• to preserve information of scientific value and,• to stimulate research in areas that relate to the natural resources of the state.

This is the mission statement of our South Dakota Academy of Science and the tenets that have gathered us together at Dakota Wesleyan University for the last few days. We have shared our discoveries, networked with colleagues throughout the state, and celebrated our scientific achievements. As we reflect on the time that we have spent together, we must ask ourselves, “How are we meeting the mission of the South Dakota Academy of Science? – What are we as a scientific society, as a scientist, as a scholar, or as a student, doing to change the landscape of South Dakota’s field of Science?”

What is our Academy doing to meet our mission to develop interest in science? In order to answer this question, we must first define what is science. During the first week of my senior year of college, my roommate and I sat in our living room working on our lab reports. As I dredged through the task of typing out my methods section and citing the equations that we had derived that week in Chemical Quantitative Analysis, I couldn’t help but notice that my roommate was cheerfully coloring away in her lab notebook. I inquired what she was doing for her lab write-up and she responded that she was instructed to draw herself and draw herself as a scientist. Now as you have suspected, my roommate was not a science major, but taking a science course designed for secondary school teachers with focuses outside of science. It seemed ironic to me after spending a summer term working at a field station that the self she drew as a scientist wore a lab coat with pens and pencils in the lapel pocket, holding a flask with a bubbling liquid inside, and a smile across her face.

Last year, the Vice President of Educational Services at my college tasked our STEM Resource Development team to identify our science programs or majors. Few would speculate that biology, chemistry, or physics were fields of science, but we sought to determine disciplines that existed beyond these core sciences.


After reviewing several requests for proposals from federal funding agencies, the lines started to blur. The National Science Foundation excludes biomedical sci-ences. The United States Department of Agriculture only considers agriculture, veterinary, environmental, and natural resource projects. The National Institutes of Health requires an impact to human health. It appeared that for every agency we researched, we determined a different definition of science that went beyond the priority funding of the division.

Let us turn, then, to a more authoritative source; the Oxford dictionary defines science as, “The intellectual and practical activity encompassing the systematic study of the structure and behavior of the physical and natural world through observation and experiment”. Would a student who is collecting farm data on soil moisture content to regulate irrigation be interested in science? Would a student who is reprogramming computer numerically controlled equipment to manu-facture a product more economically be interested in science? Would a student developing and wiring an electrical grid to harness the power from a wind turbine system be interested in science?

Perhaps the simpler question is to determine when we should develop interest in science. I doubt that most of us in this room discovered that we had a pas-sion for science in college. It is imperative that students be exposed to science early in their education and that we encourage their pursuit of science careers. The Academy regularly supports the regional high school science fairs and offers winners a nominal prize for their efforts. At our annual Academy meeting we offer poster and paper presentation competitions to undergraduate and graduate students and recognize top performing students with awards. Are these actions enough to develop interest in science? The Academy could recognize organiza-tions and individuals in our state that advocate for the development of science interest. We should strengthen our relationships with the pre-college network. We could contact the organizers for Science Olympiad and the high school sci-ence fairs and request to send Academy representatives to their events to applaud the achievements of these young scientists, to encourage their continued pursuit of science, and to show appreciation for their mentoring efforts.

What is our Academy doing to strengthen the bonds of fellowship between scientists, those interested in science, and students of science? The founders of the Academy developed these meetings to provide a forum to bring scientists from across the state together to share their discoveries and to foster fellowship. What role does the Academy play today in our world where specialization in science disciplines is the norm and collaborations are not necessarily organically formed? Many of our members participate in field specific conferences, yet there is a con-tinued need to prioritize the opportunity to learn across the sciences and under-stand the work of fellow South Dakota scientists. With the increasing demands of academic and research life, most of us utilize these Academy meetings to refresh our general scientific knowledge and to acquire new perspectives or techniques that can modify our own disciplines. Whereas scientists from metropolitan areas may simply travel a short distance to bounce ideas between colleagues, South Dakotan scientists must rely on other means to remove the silos that can form in rural regions. The annual Academy meetings provide a venue to share and to


learn from each other and to form new alliances that keep us on the forefront of our fields.

Our state has traditionally not been viewed to possess the necessary infrastruc-ture to support scientific research. Over the years, South Dakota has received several multi-institutional, externally funded programs such as INBRE/BRIN, EPSCoR, and REUs to reduce this disparity. These science leaders have crafted comprehensive strategies to maximize financial resources that increase their scien-tific foothold through research collaborations, training fellowships, and scientific meetings that convene stakeholders. It may be tempting to look at these meetings as competing entities for student poster and oral presentations, faculty participa-tion, and administrative attention. Instead, the Academy should laud these efforts to unite our scientists, to expand the training opportunities for students, and to increase the scientific capacity of our state.

What is our Academy doing to preserve information of scientific value? For almost every year of the Academy’s existence, the proceedings have been published to disseminate the discoveries of our scientists to the larger scientific community. The members of the Academy have perpetuated the value of the published pro-ceedings. Our predecessors continued to publish in fiscally lean years albeit in a condensed and consolidated manner with multiple years of presentations and papers spanning a single proceeding. The persistence of this publication was witnessed in recent Academy actions as evidenced in 2013 by the decision of the society to publicize the papers and abstracts from the 98th Annual Meeting that was cancelled due hazardous travel conditions from a snow storm.

The endurance of the publication, however, may eventually become secondary to its perceived merit. As online websites increase access to scientific manuscripts, impact factors and data analytics shroud the significance of manuscripts. Faculty struggle with the multitude of choices for journals to submit their work and may feel compelled to publish their research in a more “prestigious” journal than the Academy’s proceedings. If our publication is to persist in this climate, we must personally take action to increase the traffic to our Academy’s Proceedings website and engage in social media as a means to facilitate enthusiasm for these published works. In addition, we should consider embracing the information technology movement by augmenting our proceedings with video recordings of oral presen-tations or publishing images from poster presentations. Furthermore, the society must pursue acknowledgement of our proceedings in scholarly repositories and citation indexes. Taking these aforementioned actions increases the metrics that today’s indexes utilize for calculating the utility of a manuscript and subsequently its worth.

What is our Academy doing to stimulate research in areas that relate to the natural resources of the state? The Academy has a strong tradition of supporting research on South Dakota and its natural resources. The annals of our proceedings document years of data of the flora, fauna, and geological records and research from our region. In recent years, the Fellows of the Academy Symposiums have featured papers from pivotal South Dakota scientists who have published groundbreaking work on the natural resources in our state.


What else could our Academy be doing to stimulate research relating to the natural resources of the state? When our founders envisioned this society and its function, did they intend solely to promote the standard natural resources of our state? Do we in today’s time need to reinterpret this mission to consider the human resources of the state? As employers struggle to recruit and retain scientific talent in our rural locals, what are we to do to increase the workforce for this demand of trained scientists? Perhaps the Academy should take a role in promoting the science in our state. The Midwestern modesty that may be a virtue in some respects may harm our future endeavors.

In closing, the forefathers of the South Dakota Academy of Science composed a visionary mission for our society. Let us take time over the next year to deter-mine what we each are called to do to achieve the mission of our South Dakota Academy of Science. I look forward to discussing your insights and planning the future for our Academy.

Respectfully,Dr. Vicki Marie Geiser

President, South Dakota Academy of Sciences 2017-2019

Complete Senior Research Paperspresented at the

102nd Annual Meetingof the



A SURVEY OF REDBELLY SNAKES IN THE BLACK HILLS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

Charles D. Dieter* and Tait RonningenDepartment of Natural Resource Management

South Dakota State UniversityBrookings, SD 57007

*Corresponding author email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The Black Hills redbelly snake (Storieria occipitomaculata pahasapae) is an isolated population and has received little study. We captured redbelly snakes in the Black Hills of South Dakota in 2004, 2005 to determine general mor-phological and population characteristics and to document which habitats were most utilized. We captured 104 redbelly snakes in 2004 (0.34 captures per hour) and 146 redbelly snakes in 2005 (0.45 captures per hour). Redbelly snakes were found an average of 14 m (SD = 20.8 m) from water, usually under cover objects. Females were larger (18.4 cm, SD = 2.45) than males (15.4 cm, SD = 2.22) (t = 4.37, df = 148, P < 0.01). The sex ratio favored females 3:2 (χ2 = 10.9, df = 1, P < 0.01). More than half of captured snakes (60%) were gray phase vs. 40% as brown phase (χ2 = 4.00, df = 1, P < 0.05). Our capture rate indicates Black Hills redbelly snakes are more common than previously thought. We found more redbelly snakes in the northern portion of the Black Hills which receives more moisture than the southern portion. We found redbelly snakes in wet areas so practices which reduce the abundance of moist habitats (cattle-grazing, construc-tion) could threaten the redbelly snake. Similarly, management which increases such habitat would favor both the snakes and their prey.

Keywords

Black Hills, redbelly snake, Storeria occipitomaculata pahasapae

INTRODUCTION

Redbelly snakes (Storeria occipitomaculata) are a small, semi-fossorial, vivipa-rous colubrid snake widely distributed over the eastern half of the United States and Canada. Dorsal coloration is usually gray or brown with a light middorsal stripe bordering a pair of dark longitudinal stripes. The head is dark to black with some light spotting behind the head and on the neck. Redbelly snakes usu-ally have a red or pink belly, but snakes with a black belly have been reported (Swanson 1952). Three subspecies are recognized; two of which are found in east-ern North America. The third is an isolated population found in the Black Hills of southwestern South Dakota and the Bear Lodge Mountains of northeastern


Wyoming (Conant and Collins 1998; Ernst and Ernst 2003). The Black Hills redbelly snake (S. o. pahasapae) is the westernmost subspecies and considered endemic to the Black Hills, and is isolated from their eastern relatives by 510 km of prairie habitat (Smith 1963). Intergradation is known between subspecies at the limits of their range. Morphological distinctions between subspecies are min-ute and are related to the dorsal coloration and scale arrangement (Smith and Stephens 2003). Specimens which appear to be intergrades of Black Hills and northern redbelly snake (S. o. occipitomaculata) occur in Minnesota (Ernst 1974), Nebraska, North Dakota, and Manitoba (Conant and Collins 1998).

Throughout their range, the redbelly snake seems uncommon in most areas (Trapido 1944; Swanson 1952; Conant and Collins 1998). They are found in moist woodlands, open wet meadows, sphagnum bogs, and other mesic habitats (Semlitsch and Moran 1984; Conant and Collins 1998; Ernst and Ernst 2003). The activity periods of redbelly snakes vary throughout their range as they emerge from hibernacula in mid-April in Minnesota (Lang 1969) and in late May in Manitoba, Canada (Gregory 1977). In the Black Hills, the earliest date of col-lection was 12 May and the latest recorded date was 3 October (Peterson 1974). Redbelly snakes tend to return to the same hibernacula in successive winters (Lang 1969) and may hibernate singly (Neill 1948) or in groups (Hamilton and Pollack 1956).

Prey items include slugs (Semlitsch and Moran 1984), earthworms, crickets, soft-bodied insects, larvae, tiny frogs (Linzey and Clifford 1981), small salaman-ders, and other invertebrates. Predators of redbelly snakes include numerous snake species (Palmer and Braswell 1995) and raptors (Barrett and Villarroul 1994).

The general ecology of the species in South Dakota is poorly known (Smith and Stephens 2003). Very little is known about the movement of Black Hills redbelly snakes, but migratory behavior has been observed and aggregation is also likely (Smith 1963). Redbelly snakes have been found in wet meadows, woodlands, and forest-meadow edge habitats within the Black Hills (Smith 1963; Peterson 1974; Ballinger et al. 2000), but habitat use by redbelly snakes in the Black Hills has not been studied. Black Hills redbelly snakes may be at risk due to loss of mesic habitats, but modification and contamination of habitat by pesticides or other environmental contaminants also is a concern (Smith and Stephens 2003).

The Black Hills redbelly snake is listed as a species of concern in South Dakota and Wyoming and is monitored by the South Dakota Natural Heritage Program. Additionally, within the Black Hills National Forest, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service designates the snake as a sen-sitive species. The distribution and habitat use of these snakes are poorly known in South Dakota and the South Dakota Game, Fish, And Parks was interested in obtaining this information. Objectives of this study were (1) to describe the general ecology, such as body size and population characteristics, of the Black Hills redbelly snakes, and (2) to determine distribution and habitat association of Black Hills redbelly snakes.


STUDY AREA

The Black Hills are located in western South Dakota and cover about 485,000 hectares, ranging in elevation from 1,000 to 2,200 m. The climate of the Black Hills is semi-arid continental, characterized by low precipitation and extreme variation in both temperature and precipitation (Froiland 1990). The region is influenced by a mountain climate type, due to the elevation of the Black Hills above the surrounding plains (Froiland 1990). Changes in elevation, aspect and moisture create highly variable growing seasons and temperature regimes (Larson and Johnson 1999). The Black Hills are drained by many small streams originat-ing in the western part of the area and stream flows are greatest where drainage occurs toward the north and the east. No natural lakes occur in the Black Hills, but four large reservoirs result from damming (Froiland 1990).

Vegetation is dominated by Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) coniferous for-est, with white spruce (Picea glauca), paper birch (Betula papyrifera) and aspen (Populus tremuloides) on north-facing slopes, around mesic areas, and in higher elevations (Froiland 1990). In riparian areas, American elm, (Ulmus americana), cottonwoods (Populus deltoides) boxelder (Acer negundo), and willows (Salix spp.) are common (Larson and Johnson 1999). In the Black Hills, 22 species of herpetofauna, including 7 amphibians and 15 reptiles, have been documented (Peterson 1974; Froiland 1990) compared to 44 species (14 amphibian and 30 reptile) recorded in the entire state of South Dakota (Ballinger et al. 2000).

METHODS

We used a systematic sampling design and focused searches on areas where red-belly snakes were most likely to occur. We searched open areas such as marshes, wet meadows, and forest-meadow edge habitats identified by Gregory (1977) and Smith and Stephens (2003) as suitable redbelly snake habitat. Most sample sites were mesic habitats and immature disturbed forest along creeks or streams with cover objects available for shelter. We also searched ditches, gullies, and fence lines which concentrate snakes or serve as movement corridors. In addition, we searched open prairie areas away from water sources. We searched under cover objects such as rocks and logs as well as potential den sites such as ant mounds, mammal bur-rows, sawdust piles, and rotting logs (Criddle 1937; Lang 1971; Ernst and Ernst 2003). We captured snakes by hand and recorded captures per person-hour.

We recorded the date and time, GPS coordinates, snout-vent length (SVL), and tail length (TL) for each snake captured. SVL and TL were measured by straightening the snake along a ruler. The SVL was recorded as the measurement from the tip of the snout to the posterior edge of the anal plate and TL was mea-sured as the length from the posterior edge of the anal plate to the tip of the tail (Resources Inventory Committee 1998).

We determined sex by applying pressure on the ventral surface at the base of the tail of each snake. If two hemipenes were everted, the snake was recorded as male (Smith 1963). Color phase (gray or brown) was recorded. A single or double


ventral scale clip was used to mark released snakes. Snakes were assigned a unique field number by excising ventral scutes in distinctive patterns using a small pair of scissors (Resources Inventory Committee 1998).

If a snake was found under a cover object, we recorded the temperature under the cover object to the nearest 0.1 °C with a thermocouple thermometer. We recorded type of cover object and ambient temperature one meter above ground (± 0.1 °C). We measured the distance (± 0.1 m) from the point of capture to the edge of the nearest water body. We evaluated ground cover with a Duabenmire scale. We preserved dead redbelly snakes found during field collections as voucher specimens and deposited them at South Dakota State University. All redbelly snakes were taken under License Number 36, Scientific Collector’s Permit, South Dakota Department of Game, Fish and Parks. Data were analyzed using t-tests and Chi-square analyses.

RESULTS

Redbelly snakes were captured starting mid-May in 2004 and 2005. In 2004, we collected 104 redbelly snakes (0.34 captures per hour) and in 2005, we col-lected 146 redbelly snakes (0.45 captures per hour) (Figure 1). Redbelly snakes were active until the last survey date on September 11, 2005. We found most redbelly snakes (93%) between 10:00 am and 6:00 pm. Only 8 captures occurred from 8:00 am to 10:00 am and only 9 captures occurred after 6:00 pm. We did not recapture any previously captured redbelly snakes. Capture rates were higher in the northern portion of the Black Hills (0.59 captures per hour) than in the southern portion of the Black Hills (0.26 captures per hour).

Redbelly snakes were found an average of 14.0 m (SD = 20.8 m) from water (range 0.5-152.7 m). Ninety-seven percent of all redbelly snakes were found shad-ing (73.5% under rocks and 23.5% under wood). Six snakes were found foraging and one was found basking. Mean temperature under cover objects was 17.2 °C (SD = 4.5), while the ambient temperature averaged 26.3 °C (SD = 6.5). We did not find any snakes in open prairie areas. Forty-three redbelly snakes were found with other redbelly snakes under 20 cover objects. Ten redbelly snakes were found with smooth green snakes (Opheodrys vernalis) under seven cover objects and one redbelly snake was found with a common garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis).

Female redbelly snakes (n = 152) averaged 18.04 cm ± 2.45 (SD) cm (range 10.10-26.3 cm) SVL and 4.97 cm ± 0.75 (SD) cm (range 2.0-6.7 cm) TL. Males (n = 98) averaged 15.4 cm ± 2.2 (SD) cm (range 6.7-19.7 cm) SVL and 5.06 cm ± 0.88 (SD) cm (range 2.1-6.8 cm) TL. Females were significantly longer (t = 4.37, df = 248, P < 0.01), but there was no difference between female and male tail length (t = 0.115, df = 248, P = 0.095). The sex ratio favored females 3:2 (χ2 = 10.9, df = 1, P < 0.01). More than half of captured snakes (60%) were identified as grey phase vs. 40% as brown phase (χ2 = 4.00, df = 1, P < 0.05). The only young of the year (n = 5) were found August 24, 2004 and August 18, 2005. The young of the year averaged 6.8 cm ± 0.54 (SD) cm SVL (range 6.2-7.6) and 2.0 cm ± 0.3 (SD) cm TL (range 1.7-2.3).


Figure 1. Capture sites of Black Hills Redbelly Snakes in the Black Hills of South Dakota, 2004, 2005.

DISCUSSION

When we initiated this study, there was concern by some biologists as to the number of redbelly snakes we would find, but we captured over 100 each year. We could not find any snake survey to compare our capture rate with, but our rate of capture was fairly high each year (Resources Inventory Committee 1998). However, in a 3-year survey in West Virginia where redbelly snakes are known to reside, none were captured (Griffin et al. 2009). It appears redbelly snakes may be more common in the Black Hills than previously thought probably because of their small size and secretive behavior.

Black Hills red belly snakes were found to be similar in size to previously reports of northern red belly snakes (Blanchard 1937; Semlitsch and Moran 1984). Earlier studies of northern redbelly snakes also found females to be larger than males (Blanchard 1937; Trapido 1952; Fitch 1981; Semlitsch and Moran 1984). More females were caught than males relative to a previous study (Semlitsch and Moran 1984). It is possible our hand capture method was biased


towards the larger females, while Semlitsch and Moran (1984) utilized pitfall traps which may have been less selective for larger individuals.

Gray phase snakes were caught more frequently than brown phase snakes. Previous studies suggest that the proportion of individuals belonging to the two color phases varies (Trapido 1944). Young of the year were found about the same time as previously reported studies (Blanchard 1937) suggesting that females give birth to young in late July or early August, a time of warm temperatures allowing for high rates of growth in young of the year.

The majority of the cover objects utilized by redbelly snakes were rocks which tended to be the dominant cover object in the study area. It is possible that red-belly snakes may prefer rocks over other cover types because rock may allow for greater indirect basking in cool weather as heat from the rock may be more easily transferred to a resting snake, allowing for regulation of body temperature. It was much cooler under the cover objects than the ambient air temperatures. Snakes may use cover such as rocks for relief from direct sunlight during hot weather conditions. Rocks also provide protection from predators.

Redbelly snakes were found predominantly in the northern Black Hills, which receives more precipitation (Wang et al. 2003) relative to the southern Black Hills. Proximity of redbelly snakes to water bodies supports previous studies stat-ing that this species prefers moist habitats (Blanchard 1937). Our habitat and distribution data suggest redbelly snakes utilize habitat areas which are cooler and wetter than the surrounding habitat. These areas are also more likely to hold prey items such as slugs and snails.

In the Black Hills, redbelly snakes were restricted to moist areas since all were found near water, while large areas of dry habitat held no redbelly snakes. The snakes have little reason to venture far from the moist areas as they have plentiful prey and cover there. Thus, a loss of such habitat would put the redbelly snake population at high risk. Therefore, practices which reduce the abundance of moist habitats (cattle-grazing, construction) could threaten the redbelly snake. Similarly, management which increases such habitat would favor both the snakes and their prey.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Funding for this research was provided by South Dakota Department of Game, Fish and Parks (SDGFP), South Dakota State University, and the Federal Aid to Wildlife Fund (Project W-75-R, No.75) administered by SDGFP. This study was approved as #04-A020 by the South Dakota State Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee. We would like to express our gratitude to Meagan Hall and Andrew Kopp for data collection and Silka Kempema for editorial reviews, as well as SDGFP for providing a special permit allowing the collection of snakes.


LITERATURE CITED

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OPTIMAL PREY SELECTION IN EASTERN GRAY SQUIRRELS

Robert Tatina*Department of Biological Sciences

Dakota Wesleyan UniversityMitchell 57301


ABSTRACT

The optimal prey selection hypothesis, a part of Optimal Foraging Theory, uses prey energy content and forager searching and handling times to predict when a forager will choose only the most profitable prey and when it will include less prof-itable prey in its diet. I tested the hypothesis using eastern gray squirrels as foragers and pairs of prey—sunflower fruits and seeds, and pumpkin seeds and embryos—that differed in handling time. In all foraging trials, the squirrels consumed both prey types, but showed a partial preference for the less profitable prey (sunflower fruit and pumpkin seed). For squirrels foraging on pumpkin seeds and embryos, the hypothesis, which predicts that the more profitable prey (embryos) alone would be selected, was not supported by a partial preference value significantly greater than 0.5 which would indicate that both prey types were consumed. The hypothesis may be limited to laboratory conditions in which prey are presented sequentially, a condition not met in the experiments described here where prey types were offered together and were constantly mixed as the squirrels searched for prey in a sand-containing dish. Instead, squirrels showed a slight preference for larger prey which may result from higher encounter rates or may result from squir-rels using a “rule of thumb:” when hungry, consume prey as they are encountered.

Keywords

eastern grey squirrel, optimal foraging theory, optimal prey selection

INTRODUCTION

The optimal prey selection hypothesis is a component of Optimal Foraging Theory, which explains the food choice decisions of foragers (Charnov 1976; Krebs et al. 1977). It assumes that a forager will optimize its net energy gain when prey individuals are encountered sequentially and at random and when the forager can detect differences in prey profitability. It also predicts that food choices depend alone on the abundance of the most profitable prey (Krebs et al. 1977). The predictions were tested initially for caged tits (Parus major L.) who were sequentially offered individual mealworms (Krebs et al. 1977) and for caged mantids (Hierodula crassa Giglio-Tos) who could see all prey individuals


(Hollings’ data in Charnov (1976)). Subsequently, most, but not all, experiments designed to test the optimal prey selection hypothesis have supported it (sum-marized in Stephens and Krebs 1986; Sih and Christensen 2001).

The optimal prey selection hypothesis (also called the optimal diet model) (Krebs et al. 1977; Davies et al. 2012) describes a means of testing the prey model of Optimal Foraging Theory by predicting forager choices for two prey types that differ in profitability. Profitability is determined by the energy gained per unit of handling time (E/H). If the profitability of the more profitable prey (Prey 1) is designated E1/H1 and the less profitable (Prey 2) by E2/H2, then E1/H1 > E2/H2. A forager will always consume the more profitable prey, but will include the less profitable in its diet if S1 > [(E1 • H2)/ E2] – H1, where S1 is the searching time for Prey 1, E1 is the energy content of Prey 1, E2 is the energy content of Prey 2, H1 is the handling time for Prey 1, and H2 is the handling time for Prey 2 (Davies et al. 2012). Thus, choice of prey depends on the abundance of Prey 1 (as reflected in the searching time) and not on the abundance of Prey 2.

In previous foraging experiments, when fox squirrels (Sciurus niger L.) were offered two different prey, they showed a partial preference for the larger one even though it had higher energy costs (Tatina 2007). Their choice seemed not to sup-port the optimal prey selection hypothesis. Consequently, eastern gray squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis Gmelin) were chosen to compare their prey choice decisions with those of fox squirrels. Like fox squirrels, gray squirrels are ideal foragers because they are generalist foragers (Steele and Koprowski 2001), readily accept foods from artificial patches, and are sufficiently abundant to permit replicated experimental designs. In addition, eastern gray squirrels can detect differences in prey profitability (Smith and Follmer 1972; Steele et al. 1996; Steele and Koprowski 2001; Steele et al. 2006; Sundaram et al. 2015).

To determine if the hypothesis could describe foraging outcomes outside the laboratory, I tested the prediction that a forager will always consume the more profitable prey, but will include the less profitable in its diet if S1 > [(E1 • H2)/ E2] – H1,with eastern gray squirrels as foragers and confectioner sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) fruits (= “shell”-enclosed seeds) and seeds (without “shells”) and pumpkin (Cucumis pepo L.) seeds and embryos (= epicotyl, hypo-cotyl and cotyledons, but no seed coat), as prey. To do this I measured the time squirrels spent searching for and handling prey items and calculated their partial preference from giving up densities.

METHODS

All prey choice trials were run with randomly selected prey combinations scat-tered over the surface of approximately 600 cc of beach sand contained in a 2.8 L Pyrex dish (27.9 cm × 17.8 cm × 7.6 cm) and then covered with an additional 600 cc of sand. The dish was set on a platform 30 cm above ground in a yard in Sawyer, MI, approximately 3 m from a large white pine tree and 5 m from sev-eral large maple trees. Three, two-hour feeding trials were run each day at 0800 h, 1100 h, and 1400 h. Feeding trials began in December 2014, and ended in March 2017. A video recording was made of each feeding trial in all experiments


and viewed to determine which squirrel, based on fur color, ear color and fore foot color, was involved. All data were then sorted by squirrel before statistical analysis using Minitab 17.2.1 software (Minitab 2015) with α = 0.05.

Prey type preference. A forager exhibits a partial preference for one prey type when the proportion of that prey type consumed is greater than the abundance of that prey type relative to all available prey types (Brown and Morgan 1995). To determine the prey preference of eastern gray squirrels, in February 2017, I presented mixtures of confectioner sunflower fruits and seeds (20, 40 or 60 fruits by 20, 40 or 60 seeds) in random order as determined from a table of random numbers, and pumpkin seeds and embryos (20, 30 or 40 seeds by 20, 30 or 40 embryos) in March 2017. At the end of each feeding trial, seeds and fruits or seeds and embryos were sifted from the sand and counted. The number of seeds, fruits and embryos equal their giving up densities (GUDs). To determine if one prey resource was preferred, I calculated the partial preference (PP) for one of the prey types (R) using the following formula from Chesson (1983) for tests without replacement of depletable resources:

PP1 = (loge GUD1 / R1) / [(loge GUD1 / R1) + (loge GUD2 / loge R2)],

where GUD = giving up density, the number of uneaten prey items remaining after a foraging episode (Brown and Morgan 1995).

Mean partial preference values calculated for each feeding trial were subjected to a one-sample t-test to determine whether average values differed significantly from 0.5. Values significantly greater than 0.5 indicate a partial preference for prey type 1, values equal to 0.5 indicate no preference, and values less than 0.5 indicate a partial avoidance of prey type 1 (Brown and Morgan 1995).

Prey size preference. To determine if squirrels had a size preference when offered prey of only one type, I determined the average mass to the nearest 0.01g for 80, 100 or 120 sunflower fruits or seeds and the average mass for 30, 40 or 50 pump-kin seeds and the average mass for 100, 150 or 200 pumpkin embryos. One of the prey numbers was randomly selected to be offered. At the end of a feeding trial the number of remaining individuals was counted and then weighed to the nearest 0.01 g, after which the average mass was calculated. Thus, average mass equated to mass per item. For each squirrel, the average mass remaining was subtracted from the average mass offered. If the average difference was greater than zero, smaller prey items were preferred; if less than zero, large prey items were preferred. Differences were subjected to a one-tailed t-test of the statistical hypothesis that the difference was less than or equal to zero (i.e., larger prey item were preferred).

Foraging times. Squirrel foraging times are composed of searching times (aver-age time to locate a prey item) and handling times (average time to ingest a prey item). To determine mean searching and handling times for prey items, I buried in sand 25 confectioner sunflower fruits or seeds (September – November 2015) or 25 pumpkin seeds or embryos (November – December 2016) and recorded squirrel foraging episodes using a small video camera and then viewed episodes


with a clock superimposed onto the video files. I assumed searching times started when a squirrel lowered its head to the sand and ended when it raised its head and started to put food to its mouth, at which time handling times started immediately and continued until the squirrel again lowered its head to the sand. I excluded intervals when a squirrel became motionless and stopped searching for or handling food items. Sums of searching and handling times for each prey type for each feeding trial for each squirrel were converted to the time in seconds to search for one prey item and to handle one prey item. I then compared searching times (seconds per item) and handling times (seconds per item) for pairs of prey types in two-tailed, two-sample t-tests.

Calculations for selectivity predictions. The variables used to predict the prey choice strategy of squirrels are those contained in the optimal selectivity models of Charnov (1976) and Krebs et al. (1977) as presented in Davies et al. (2012) as previously described in the Introduction. The energy content (E) of confec-tioner sunflower fruits and seeds was assumed to be equal since these two items differ only in the presence of the pericarp (“shell”) in the fruits, but absent from the seeds. Likewise, the energy content (E) of pumpkin seeds and embryos was assumed to be equal because these items differed only by the presence of the seed coat surrounding the seeds and not the embryos.

Partial preference changes over time. From December 2014, to March 2015, I offered sunflower fruits (0, 5, 10, and 15 g) and seeds (0, 10, 20, and 30 g) mixed in sand in random combinations from 800 h to 1000 h and 1500 h to 1700 h. At the end of each feeding trial, I weighed the fruits and seeds remaining and calculated the partial preference for fruits. To determine if squirrel prefer-ences changed over time, I regressed partial preferences against time in days.

RESULTS

Prey preference for confectioner sunflower fruit/seed. In 34 foraging trials over 19 days, when squirrels were exposed to various random combinations of sunflower fruits and seeds, they consumed both, but had a low, albeit significant, partial preference for sunflower fruits (PPfruits = 0.5877 ± 0.0524 (± SD); t (μ ≤ 0.5) = 4.10, P = 0.005, n = 6 squirrels).

Prey preference for pumpkin seed/embryo. Forty foraging trials over 26 days yielded a mean partial preference for pumpkin seeds (PPseeds = 0.5517 ± 0.0278 (± SD), t (μ ≤ 0.5) = 3.17, P = 0.017, n = 6). Thus, eastern gray squirrels again con-sumed both prey types, but had a low, significant partial preference for pumpkin seeds over embryos.

Foraging times for confectioner sunflower fruit/seed. When presented with random sequences of 25 sunflower fruits or seeds in 38 foraging trials over 42 days, the average searching time per item of three eastern gray squirrels for fruits was significantly shorter than for seeds (P = 0.001), but the average handling time


per item was significantly longer (P = 0.020) (Table 1) because squirrels had to bite away the pericarp of the fruits before ingesting the seeds.

Foraging times for pumpkin seed/embryo. Eastern gray squirrels exhibited no difference in searching times (P = 0.928) when offered 25 pumpkin seeds or embryos (Table 1) in 40 foraging trials divided among three squirrels over 26 days, but had an approximately 2-1/2-fold increase in handling times for seeds due to having to remove first the seed coat before biting off and swallowing pieces of the embryo contained within.

Table 1. Eastern gray squirrel searching and handling times (seconds per prey item) for sunflower fruits and seeds and pumpkin seeds and embryos. Two-sample, two-tailed t-tests (μ = 0) compared sunflower searching times for fruits to seeds, sunflower han-dling times for fruits to seeds and pumpkin searching times for seeds to embryos and pumpkin handling times for seeds to embryos. n = the number of squirrels.

n Mean ± SD t P (µ1 = µ2)

Searching Time—Sunflower Fruit (1) 3 6.47 ± 0.23Searching Time—Sunflower Seed (2) 3 8.64 ± 0.21 12.17 0.001

Handling Time—Sunflower Fruit (1) 3 3.54 ± 0.55Handling Time—Sunflower Seed (2) 3 1.86 ± 0.30 4.55 0.020

Searching Time—Pumpkin Seed (1) 3 5.77 ± 1.53Searching Time—Pumpkin Embryo (2) 3 5.87 ± 0.72 0.10 0.928

Handling Time—Pumpkin Seed (1) 3 15.47 ± 0.92Handling Time—Pumpkin Embryo (2) 3 6.03 ± 0.90 12.69 0.001

Optimal prey selection predictions. The profitability (E/H) of consuming sunflower fruits was 0.28 which was less than the 0.54 for seeds (Table 2). The searching time (Smore) for seeds of 8.64 s / item exceeded the 1.68 s / item cal-culated for [(Emore × Hless)/ Eless] – Hless, which suggests that the squirrels should consume both, which they did.

In the trial with pumpkin seeds and embryos, the embryos, with an E/H = 0.17, were almost 3 times more profitable for squirrels to consume (Table 2). However, their searching time (Smore) of 5.87 s / item was less than their 9.44 value for [(Emore × Hless)/ Eless] – Hless, suggesting that the squirrels should take only the more profitable embryos, but they included both, as indicated by a partial preference significantly greater than 0.5.


Table 2. Profitability (E/H) for pairs of prey items, search times (Smore) for the more prof-itable prey item, and the results of the calculation to predict if a forager will exhibit partial preference (i.e., when Smore > [(Emore x Hless) / Eless] – Hmore). E = relative energy gain and H = handling time. Boldface indicates preferred prey. Confectioner (Cnf) sunflower fruit and seed are commonly used for human consumption; whereas, oil sunflower fruit and seed are used for bird seed. Values for fox squirrels were calculated from data in Tatina (2007)

Prey Forager E/H (Profitability) Smore[(Emore × Hless)/ Eless] – Hmore]

Cnf sunflower fruit Gray squirrel 1/3.54 = 0.28 (less)Cnf sunflower seed Gray squirrel 1/1.86 = 0.54 (more) 8.64 1.68Pumpkin seed Gray squirrel 1/15.47 = 0.06 (less)Pumpkin embryo Gray squirrel 1/6.03 = 0.17 (more) 5.87 9.44Cnf sunflower fruit Fox squirrel 1/4.55 = 0.22 (less)Cnf sunflower seed Fox squirrel 1/2.53 = 0.40 (more) 6.25 2.22Cnf sunflower fruit* Fox squirrel 1.3/4.55 = 0.29 (less)Oil sunflower fruits Fox squirrel 1/2.47 = 0.40 (more) 5.79 2.08Cnf sunflower seed* Fox squirrel 1.3/2.53 = 0.51 (more) 6.25 3.45Oil sunflower fruit Fox squirrel 1/2.47 = 0.40 (less)

*The mean mass (± SD) of 13 sets of 25 confectioner (Cnf ) sunflower seeds was 0.532 g (95% CI 0.492-0.572) per seed and for 10 sets of 25 oil sunflower seeds was 0.403 g (95% CI 0.370-0.436) per seed, making the confectioner seed 1.3 times heavier than the oil seed. Therefore, the energy content (E) of the confectioner fruit was estimated to be 1.3 times greater than that of the oil fruit. Mass differences are a reasonable substitute for energy content differences because the proximate analyses of the two seed types are very similar.

Prey selection based on size alone. When a single prey type was offered, the mean mass of the prey items consumed was not significantly greater than the mean mass of the same items offered (Table 3). This was true for confec-tioner sunflower fruits (P = 0.818) and seeds (P = 0.097) and pumpkin seeds (P = 0.072) and embryos (P = 0.155).

Table 3. Prey selection by eastern gray squirrels based on size. Paired t-test of difference (g) > 0 between the mean mass of food offered and the mean mass of food consumed. n = number of squirrels, Trials = number of feeding trials, Difference = mean ± SD.

Difference (g) t n P Trials

Confectioner Sunflower Fruits -0.0307 ± 0.0576 -1.07 4 0.818 20Confectioner Sunflower Seeds -0.0003 ± 0.0003 -1.66 5 0.903 20Pumpkin Seeds 0.0032 ± 0.0033 1.96 4 0.072 26Pumpkin Embryos 0.0515 ± 0.0660 1.35 3 0.155 20


Partial preference changes over time. Partial preference values for sunflower fruits from 96 trials over 111 days regressed against time yielded a slope of -0.0005 (R2 = 0.0012, P = 0.275).

DISCUSSION

Optimal Foraging Theory predicts, under a strict set of assumptions, that as foragers forage, they choose to consume prey that will optimize their energy gain. Energy gain is assumed to be a function of energy content minus foraging costs. Foraging costs include energy expended in searching for prey and in han-dling prey, as well as lost opportunities to engage in other essential life activities: escaping foragers, seeking mates, caring for offspring, etc. Assigning a value to each of these costs has been difficult, if not impossible. Instead, searching and handing times have been used as surrogates for costs (Brown 1988; Mitchell and Brown 1990), and handling time has been included in the optimal prey selec-tion hypothesis to determine the profitability of prey items. Furthermore, the hypothesis assumes that a forager can assess energy content and handling time as it forages and was developed and tested under conditions in which prey were visible to foragers throughout foraging trials so that prey densities were known and forager encounter times, searching times, and handling times could be deter-mined (Krebs et al. 1977). Under these conditions, the forager was shown to for-age optimally as described by the hypothesis in that it always consumed the more profitable prey, but included the less profitable in its diet if the searching time for the more profitable prey was greater than the difference between handling time for the more profitable and the ratio of the product of the energy content of the more profitable prey and the handling time of the less profitable prey to the energy content of the less profitable prey, the S1 > [(E1 • H2)/ E2] – H1 described in the Introduction (Krebs et al. 1977).

Under the conditions of my experiments in which prey items were buried in sand, eastern gray squirrels could not be shown to forage as described by the opti-mal prey selection hypothesis. Instead, when offered sunflower fruits and seeds, they showed a partial preference for the less profitable seeds. Similar results were obtained for fox squirrels in South Dakota (Table 2 and Tatina (2007)). When offered pumpkin seeds and embryos, eastern gray squirrels should have consumed only the more profitable prey, the embryos, but instead showed a partial prefer-ence for the less profitable seeds, consuming both seeds and embryos. When fox squirrels were offered a choice between confectioner sunflower fruits and the smaller oil sunflower fruits, they had a partial preference for the less profitable confectioner fruits (Table 2 and Tatina (2007)). When given a choice between confectioner sunflower seeds and oil sunflower fruits, the hypothesis predicted that fox squirrels would prefer the more profitable seeds, and would consume both; however, they showed no preference for either, consuming both depending on the amounts they were offered (Table 2 and Tatina (2007)).

Judging the profitability of a prey based on handling time seems not to be the strategy used by squirrels. Instead, they may use searching time as an indicator


of profitability because searching incurs more risk than handling (Makowska and Kramer 2007). As a squirrel is searching, its head is down and the amount of landscape it can view becomes less than when its head is elevated in the semi-erect posture it assumes when handling prey (Bednekoff and Lima 2002). The significantly shorter searching time for the larger prey item, the sunflower fruit in the trials with fruits and seeds, indicates a shorter time between prey encoun-ters (Table 1). For pumpkin, the searching time was lower for the larger (seed) item, but the difference was not statistically significant (Table 1). The lack of a significant difference in searching times for pumpkin seeds and embryos may be due to the similarity in the ratio (1.8:1) of its seed to embryo masses (personal observation) compared to that (2.4:1) of sunflower fruits and seeds. When the average sizes of oil sunflower fruits and confectioner seeds were similar, fox squir-rel searching times were similar and the squirrels showed no preference for either prey (Tatina 2007 and Table 2).

When eastern gray squirrels were offered two different prey items (fruits and seeds or seeds and embryos) that differed in size, they consistently showed a par-tial preference for the larger one. However, when they were offered prey items that differed in size only, I could not find support for the hypothesis that they selected the larger prey item, but size differences among prey in these foraging trials was much smaller than in the trials in which sunflower fruits and seeds or pumpkin seeds and embryos were offered, and squirrels may not have been able to detect such small differences.

The Optimal Foraging Theory assumes that foragers can detect differences in the energy content of potential prey and that they optimize the ratio of energy content to handling time. How they do this is not known. The theory claims that natural selection has molded the behavior of organisms such that when they make decisions about when to feed, where to feed, on what to feed, etc., they optimize energy gain. To do so, may involve complex interactions of sensory input, neural pathways, hormones, mental images and gene activation (Ydenberg et al. 2007). However, a forager may use some simple “rule of thumb” to make quick foraging decisions. Such rules of thumb may include prey characteristics of color, odor, and size or the strategy may be as simple as “if not satiated and prey is encountered, then attack and consume it.” Such a strategy may indeed be optimal since failure to consume may be a missed opportunity that could not be com-pensated for by future encounters. Unfortunately, the design of my experiments did not allow for the measurement of encounter rates as did the experiments by Krebs et al. (1977).

If eastern gray squirrels can detect the size difference between prey items, how they accomplish this is not known; however, size has been a factor in other studies. For example, fox squirrels preferred the larger, less profitable prey when offered a choice between confectioner sunflower fruits (larger, less profitable) and seeds and between confectioner sunflower fruits (larger and less profitable) and oil sunflower fruits, but showed no preference when offered confectioner sunflower seeds and oil fruits whose size and profitability were more nearly equal (Table 2, and Tatina (2007)). Preferring the larger of prey items has been reported for fox squirrels on pine cones (Steele and Weigl 1992) and for gray squirrels on


insect galls (Shealer et al. 1999). As a generalist forager, eastern gray squirrels feed opportunistically on many types of prey (Steele and Koprowski 2001). To do so efficiently and not miss an opportunity to ingest food, these squirrels could apply a simple decision rule: when given a choice that can be perceived, select the larger prey. This was first suggested by O’Brien et al. (2005) for western crows feeding on whelks and clams, claiming that such a strategy is most effective when the difference in net energy gain is minimal. In the case of eastern gray squirrels feeding on pumpkin and sunflower prey, a negligible difference in net energy gain is not known.

Size may not be the only factor on which squirrels base prey selection. Other studies in which squirrels were the foragers have shown that preference may be based on prey digestibility (Smith and Follmer 1972; Schmidt 2000) and protein content (Lewis 1982).

A case could be made that the eastern gray squirrels preferred sunflower fruits over seeds because the black fruits were more conspicuous than the cream-colored seeds against the pale- yellow sand in which the seeds were mixed. But the white pumpkin seeds and the dark green pumpkin embryos would seem to be equally visible against the sand background. In addition, videos of foraging eastern gray squirrels show that they probably use visual cues to a lesser extent than they use tactile and olfactory cues to locate and select prey because a squirrel would usually encounter and select a prey item with its forepaws and muzzle.

Are squirrels showing a partial preference for the larger prey item (sunflower fruit or pumpkin seed) because they had developed a search image from past experience? It would be more usual for squirrels to encounter sunflower fruits than to encounter the smaller seeds because commercially available bird seed mixes contain sunflower fruits, and agricultural fields and roadsides provide sun-flower fruits. For pumpkin seeds, which are usually available in late summer and fall as the contents of whole pumpkins in fields and as Halloween decorations, squirrels would have experience with seeds, but not with embryos. However, when fox squirrels in an urban setting in South Dakota were presented with a choice between confectioner sunflower fruits and oil fruits, they showed a partial preference for confectioner fruits even though they would probably have had more prior experience with oil fruits because these are what are sold for bird feed-ers (Tatina 2007). Finally, when partial preferences of eastern gray squirrels for sunflower fruits was regressed over time, the slope of the line was not different from zero, indicating that these squirrels had not changed their preference due to exposure to these two prey items during an extended set of feeding trials.

Eastern gray squirrels are scatter hoarders (Steele and Koprowski 2001) and may prefer sunflower fruits and pumpkin seeds because they can be cached because the pericarp of the sunflower fruits and the seed coat of the pumpkin seeds would protect these from decomposition. Squirrels were not observed to remove and bury the unprotected sunflower seeds or pumpkin embryos, nor were they observed to cache sunflower fruits. Instead, they consumed all three within the foraging trays. However, squirrels were seen removing some pumpkin seeds and burying them. Why they would bury pumpkin seeds and not sunflower fruits is not resolved, but squirrels are able to distinguish between high quality


and low quality prey (Hadj-Chikh et al. 1996; Steele et al. 1996) and, depending on their level of hunger, will consume low quality prey and cache high quality prey (Preston and Jacobs 2009). If this is the case with pumpkin seeds, then east-ern gray squirrels must know that pumpkin seeds are cacheable, and pumpkin embryos are not.

Another possibility for the failure of the optimal prey selection hypothesis to correctly predict prey choice is that the experimental conditions of the cur-rent research do not satisfy one or more of the assumptions of the optimal prey selection hypothesis (Sih and Christensen 2001). First, if squirrels encounter more than one prey at a time, and there is no assurance that they do in the present experiments, especially after they have been searching in a feedings dish where they have been stirring the sand and the prey, the experiment violates the assumption that they encounter prey sequentially. Second, since the hypothesis was developed under conditions in which encounter rates and prey densities were known (Krebs et al. 1977), it may not describe outcomes where these two vari-ables are not measured because they may be changing constantly. In the present research, these two variables may change constantly as the squirrel removes prey. Encounter rates are related to searching rates, but may not be the same because a squirrel may encounter a prey, but not capture it. Under the present experimen-tal conditions in which prey were not visible, it was not possible to determine encounter rates. In addition, the density of prey is known at two times only—at the start of a feeding episode and at the end.

In foraging experiments in which prey are buried and not visible, a squirrel may be able to detect differences in profitability by measuring handling times and may be able to assess prey density by measuring searching times. But, as predicted by the optimal prey selection hypothesis, does a squirrel use these measures to make deci-sions about which prey to consume? From foraging trials described here, it would seem they do not. Instead, when they are hungry, they consume each prey they encounter. That they seem to prefer larger prey may be due to their encountering these more often simply because their larger size makes them more conspicuous. Such a simple foraging strategy may provide them with an optimal energy gain.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Nancy Baird for critically reading several versions of this manuscript and Dr. David Stephens (University of Minnesota), Dr. Jeff Palmer (Dakota State University) and two anonymous reviewers for suggesting various changes to improve the manuscript. I also thank Dr. Tim Mullican (Dakota Wesleyan University) for serving as editor for this paper.

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USING WATER QUALITY AND GIS TO EVALUATE LAKE TROUT HABITAT

IN DEERFIELD RESERVOIR, SOUTH DAKOTA

Lindsey Meiers, Michelle Bucholz, Joellyn Moine and Greg Simpson*South Dakota Department of Game, Fish and Parks

Rapid City, SD 57702*Corresponding author email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Lake trout prefer temperatures less the 19 °C and dissolved oxygen levels greater than 4 mg/l. Temperature and dissolved oxygen profiles were taken dur-ing the summer and fall of 2015 and were used with a recent map of Deerfield Reservoir to compute lake volumes. Adequate lake trout habitat existed through-out the study, but was markedly reduced in August and September when water volumes were 1.9 × 106 m3 and 4.8 × 106 m3, respectively.

Keywords

Water temperature, dissolved oxygen, critical habitat, lake trout, Salvelinus namaycush

INTRODUCTION

Salmonids, in general, can adapt to large changes in their environment (Carlson and Seamons 2008); however, water quality may negatively affect lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) populations (Marsden et al. 1995). Dissolved oxygen lev-els less than 4.5 ppm have been found to retard developmental rates of embryos, resulting in lengthened hatching periods and delayed hatching and to cause total mortality at 10 °C or greater (Garside 1959). Maximum temperature tolerances for lake trout have been established at 23.5 °C (Gibson and Fry 1954). Plumb and Blanchfield (2009) suggested that the widely-used criteria of 8-12 °C greatly underestimated lake trout habitat and that combined criteria of temperatures at 15 °C or colder and dissolved oxygen >4 ppm matches more closely the preferred habitat of lake trout. A study on small lakes showed that lake trout can distribute in areas as warm as 20 °C (Sellers et al. 1998). In addition, lake trout may use groundwater refugia as habitat during warmer periods (Snucins and Gunn 1995).

The objective of our study was to determine the extent of critical habitat for lake trout in Deerfield Reservoir throughout the late summer and early fall in order to predict the success of a lake trout introduction. To accomplish this, we mapped the depth locations where temperatures <19 °C and dissolved oxygen >4ppm coincided. For this study, we used 19 °C as a temperature maximum as it was slightly more conservative than that reported by Sellers et al. (1998).


Deerfield Reservoir is a high altitude (5,906 msl) impoundment created in 1941 by damming Castle Creek approximately 30 km upstream from Pactola Reservoir. Located in the limestone region of the Black Hills in Pennington County, South Dakota, Deerfield Reservoir has a surface area of 176 ha (435 acres), a maximum depth of 28.3 m, a mean depth of 11 m and a watershed of approximately 24,605 ha (60,800 acres).

METHODS

A YSI Sonde unit, calibrated at the lake before each use, was used to measure temperature and dissolved oxygen from an anchored boat near the deepest por-tion of the lake. Temperature and dissolved oxygen were recorded at one meter intervals from the surface to the bottom of the lake. When a potential thermo-cline was encountered, temperatures at 0.5 m increments slightly above, in and below the thermocline were taken to improve precision. Data were collected once a month from July – October 2015.

From a recent map of Deerfield Lake (http://gfp.sd.gov/fishing-boating/tacklebox/lake-maps/docs/Deerfield.pdf ), we used Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) interpolation to develop a contour map from 21,318 depth points. This interpolation method has been used to produce acceptable results with similar data (Simpson and Wu 2014). Comparisons of accuracy for different interpola-tion methods have been examined and in many cases IDW has been found to be sufficiently accurate (Hengl 2007; Valley et al. 2005; Li and Heap 2008, 2011; Simpson and Wu 2014).

In our study, depth contours with barriers (slices) were developed within the Spatial Analysis extension in ArcGIS to create a digital bathymetric map of Deerfield Lake. This information was used in association with water quality data to locate depths of potential lake trout habitat. To do this we considered each of the depth contour slices to be a plane for further calculations. Volumes of water between planes were estimated based on frustum calculations. The equation used for determining frustum volumes was: 1

3H (A1 + A2 + √A1A2), where H equals the

height between the elevation contours, A1 equals the area of one contour and A2 equals the area of a second contour (Schneider 2000).

RESULTS

We found water temperatures within the critical parameters for lake trout sur-vival at depths greater than 6.5, 7.5, 15 and 12 m in the months of July, August, September and October, respectively (Table 1, Figure 1). Similarly, critical dis-solved oxygen levels were found at depths less than 15.5, 9.5, 8.5 and 12 m, respectively. The frustum volumes, ranged from 1.9 × 106 m3 to over 14 × 106 m3. The lowest volume of water adequate for lake trout survival was in August. By October the lake had cooled to the point that most of the lake was adequate for lake trout survival.


Table 1. Water depths where critical dissolved oxygen concentrations (4 gm/L) and water temperatures (19 °C) were observed at Deerfield Reservoir and their calculated frustum volumes between these depths.

Month Water Temperature Min. Depth

Dissolved Oxygen Max. Depth

Water volume (m3)

July 6.5 m 15.5 m 6,598,480August 7.5 m 9.5 m 1,970,749

September 15.0 m 8.5 m 4,821,965October 12.0 m 12.0 m 14,297,472

Figure 1. Temperature and dissolved oxygen profiles with critical habitat limits suitable for lake trout in Deerfield Reservoir, July – October 2015.

DISCUSSION

The use of a frustum to calculate the approximate volume of water has been used by others (Häkanson 1981; Taube 2000; Wetzel and Likens 2000). Although the method is seldom used in fisheries because few studies determine appropriate water quality parameters prior to the stocking of fish, it was used recently for the efficient culture of hybrid striped bass (female white bass Morone chrysops × male striped bass M. saxatilis) in a marine environment (Volkman et al. 2004).

Our study investigated the properties of oxygen and temperature over the course of one summer. It was assumed that this was a “typical” condition and could be used as the basis for further work on the long-term survival and behav-iors of lake trout in Deerfield Reservoir. While there are limits and potential pitfalls to utilizing a single season of sampling, other studies employing a limited duration have been used to identify physical parameter influences in similar situ-ations (Gunther et al 2007; Jacobson et al. 2010).


Lake trout typically are lacustrine in nature and are commonly found in the hypolimnion or metalimnion (Donald and Alger 1993; Mackenzie-Grieve and Post 2006). The preferred temperature for lake trout of 15 °C may not always provide the necessary relief for this temperature restricted species. Snucins and Gunn (1995) and Mackenzie-Grieve and Post (2006) found instances of lake trout searching out colder regions of lakes in order to survive the heat extremes of summer. Because of this, we used a temperature maximum of 19 °C based on studies of similar sized waters (Sellers et al. 1998). Throughout the summer and fall of 2015 there were suitable volumes of water in Deerfield Reservoir during the expected high temperature/low dissolved oxy-gen period. However, these water volumes were greatly diminished during August and September. These data show that there were preferred lake trout refugia, relative to oxy-gen and temperature, for the year-round survival of lake trout in Deerfield Reservoir. In addition, once salmonids become acclimated, they are able to survive temperatures beyond the thermal maximum (Cherry et al. 1977; Coutant 1977; Jobling 1981).

The actual determination of the number of lake trout that may be supported in Deerfield Reservoir was not investigated and is beyond the scope of this study. Results from this study indicate that, given time to adjust to the water tempera-ture, lake trout will have cold water relief and may flourish in Deerfield Reservoir.

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FEEDING TECHNIQUE DOES NOT IMPACT THE GROWTH OF RAINBOW TROUT RECEIVING

SUB-SATIATION RATIONS

Patrick A. Nero, Michael E. Barnes*, Emily P. Trappe, and Eric KrebsSouth Dakota Department of Game, Fish, and Parks

McNenny State Fish Hatchery19619 Trout Loop

Spearfish, South Dakota USA 57783*Corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Three feeding techniques were evaluated during the rearing of domesticated rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in production raceways. Eight-hour con-tinuous-feeding belt feeders, once-a-day hand feeding, and demand feeders were used to dispense feed at a projected growth rate of 0.060 cm/day, approximately 75% of satiation feeding-levels. The experiment lasted for 164 days, during which individual trout weight increased from 33 to 180 g. No significant differ-ences in total raceway weight gain, food conversion ratio, individual fish length or weight, percent fin length, or survival was observed among the three feeding techniques. However, there was significantly greater variation in individual fish weight in the fish from raceways fed by demand feeders compared to the other feeding techniques. Once-a-day hand feeding is recommended for juvenile domesticated rainbow trout at less-than-satiation feeding levels to maximize the efficient use of hatchery labor and to reduce costs associated with unnecessary equipment and maintenance.

Keywords

Rainbow Trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, Feeding, Demand Feeder, Belt Feeder

INTRODUCTION

Feeding fish is one of the most basic and important components of aquacul-ture (De Silva and Anderson 1995), and feeding methods must be economical and efficient (Barrows and Hardy 2001). Successful feeding techniques are those that deliver the necessary nutrients to the fish, but also minimize waste (Noble et al. 2007). Inefficient feeding can cause inadequate or unknown growth, poor water quality, and increased production costs (Guillaume et al 1999).

Feeding techniques can be categorized as either hand feeding or auto-matic (mechanical) feeding (Barrows and Hardy 2001; Carter 2015). Hand feeding is the most primitive technique, and may be the most widely used


(Piper et al. 1982; Carter 2015). Hand feeding can occur multiple times each day, and has the benefit of allowing for timely observations of fish health and rearing conditions (Barrows and Hardy 2001; Graig and Helfrich 2009). However, hand feeding requires a large input of labor (Carter 2015). Although requiring an initial input of capital, automatic feeding using mechanical devices has lower labor requirements (Piper et al. 1982; Aloisi 1994). In addition, they can efficiently feed either continuously or multiple times per day, and may improve fish growth and rearing efficiencies (Carter 2015).

Belt feeders and demand feeders are two types of mechanical feeders fre-quently used during rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) rearing (FAO 2016). Neither of these feeders require electricity to operate. Belt feeders are powered by wind-up springs and dispense feed continually throughout a several hour time period (Graig and Helfrich 2009). They must be refilled daily. Demand feeders are suspended over rearing units and have a trigger that the fish acti-vate to release food, thereby feeding on demand (Piper et al. 1982; Graig and Helfrich 2009). In contrast to belt feeders, demand feeders do not necessarily have to be refilled daily if fish are allowed to feed to satiation, depending on the size of the hopper. No published studies have evaluated the use of belt feeders, but several have compared the use of demand feeders in comparison to hand feeding. Aloisi (1994) indicated that demand feeders saved labor and were a cost-effective alternative to hand feeding during the rearing of lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush), while Suzuki et al. (2008) observed increased growth and feed consumption in rainbow trout fed with demand feeders. In comparison to hand-feeding to satiation, the use of demand feeders has led to improved feed conversion ratios, improved water quality, and improved dress-out weights (Boydstun and Patterson 1982; Tipping et al. 1986; Suzuki et al. 2008). However, if fish are fed to less-than-satiation, demand feeders must be refilled daily because rations must be restricted; the amount of feed the fish receive each day must be regulated.

In contrast with commercial aquaculture where fish are typically fed to satia-tion to maximize growth (Meade 1989; Carter 2015), hatcheries producing fish for recreation or conservation may restrict feed rations to produce fish at specific sizes on specific dates to maximize post-stocking survival or angler satisfaction (Flagg and Nash 1999; Lorenzen 2000). The feeding methods used to grow fish as quickly as possible may not be the most efficient when fish are fed to less than satiation.

Several feeding methodologies have yet to be evaluated. There have been no prior evaluations of belt feeder use during the feeding of salmonids in comparison to other feeding techniques, there have been no prior evaluations of demand-feeder use at less-than-satiation levels, and there have been no studies compar-ing hand-feeding with mechanical feeders at feeding levels below satiation. The objective of this study was to compare the use of belt feeders, demand feeders, and once-a-day hand feeding on the rearing performance of rainbow trout fed at a level well below satiation.


METHODS

The experiment was conducted from 20 September 2007 to 1 March 2008 at McNenny State Fish Hatchery, rural Spearfish, South Dakota, using degassed and aerated well water at a constant temperature of 11°C (total hardness as CaCO3, 360 mg/L; alkalinity as CaCO3, 210 mg/L; pH, 7.6; total dissolved solids, 390 mg/L). Three feeding methods were used in this experiment: once-a-day hand feeding, belt feeders, and demand feeders. Three thousand “shasta strain” rainbow trout (mean initial length and weight of 139 mm and 33 g), were placed in nine separate covered raceways (30.5 m long, 2.4 m wide, 0.76 m deep). Three race-ways were fed once-a-day by hand at approximately 08:30 a.m. Three raceways were each fed by two belt feeders (Pentair Aquatic Eco-Systems, Cary, North Carolina) which were filled each day at 08:30 a.m. and dispensed food continu-ously for approximately 12 hours. Three raceways were each fed by two demand feeders (Babington Enterprises Inc., Hagerman, Idaho) which were filled at 08:30 a.m. each day. All units from each treatment received the same amount of feed each day throughout the trial, with 469 kg fed to each raceway during the dura-tion of the experiment. Feeding levels were based on a hatchery constant of 6.6, with a planned feed conversion of 1.1 (Buterbaugh & Willoughby 1967).

At both the start and end of the 164 day experiment, 30 fish from each race-way were weighed individually to the nearest 1.0 g and measured to the near-est 0.1 mm. Dorsal, pectoral, and pelvic fins were also measured to the nearest 0.1 mm, with fin length standardized using the Kindschi (1987) formula: Fin length (%) = ([fin length (mm) / standard length (mm)] × 100). Total weights were also recorded for each raceway unit at the start and end of the experiment, with weight gain calculated by subtracting the initial weight from the ending weight. The amount of food fed and mortalities were recorded daily. Feed conver-sion ratio (FCR) was calculated by the formula: FCR = [food fed (kg) / weight gain (kg)].

Levene’s test was used to compare the variances in the data among the treat-ments (Kuehl 2000). Because the variances were significantly different in one of the variables, the nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis H test (one-way analysis of vari-ance on ranks) was used for further data analysis (Ott 1984). Significance was predetermined at P < 0.05.

RESULTS

There was no significant difference in weight gain or feed conversion ratio among the three treatments (Table 1). Mean weight gain was very similar among the raceway units, ranging from 422.3 to 437.9 kg in those raceways fed by hand, from 430.0 to 437.9 kg in those raceways fed using belt feeders and from 431.6 to 445.9 kg in the raceways fed with demand feeders. Feed conversion among all of the raceways was very similar, ranging from 1.05 to 1.11. Mortality in all units was negligible, with no significant differences among treatments.

No significant differences were observed in individual fish weights or lengths among the treatments (Table 2). However, variability in weight of fish fed by

Table 1. Mean (SE) tank weights, weight gain, feed conversion ratio, and mortality of Shasta strain rainbow trout fed either by hand, belt feeders, or demand feeders.

Feeding Technique

Hand Belt Feeders Demand Feeders

Start weight (kg) 99.8 (0.0) 99.8 (0.0) 99.8 (0.0)End weight (kg) 530.4 (4.5) 534.1 (2.8) 538.7 (4.1)

Gain (kg) 430.6 (4.5) 434.3 (2.8) 438.9 (4.1)Feed conversion ratio 1.09 (0.01) 1.08 (0.01) 1.07(0.01)

Mortality (%) 0.12 (0.01) 0.11 (0.01) 0.10 (0.01)

Table 2. Mean (SE) weight, length, and percent dorsal, pectoral, and pelvic fin length from Shasta strain rainbow trout fed either by hand, belt feeders, or demand feeders.

Feeding Technique


Weight (g) 183 (6) 181 (1) 176 (14)Length (mm) 265 (4) 263 (3) 262 (4)Dorsal fin (%) 10.0 (0.4) 10.3 (0.3) 11.0 (0.5)

Pectoral fin (%) 11.8 (0.0) 11.4 (0.1) 11.4 (0.2)Pelvic fin (%) 11.7 (0.9) 10.6 (0.3) 10.9 (0.3)


demand feeders was significantly higher (P = 0.024) than fish fed by hand or by belt feeders. There were no significant differences in percent dorsal, pectoral, and pelvic fin length among all of the treatments.

DISCUSSION

This is the first study to compare feeding by hand, demand feeders, and belt feed-ers under a less-than-satiation feeding regime. It is also the first study to include any evaluation of belt feeders directly. In a study comparing demand feeders with continuous feeding, which would be analogous to using beltfeeders, Valente et al. (2001) observed improved growth rates and feed conversion ratios in demand-fed rainbow trout. In contrast to the approximately 1.0% of body weight used in this study, the relatively higher rate of 2.5% body weight used by Valente et al. (2001) makes it difficult to compare the results between the two studies. The results of this study are similar to that of Paspatis et al. (1999), who reported no significant difference in sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) fed by hand or continuously.

There is considerably more published research on the use of demand feeders than belt, or other continuous, feeders. Shima et al. (2001) observed that rainbow trout using demand feeders had improved feed conversion ratios compared to

METHODS

The experiment was conducted from 20 September 2007 to 1 March 2008 at McNenny State Fish Hatchery, rural Spearfish, South Dakota, using degassed and aerated well water at a constant temperature of 11°C (total hardness as CaCO3, 360 mg/L; alkalinity as CaCO3, 210 mg/L; pH, 7.6; total dissolved solids, 390 mg/L). Three feeding methods were used in this experiment: once-a-day hand feeding, belt feeders, and demand feeders. Three thousand “shasta strain” rainbow trout (mean initial length and weight of 139 mm and 33 g), were placed in nine separate covered raceways (30.5 m long, 2.4 m wide, 0.76 m deep). Three race-ways were fed once-a-day by hand at approximately 08:30 a.m. Three raceways were each fed by two belt feeders (Pentair Aquatic Eco-Systems, Cary, North Carolina) which were filled each day at 08:30 a.m. and dispensed food continu-ously for approximately 12 hours. Three raceways were each fed by two demand feeders (Babington Enterprises Inc., Hagerman, Idaho) which were filled at 08:30 a.m. each day. All units from each treatment received the same amount of feed each day throughout the trial, with 469 kg fed to each raceway during the dura-tion of the experiment. Feeding levels were based on a hatchery constant of 6.6, with a planned feed conversion of 1.1 (Buterbaugh & Willoughby 1967).

At both the start and end of the 164 day experiment, 30 fish from each race-way were weighed individually to the nearest 1.0 g and measured to the near-est 0.1 mm. Dorsal, pectoral, and pelvic fins were also measured to the nearest 0.1 mm, with fin length standardized using the Kindschi (1987) formula: Fin length (%) = ([fin length (mm) / standard length (mm)] × 100). Total weights were also recorded for each raceway unit at the start and end of the experiment, with weight gain calculated by subtracting the initial weight from the ending weight. The amount of food fed and mortalities were recorded daily. Feed conver-sion ratio (FCR) was calculated by the formula: FCR = [food fed (kg) / weight gain (kg)].

Levene’s test was used to compare the variances in the data among the treat-ments (Kuehl 2000). Because the variances were significantly different in one of the variables, the nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis H test (one-way analysis of vari-ance on ranks) was used for further data analysis (Ott 1984). Significance was predetermined at P < 0.05.

RESULTS

There was no significant difference in weight gain or feed conversion ratio among the three treatments (Table 1). Mean weight gain was very similar among the raceway units, ranging from 422.3 to 437.9 kg in those raceways fed by hand, from 430.0 to 437.9 kg in those raceways fed using belt feeders and from 431.6 to 445.9 kg in the raceways fed with demand feeders. Feed conversion among all of the raceways was very similar, ranging from 1.05 to 1.11. Mortality in all units was negligible, with no significant differences among treatments.

No significant differences were observed in individual fish weights or lengths among the treatments (Table 2). However, variability in weight of fish fed by

Table 1. Mean (SE) tank weights, weight gain, feed conversion ratio, and mortality of Shasta strain rainbow trout fed either by hand, belt feeders, or demand feeders.

Feeding Technique


Start weight (kg) 99.8 (0.0) 99.8 (0.0) 99.8 (0.0)End weight (kg) 530.4 (4.5) 534.1 (2.8) 538.7 (4.1)

Gain (kg) 430.6 (4.5) 434.3 (2.8) 438.9 (4.1)Feed conversion ratio 1.09 (0.01) 1.08 (0.01) 1.07(0.01)

Mortality (%) 0.12 (0.01) 0.11 (0.01) 0.10 (0.01)

Table 2. Mean (SE) weight, length, and percent dorsal, pectoral, and pelvic fin length from Shasta strain rainbow trout fed either by hand, belt feeders, or demand feeders.

Feeding Technique


Weight (g) 183 (6) 181 (1) 176 (14)Length (mm) 265 (4) 263 (3) 262 (4)Dorsal fin (%) 10.0 (0.4) 10.3 (0.3) 11.0 (0.5)

Pectoral fin (%) 11.8 (0.0) 11.4 (0.1) 11.4 (0.2)Pelvic fin (%) 11.7 (0.9) 10.6 (0.3) 10.9 (0.3)


those fed with automatic feeders. However, they used much higher feeding rates, with fish on automatic feeders fed at a rate of 2.87% or 2.84% body weight, whereas demand-fed fish consumed rations at a rate of 3.05% body weight. Bailey and Alanärä (2006) reported similar findings for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Suzuki et al. (2008) reported a higher specific growth rate in rainbow trout fed using demand feeders compared to hand-fed trout, but also noted increased feed consumption. However, several studies reported different results, similar to the lack of differences between demand-fed and hand-fed trout in this reduced-ration study. Wagner et al. (1996) found no differences in growth or food con-version ratio in rainbow trout fed at rates of approximately 4% body weight by hand or to satiation by demand feeders. Yamamoto et al. (2002) also found no difference in rainbow trout rearing performance when they were fed to satiation by hand or demand feeders, and Aloisi (1994) reported similar results comparing demand and hand-feeding in lake trout. Differences in feeding rates among the studies, as well as different demand feeder spacing (Wagner et al. 1996), likely explain the differences in the observed results. Genetics may also play a role. Valente et al. (2001) compared two feeding techniques with two strains of rain-bow trout, and observed dissimilar responses from each strain. The Shasta strain used in this study is extremely domesticated (Needham and Behnke 1962), and other, more-wild strains may not respond similarly to feeding techniques when fed a reduced ration.

Growth and feed conversion ratios from rainbow trout fed a reduced ration were not significantly influenced by any of the feeding methods used in this study. Similarly, Noble et al. (2007) also observed no differences in growth or feed con-version ratio among fish getting one large meal, three smaller meals, or unlimited access. This may be explained by rainbow trout consuming almost 100% of the feed pellets irrespective of feeding method (Brännäs and Alanärä 1992). At the less-than-satiation rations used in this study, portion size was likely not an issue. Bailey and Alanärä (2006) reported that trout receiving a single large portion size had poorer feed conversion ratios than trout fed numerous smaller portions. This may be occurring because, with only one large feeding, the fish consume more feed than needed to cover their daily metabolic requirements (Bres 1986). Linnér and Brännäs (2001) showed that reducing the number of daily feeding events from 32 to 8 significantly improved rainbow trout growth. However, Johansen and Jobling (1998) and Juell et al. (1994) reported no effect of feeding frequency on the growth rate of Atlantic salmon. Cho (1992) recommended feeding rain-bow trout one to four times daily based on body size and temperature.

The increase in size variability in the demand-fed fish in this study is similar to that reported by Kindschi (1984) and Aloisi (1994). In addition, Johansen and Jobling (1998) observed that Atlantic salmon fed automatically multiple times during the day had increased size variability compared to those fed fewer times. However, Shima et al. (2001) reported lower size variation in rainbow trout fed by demand feeders than in fish fed continually for 12 or 24 hours a day, and Paspatis et al. (1999) observed that, when fed to satiation, juvenile Atlantic salmon grew more homogenously when using self-feeders compared to continu-ous feeders. Wagner et al. (1996) also reported no differences in size variability


among rainbow trout fed at high rates either by hand or by demand feeders. The increased size variability in the demand-fed fish in this study may be due to more aggressive fish dominating the immediate area around the trigger (Brännäs and Alanärä 1993) in combination with limited feed supplies. The dominant fish could eat at their leisure to satiation throughout the day, while subordinate fish would likely receive much less feed. However, hand-feeding once-a-day would likely spread the feed out to more of the population, making it more difficult for aggressive individuals to eat substantially more food than other fish.

The lack of any effect of feeding type on fin condition observed in this study is supported by others. Wagner et al. (1996) also observed no differences in fin con-dition between demand-fed and hand-fed rainbow trout. Noble et al. (2007) also reported no effect of feeding frequency on rainbow trout fin condition. However, Suzuki et al. (2008) reported that fewer demand-fed rainbow trout experienced dorsal fin damage, in comparison to those fed by hand.

In conclusion, the lack of differences on rainbow trout growth, feed conver-sion, and fin condition among the three feeding techniques used in this study indicates that once-a-day hand-feeding is preferable when rainbow trout are fed at rates substantially below satiation. Demand feeders require occasional cleaning and tuning of actuation, along with customized mounting hardware. Belt feeders also require mounting hardware, occasional cleaning, lubing of metallic parts, and repair or replacement of the clockwork mechanisms. Because of the simplic-ity of hand feeding once a day, this method is recommended as the most efficient way to deliver feed to rainbow trout being fed a restricted diet.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Brian Fletcher, Rick Cordes, and Keith Wintersteen for their assis-tance with this study.

LITERATURE CITED

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Buterbaugh, G.L., and H. Willoughby. 1967. A feeding guide for brook, brown, and rainbow trout. Progressive Fish-Culturist 29: 210-215.

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IMPORTANCE OF FISHING AS A SEGMENTATION VARIABLE IN THE APPLICATION OF

A SOCIAL WORLDS MODEL

Larry M. Gigliotti1* and Loren Chase2

1U.S. Geological Survey, South Dakota Cooperative Fish & Wildlife Research UnitSouth Dakota State University

Department of Natural Resource ManagementBrookings, SD 57007

2Arizona Fish and Game Department5000 W Carefree Highway

Phoenix, AZ 85086*Corresponding author email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Market segmentation is useful to understanding and classifying the diverse range of outdoor recreation experiences sought by different recreationists. Although many different segmentation methodologies exist, many are complex and difficult to measure accurately during in-person intercepts, such as that of creel surveys. To address that gap in the literature, we propose a single-item measure of the importance of fishing as a surrogate to often overly- or needlessly-complex segmentation techniques. The importance of fishing item is a measure of the value anglers place on the activity or a coarse quantification of how central the activity is to the respondent’s lifestyle (scale: 0 = not important, 1 = slightly, 2 = moderately, 3 = very, and 4 = fishing is my most important recreational activ-ity). We suggest the importance scale may be a proxy measurement for segment-ing anglers using the social worlds model as a theoretical framework. Vaske (1980) suggested that commitment to recreational activities may be best understood in relation to social group participation and the social worlds model provides a rich theoretical framework for understanding social group segments. Unruh (1983) identified four types of actor involvement in social worlds: strangers, tourists, regu-lars, and insiders, differentiated by four characteristics (orientation, experiences, relationships, and commitment). We evaluated the importance of fishing as a seg-mentation variable using data collected by a mixed-mode survey of South Dakota anglers fishing in 2010. We contend that this straightforward measurement may be useful for segmenting outdoor recreation activities when more complicated segmentation schemes are not suitable. Further, this index, when coupled with the social worlds model, provides a valuable framework for understanding the seg-ments and making management decisions.

Keywords

human dimensions, importance of fishing, leisure social worlds, recreation, segmentation


INTRODUCTION

In the late 1950s, customer segmentation was introduced as a central topic of marketing research (Arndt 1974) and its use continues to be prevalent. Market segmentation offers a customer-oriented management approach providing guide-lines for improving resource allocation by designing a mix of attributes more precisely matched to the needs of individuals in selected groups (Pride and Ferrall 1980). A market segmentation approach involves the identification of one or more latent variables, underlying dimensions, or characteristics that serves as the basis for dividing the total market into several more homogeneous submarkets with unique needs or desires specific to each group (Engel et al. 1973).

Segmentation is particularly salient to angling recreation, as fisheries manage-ment has been defined as a production process yielding, not fish, but opportuni-ties to use a fishery in a particular way (Driver et al. 1984). To be effective, this would require managers to understand the diversity of anglers who seek various angling experiences (e.g., a well-stocked pond in a city park may be a perfect fam-ily-oriented fishing opportunity, but would not be acceptable for the angler seek-ing solitude or a wilderness experience). For this reason, segmentation has been used by many to provide a more comprehensive understanding of angler diversity based on attributes such as motivations for fishing, consumptive orientation, site selection attributes, and specialization, among others (Adams 1979; Connelly et al. 2000a; Ditton 1996; Fisher 1997; Gigliotti 1989, 1996; Hahn 1991; Kyle et al. 2007; O’Niell 2001; Romberg 1999; Schramm et al. 2003; Wallmo and Gentner 2008). Further, a market segmentation approach provides direction on what resources to inventory, types of opportunities desired by stakeholders, types of uses to measure, and how best to maximize the fishing opportunity. When applied over time, segmentation can improve fisheries managers’ abilities to meet changing market demands (Gigliotti 1989), thus improving angler satisfaction and perpetuating future participation in the sport of fishing.

Researchers have used a number of different methods for segmenting anglers. For example, some researchers segmented anglers based on attributes of a fishing trip that are important to an angler (Adams 1979; Connelly et al. 2001; Driver et al. 1984). This method usually involves having anglers rate the importance of a list of possible attributes they may seek from a fishing experience and subsequent factor analyses of attributes to identify factors contributing to the experience or cluster analyses for identification of groups of homologous anglers. Other exam-ples include demographic variables (Hunt et al. 2007; Moeller and Engelken 1972; Schroeder et al. 2006), party-composition (Adams 1979), motivations (Chipman and Helfrich 1988; Knopf et al. 1973), value orientations (Bruskotter and Fulton 2008), consumptive orientation (Fedler and Ditton 1986; Kyle et al. 2007; Wickham et al. 2004), catch orientation (Anderson et al. 2007; Schroeder and Fulton 2013), experience level (Fisher 1997), fish species preference (Fisher 1977; Wilde and Ditton 1994), water body preference (Connelly et al. 2013), fishing frequency (Romsa and Girling 1976), specialization (Bryan 1977; Chipman and Helfrich 1988; Dawson et al. 1991; Loomis and Warnick 1992; Salz and Loomis 2005), fishing club membership (Gigliotti and Peyton 1993),


information use/preference (Nguyen et al. 2012), and combinations of the afore-mentioned variables (Connelly et al. 2000a). Segmentation variables related to specialization, involvement, and commitment are probably most applicable to the social worlds construct.

Specialization, Involvement, and Commitment. Bryan (1977) defined specialization as a continuum of behavior reflecting differences in equipment, skills, techniques, participation, and preferences in habitat settings, social set-tings, and management preferences. Bryan identified four types of anglers along a continuum that included: occasional anglers, generalists, technique specialists, and technique/setting specialists. This continuum reflected increasing frequency of participation, importance of the activity (commitment), preferences for spe-cific equipment, and more sophisticated techniques – all indices of how central angling is to the respondent’s lifestyle. Hypothetically, anglers progress along this continuum as time is spent in the activity.

The model described by Bryan (2008) was based on interviews and obser-vations of anglers and illustrated a process that anglers customarily progress through, namely: fishing with bait, fishing with lures with spin-casting gear, and then to the more sophisticated fly-fishing. However, anglers can get involved with fishing starting with any level of equipment. For example, anglers may introduce their children to fishing using fly-fishing gear, or a young adult may be introduced to fly-fishing as the result of a membership in a peer group. Despite what equipment is used by anglers when first introduced to fishing, all anglers begin as a “novice” and may or may not move through stages of increased skill and commitment to the sport.

Although commitment is closely linked to involvement, Siegenthaler and Lam (1992) suggest the two constructs have different components. Commitment is defined by dedication and continuance, whereas involvement is defined by self-image and interest. Involvement reflects the importance of the activity in terms of rewards or costs associated with the activity or it may be a function of pure interest (Kyle and Mowen 2004; Shamir 1988). While involvement gener-ally precedes commitment, commitment results when these important attitudes become cognitively linked to a particular level of satisfaction or choice (Crosby and Taylor 1983; Iwasaki and Havitz 1998; Kyle et al. 2004).

Researchers’ attention to the concept of commitment is important in relation to retention of participants and substitution of activities (Gahwiler and Havitz 1998). Buchanan (1985) identified three major components necessary for the existence of committed behavior: (1) consistent or focused behavior that implies a rejection of alternative behavior, (2) “side bets” (investments) in the continuation of a specific behavior, and (3) some degree of affective attachment to the goals and values of a role, activity, or organization. Shamir (1988) stated that commitment is not simply continued and consistent behavior, but it also involves two components of com-mitment; external commitment, referring to the material and social circumstances of the individual compelling a behavior, and internal commitment, referring to a motivational state or disposition to continue an activity. Shamir (1988) noted that other researchers have used a variety of terms labeling these two components of commitment, such as identity, centrality, and enduring involvement.


Leisure Social Worlds. Vaske (1980) suggested that commitment to recre-ational activities may be best understood in relation to social group participa-tion. Unruh (1980, p. 277) defined social worlds as “… amorphous and diffuse constellations of actors, organizations, events, and practices which have coalesced into spheres of interest and involvement for participants” and suggests that a powerful centralized authority structure does not likely exist. Unruh (1983) iden-tified four types of actor involvement in social worlds: strangers, tourists, regulars, and insiders, differentiated by four characteristics (Table 1).

Table 1. Characteristics and types of participation in social worlds (adapted from Unruh 1983, p. 153) and a modified model showing the proposed relationship with importance of fishing (2010 South Dakota resident angler data).

Social Types (Unruh 1983)

Strangers Tourists Regulars Insiders

Modified Social Types / Fishing Importance

CharacteristicsStrangers Tourists Low

RegularsHigh

Regulars Insiders

Not(8%)

Slightly(19%)

Moderately(29%)

Very(30%)

Most(14%)

Orientation Naivete Curiosity Habituation IdentityExperiences Disorientation Learning Integration Creation

Relationships Superficiality Transiency Familiarity IntimacyCommitment Detachment Entertainment Attachment Recruitment

Leisure social worlds can be reducible (segmented) to a wide range of sub-worlds, which, although smaller, may also possess the same characteristics and structure associated with its larger social world (Unruh 1980). Strauss (1984) describes different processes by which subgroups develop. For example, new tech-nology may lead some participants to “bud off” from one social subworld, adopt-ing the new equipment, increasing their skill level, and eventually coalescing into a new social subworld. The subworlds construct is especially useful in devising meaningful variables or schemes to further segment larger social worlds. Within the larger social world of fishing are examples of social subworlds based on fish species (e.g., bass, trout, salmon, walleye fishing), techniques (e.g., fly-fishing, ice fishing), management philosophy (e.g., catch-and-release), and physical setting (e.g., streams, lakes, salt water), including examples demonstrating development of new subworlds based on the process of “intersecting” of subworlds (e.g., spear fishing with scuba or snorkeling gear, bow-fishing, etc.).

Using annual frequency of participation, Ditton et al. (1992) segmented anglers into four (approximately equal) groups as a proxy measurement of rec-reational specialization representing Unruh’s (1983) four social subworld’s typol-ogy. They noted that use of frequency of participation as a segmentation variable for identifying social worlds avoided issues of tautology in that participation frequency had no relationship to equipment; whereas Bryan’s (1977) definition


related equipment use with specialization. Their approach identified some sup-port for the social worlds construct for studying fishing while recognizing that use of a single dimension segmentation variable was a simplistic means for clas-sifying specialization groups. Despite this possible shortcoming, Ditton et al. (1992) believed that the parsimoniousness of a single-dimensional approach for hypothesis testing outweighed other confounding problems.

Although frequency of participation may reflect one’s level of commitment, it is more likely confounded with elements of both external and internal commitment (Shamir 1988); however, external commitment is less relevant to understanding recreation behavior (Shamir 1988). Some situations unrelated to the recreational activity may also act to increase or decrease one’s level of participation. On the other hand, internal commitment, or the motivational drive may be a stronger factor in determining participation in recreational activities (Shamir 1988). The higher the motivational drive to participate in an activity, the more likely that external barriers to participate will be overcome. For example, cost of participa-tion may be a barrier to someone with low internal commitment but may not be a barrier to another person of similar financial status with a high internal com-mitment to the recreational activity.

Advantages of a Self-Classification, Single-Item Variable. Concepts such as specialization, involvement, and commitment relative to understanding the social worlds construct generally require extensive cognitive testing, asking multiple survey questions, and using rigorous statistical analyses to develop scales and typology models (Havitz and Dimanche 1990, 1997). When the central focus of a study is to identify the myriad factors and dimensions of various recreational constructs and the heterogeneity of those who pursue them, multifaceted scales are necessary. Yet in both natural resource management and research, there are many circumstances where survey length or tolerable intercept duration preclude such convoluted psychometric scales, particularly when segmentation is not the main focus of the study. For example, when agencies conducting an annual monitoring survey or on-site creel survey have limited space or time to collect the necessary information, having a useful segmentation variable to better interpret and use the information collected from anglers can be an important component of the study. A main advantage of a self-classification, single-item variable is to reduce response burden (Needham et al. 2009). Self-classification measures are easier to administer, analyze, and interpret. The simplicity of a single-item seg-mentation is appealing to many researchers and has much precedent for effective recreationist segmentation (Kerins et al. 2007; Needham et al. 2009; Scott et al. 2005; Sorice et al. 2009).

Study Purpose. We propose that importance of fishing can be a proxy measure-ment of internal commitment for segmenting anglers using Unruh’s social world’s typology. Importance of fishing is a self-classification, single-item measure of the value anglers place on the activity and is a coarse quantification of how central the activity is to the respondent’s lifestyle. Anglers who rate the importance of fishing similarly are likely to have many characteristics in common that may be useful from a management perspective. Despite the differentiating ability of this


variable, it has not been used consistently in angler segmentation studies. Thus, the objectives of this study were: (1) to validate the importance of fishing mea-sure using an economic measure of importance; and (2) to relate this single-item measurement to other factors that have been used previously to segment anglers.

METHODS

Data used in these analyses came from an internet survey (SurveyMonkey.com) of South Dakota resident annual anglers licensed in 2010 conducted by the South Dakota Game, Fish and Parks Department (SDGFPD). Even though our survey was not specifically designed for identifying variables using all of Unruh’s social world’s typology, we incorporated enough of the typology elements to meet our objectives. Email coverage (percent of licensed anglers providing an email address to the SDGFPD) for the 2010 resident fishing licenses was 48%. A personalized email invitation was sent inviting resident anglers with one of the annual fish-ing licenses (55,266) to complete an online survey, with three email reminders following the initial invitation, each about one week apart. Potential incomplete coverage and nonresponse biases in the measurement of the importance of fishing variable were evaluated by comparing internet surveys of anglers to mail surveys of anglers without email addresses, and mail surveys of internet nonrespondents using the data from surveys conducted by the South Dakota Game, Fish and Parks Department in 2010 (Gigliotti 2011). We reevaluated this specific variable for potential biases again in 2011 and 2012 (Gigliotti and Henderson 2012, 2013).

Variables. Anglers were asked to rate the importance of fishing in relation to other recreational activities on a 5-point scale (0 = Not important, 1 = Slightly important, 2 = Moderately important, 3 = Very important, but not the most important, and 4 = My MOST important recreational activity). We evaluated the predictive validity of the single item measure of importance of fishing by asking anglers to place a hypothetical monetary value on foregoing fishing activities for a year, operationalized as:

“… Considering all the fishing that you normally do in a year and all the enjoyment, satisfaction and other benefits that you receive from a normal year of fishing, how much money would it take for you to be equally satisfied to give-up fishing for an entire year?”

The open-ended responses were categorized from 0 to 10 (0 = $0, 1 = $1 - $25, 2 = $26 - $50, 3 = $51 - $100, 4 = $101 - $250, 5 = $251 - $500, 6 = $501 - $1,000, 7 = $1,001 - $5,000, 8 = $5,001 - $10,000, 9 = $10,001 - $100,000, 10 = $100,001 or more). This question was intended for use only in comparing the relative difference among various types of anglers and not as an accurate measure of the true economic value of fishing. The relative economic value that anglers place on fishing is another measure of the importance of fishing. Next, involvement with fishing was measured by four separate variables: angler use days in 2010, fishing


boat ownership, participation in fishing tournaments (Have you ever fished in a fish-ing tournament?), and fishing with nonresidents, friends, and/or relatives (in 2010).

Motivations were measured by angler’s rating of the importance of eight rea-sons for why they like fishing, using an eight-point scale ranging from 0 equal to not important to 7 equal to very important (Table 2). Anglers next responded to four questions measuring attitudes about the use of technology in fishing on a five-point scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree (Table 3). The four technology items were combined to form an index measuring general atti-tude towards use of technology in fishing (Cronbach’s α = 0.80) as a measure of one type of equipment specialization and defined as the use of electronic devices designed to improve anglers’ chances of finding and catching fish. The technology index ranged from -8 (strongly opposed to technology in fishing) to +8 (strongly favorable towards use of technology in fishing).

Table 2. Statements describing the reasons anglers like fishing and variable name. Anglers rated the importance of each reasons for why they like fishing on an eight-point scale ranging from 0 equal to “not important” to 7 equal to “very important.”

Variable Statement

Social For companionship, enjoying the time spent with friends and familyNature To enjoy nature, the outdoors and the beauty of the area

Excitement For the excitement that fishing provides, e.g., the feeling one gets when you have a fish on the line, etc.

Relaxation To get away and relaxFood To bring fish home to eat

Trophy To catch a trophy fish to hang on the wall or otherwise to demonstrate fishing skills and accomplishment

Skills To learn and perfect fishing skills to become a proficient anglerCompetition To compete in a fishing tournament

Table 3. Statements about the use of technology in fishing and the statements prefac-ing each set of items in the questionnaire. Anglers rated their disagreement/agreement with each statement on a five-point scale as: strongly disagree (-2), slightly disagree (-1), neutral or no opinion (0), slightly agree (+1), and strongly agree (+2).

Statements about Use of Technology in Fishing / It seems that there had been a growth in the use of all kinds of electronic devices designed to improve anglers’ chances of finding and catching fish. What is your opinion on each of the following statements about the use of technology in fishing? Technological advances in fishing gear are good for the sport.There is too much technology involved in fishing nowadays (re-verse coded).There should be regulations to limit some types of technology (reverse coded).The use of technology should be a personal decision by each angler.


Four variables were used to measure anglers’ evaluation of fishing: catch rate, harvest rate, anglers’ subjective rating of the fishing quality, and anglers’ overall satisfaction with their 2010 fishing experiences. Catch and harvest rates were determined by summing anglers’ reported catch and harvest of six types of fishes (walleye/sauger, largemouth/smallmouth bass, northern pike, trout species, yellow perch, and catfish/bullheads) divided by the total days fished in 2010. Anglers were asked to rate the fishing in South Dakota (2010) in terms of numbers and size of fish caught on a five-point scale of very poor (-2), poor (-1), fair (0), good (+1), and excellent (+2), (no opinion = missing). Anglers then evaluated their total South Dakota fishing experience (2010) on a seven-point scale of very dissatisfied (-3), moderately dissatisfied (-2), slightly dissatisfied (-1), neutral or no opinion (0), slightly satisfied (+1), moderately satisfied (+2), and very satisfied (+3). Sex and age information was also collected and compared with importance of fishing.

All variables were compared with importance of fishing within SPSS 19.0 using chi-square and ANOVA with Cramer’s V and eta used to measure effect size (Vaske 2008). Interpretations for Cramer’s V are <0.10 is a negligible association, <0.20 is weak, <0.40 is moderate, <0.60 is relatively strong, <0.80 is strong, and <1.00 is a very strong association (Rea and Parker 2005). Interpretations for eta are 0.10 to <0.243 is a small association, 0.243 to <0.371 is medium, and 0.371 or greater is a large association (Vaske 2008). Differences were assessed at P ≤ 0.05.

RESULTS

A total of 14,246 completed questionnaires (26%) were collected by the 2010 internet survey. The importance of fishing measurement was not significantly dif-ferent between the mail surveys of random samples of anglers not providing the agency with an email address and the mail surveys of random samples of internet nonrespondents for 2010, 2011, and 2012 (Table 4).

Table 4. Evaluating potential incomplete email coverage and internet nonresponse biases for the importance of fishing variable measured by internet surveys of resident South Dakota anglers conducted in 2010, 2011 and 2012.

2010 Resident Angler Survey (F = 3.45, P = 0.063, η = 0.017)

Survey – Sample Mean Importance1

Percent Return Rate Number

Internet – Email Coverage: 48% 2.2 26 11,881Mail – No Email Sample 2.3 61 383





Mail – Internet Nonrespondents 2.2 48 345






Mail – Internet Nonrespondents 2.4 50 562

Importance scale: not = 0, slightly = 1, moderately = 2, very = 3, and most = 4.

About 14% of the resident annual angler sample indicated that fishing was their most important recreational activity; 30% said fishing was very important, 29% moderately important, 19% slightly important, and 8% said fishing was not an important activity. The mean days of fishing by South Dakota resident anglers in 2010 was 16.5 days. On average, 53% owned a fishing boat, 42% had ever fished in a tournament, and 29% had fished with nonresidents in 2010. The sample was comprised of 86% males and 14% females with an overall average age of 46.8 years.

Importance of fishing was strongly related to the relative economic value that anglers placed on a year of fishing (P < 0.001, η = 0.484) (Table 5). The four involvement variables were significantly related to importance of fishing (Table 5). The mean number of days fished by anglers in 2010 was positively related to anglers’ increased rating of the importance of fishing (P < 0.001, η = 0.470). Owning a fishing boat was moderately related to importance of fishing, ranging from 21% for “not important” to 80% for “most important” (P < 0.001, η = 0.347). Participation in a fishing tournament was only moder-ately related to importance of fishing, ranging from 19% for “not important” to 63% for “most important” (P < 0.001, η = 0.265). The percentage of resident anglers fishing with nonresident friends or relatives in 2010 ranged from 14% for “not important” to 46% for “most important” (P < 0.001, η = 0.204). In addition, the percent of licensed annual anglers not fishing in 2010 was strongly related to importance of fishing (not, 36%; slightly, 16%; moderately, 7%; very, 2%; most, 1%) (χ2

4, n=12264 = 1340.75, P < 0.001, V = 0.331).All eight motivation variables were significantly related to the importance of

fishing, with the social motivation showing the least amount of variation among the five levels of importance of fishing (Table 6). Particularly noteworthy was the increase in importance of the excitement, trophy, skills, and competition motiva-tions through all five levels of the importance of fishing variable.

Favorable attitudes towards the use of technology in fishing significantly increased with increasing levels of importance of fishing; however, the rela-tionship was small as signified by the small eta effect size statistic (P < 0.001, η = 0.175; Figure 1). Catch rate, and to a lesser extent, harvest rate significantly increased with increasing levels of importance of fishing (Table 7). Anglers rating of the fishing quality in terms of numbers and sizes of fish caught and their over-all satisfaction with fishing in South Dakota in 2010 also significantly increased with increasing levels of importance of fishing (Table 7). Effect size statistics for all four fishing evaluation variables indicated the relationships were small.


Table 5. Involvement variables (value of fishing, annual days of fishing, owning a fishing boat, fishing in a tournament, and fishing with nonresident friends) analyzed by impor-tance of fishing1.

Variables Not Slightly Moderately Very Most Statistic P-value Effect Size

Value of fishing $80 $296 $992 $3,231 $7,077 F(4, 5887) = 450.59 < 0.001 η = 0.484

Annual days of fishing 3 8 14 22 36 F(4, 12254) = 866.86 < 0.001 η = 0.470

Proportion owning fishing boat 0.21 0.33 0.51 0.68 0.80 F(4, 11739) = 400.44 < 0.001 η = 0.347

Proportion tournament fishing 0.19 0.28 0.38 0.53 0.63 F(4, 11804) = 222.18 < 0.001 η = 0.265

Proportion fishing with nonresidents 0.14 0.19 0.25 0.36 0.46 F(4, 10795) = 117.01 < 0.001 η = 0.204

1All five levels of importance are significant at P < 0.05 based on Tamhane’s T2 method for all five variables (Levene’s test for equality of variances was significant at P < 0.001 for all five variables).

Table 6. Anglers’ rating of the importance of eight reasons for why they like fishing (motivations) analyzed by importance of fishing1.

Motivations2 Not Slightly Moderately Very Most Statistic P-value Effect Size

Social 5.2a 5.5b 5.6c 5.8d 5.6bc F4, 11775 = 32.97 < 0.001 η = 0.105

Nature 5.5a 5.8b 6.0c 6.2d 6.1d F4, 11842 = 91.33 < 0.001 η = 0.173

Excitement 4.4a 5.1b 5.6c 6.0d 6.3e F4, 11822 = 409.02 < 0.001 η = 0.349

Relaxation 5.1a 5.6b 5.9c 6.2d 6.2d F4, 11788 = 164.09 < 0.001 η = 0.230

Food 2.9a 3.7b 4.1c 4.3d 4.1c F4, 11840 = 89.85 < 0.001 η = 0.172

Trophy 1.4a 1.8b 2.2c 2.6d 3.1e F4, 11820 = 154.78 < 0.001 η = 0.223

Skills 1.8a 2.4b 3.1c 4.0d 4.7e F4, 11664 = 499.17 < 0.001 η = 0.382

Competition 0.4a 0.5a 0.8b 1.1c 1.6d F4, 11787 = 142.42 < 0.001 η = 0.215

1 Means with different superscripts are significant at P < 0.05 based on Tamhane’s T2 method (Levene’s test for equality of variances was significant at P < 0.001 for all eight variables).2 Importance of each motivation rated on an 8-point scale of 0 (not important) to 7 (very important).

Although angler sex (χ24, n=11682 = 31.57, P < 0.001, V = 0.052) and age

(F4, 11678 = 20.20, P < 0.001, η = 0.083) were significantly related to importance of fishing, their practical significance was negligible. The proportion of males slightly increased with increasing levels of importance of fishing (not impor-tant, 87%; slightly, 86%; moderately, 86%; very, 88%, and most, 91%). Age slightly increased with increasing levels of importance of fishing (not important, 44.5 years; slightly, 45.3 years; moderately, 46.8 years; very, 47.3 years, and most, 48.9 years).


Table 7. Evaluation of fishing variables (catch rate per day, harvest rate per day, anglers rating of the fishing quality, and satisfaction) analyzed by importance of fishing1.

Not Slightly Moderately Very Most Statistic P-value Effect Size

Catch rate 2.7a 3.9b 5.0c 5.7d 6.9e F4, 10860 = 76.51 < 0.001 η = 0.166

Harvest rate 1.1a 1.4b 1.6c 1.8c 1.8c F4, 10787 = 23.91 < 0.001 η = 0.094

Rating of fishing quality2 0.2a 0.4b 0.5c 0.7d 0.8e F4, 10491 = 56.85 < 0.001 η = 0.146

Satisfaction2 0.5a 0.9b 1.0c 1.2d 1.4e F4, 10797 = 47.36 < 0.001 η = 0.131

1 Means with different superscripts are significant at P < 0.05 based on Tamhane’s T2 method for catch rate and satisfaction (Levene’s test for equality of variances was significant at P < 0.001) and on Scheffé’s S method for harvest rate and rating of fishing quality (Levene’s test for equality of variances was not significant).2 Rating of fishing quality: –2 = very poor, –1 = poor, 0 = fair, +1 = good, and +2 = excellent.3 Satisfaction: ranged from –3 (very dissatisfied) to +3 (very satisfied)

Figure 1. Mean technology index, which ranges from –8 (strongly opposed to use of technology for fishing) to +8 (strongly favorable to use of technology for fishing), score with 95% confidence intervals analyzed by importance of fishing (F4, 11609 = 92.23, P < 0.001, η = 0.175).

DISCUSSION

We propose that the importance of fishing is a possible proxy measurement for segmenting anglers using Unruh’s (1979) social worlds typology that has advantages over frequency of participation. Ditton et al.’s (1992) use of fishing frequency as a surrogate for fishing’s centrality to lifestyle may be confounded by logistical constraints such as proximity to resources, availability of leisure time, and fiscal resources. For example, fishing could be more psychologically important to an angler, and psychometrically measured as their most important


recreational activity, but for various reasons the angler may be constrained to few days of fishing, as illustrated by our empirical evidence. Further, psychometric confounds such as recall bias and backward telescoping influence fishing fre-quency reported (Connelly et al. 2000b; Tarrant et al. 1993).

Another difficulty with using fishing frequency as a segmentation variable is deciding where along the frequency continuum to make the divisions into the different social worlds types. Ditton et al. (1992) made an assignment of approximately 25% of the respondents to each of the four groups; however, the four social worlds’ types are identified by having specific characteristics that are unlikely to mirror such an arbitrary assignment. By general definition, for most social worlds, the regulars would likely comprise the largest percentage of the group (Unruh 1979). In contrast, with our proposed segmentation variable, anglers self-classify which group they most identify with by identifying approxi-mately the role that fishing plays in their life. In addition, the importance of fish-ing scale offers a quick summary of the types of recreationists in a management situation regardless of scale enabling equivalent comparisons among recreational activities, including different types of fishing subworlds, which may have widely different ranges of frequency participation.

One slight modification to the social worlds typology based on using impor-tance as a proxy measurement is the division of the regulars group into two groups (low regulars and high regulars) represented by the moderately important and the very important angler groups (Table 1). The two groups of regulars would be defined by the same characteristics (orientations, experiences, relationships, and commitments), but with different levels. Support for this modification is based on the large size of this group and the significant amount of variation within the group. Segmentation of the regulars into two groups offers a better overall understanding of this important group by identifying the potential within group differences.

Characteristics of the Social Types. The importance of fishing variable was shown to be strongly related to an economic measure of the importance of fish-ing, giving confidence that this variable is measuring the relative importance of the value of fishing. The importance of fishing variable is an easy surrogate measurement of the four concepts used to identify/define the social types in the social worlds theory framework. The orientation characteristic is measured by the increasing importance of sporting motivations (excitement, competition, trophy, and skills) and increasing positive attitudes towards the use of technology in fish-ing. The experiences characteristic is measured by the increasing participation in fly-fishing, catch rate, evaluation of fishing quality and satisfaction. The rela-tionships characteristic is measured by the increasing fishing with nonresidents and tournament fishing, and the commitment characteristic is measured by the increasing value of fishing, owning a boat, and days of fishing.

As noted earlier, our survey was not originally designed to identify and evaluate fishing within the social worlds model. Future research will be needed to deter-mine the adequacy of the importance of fishing as a proxy segmentation variable for identifying the social types based on additional evaluations of the four gen-eral characteristics of each social type (Table 1). For example, for the orientation


characteristic, strangers would be somewhat naïve about fishing that may be identified by their low level of basic knowledge even to the point of difficulty in asking relevant questions, while tourists are more likely to show a curiosity about fishing. At the other end of the social worlds spectrum are the regulars for whom fishing has become a routine activity and the insiders for whom fishing is an important part of their identity.

Our data did have some measures for the commitment characteristic; strangers are defined as detached as measured by their low level of participation and invest-ment (e. g., owning a boat) and may represent a large portion of people new to fishing, lapsed anglers, or anglers who are limited by awareness of opportunity. Tourists, on the other hand, are committed to fishing based only on its entertain-ment value. While they may desire an intense experience (e.g., hiring a guide to ensure they get the most from their fishing trip), they can be characterized as hav-ing interests in many other recreational activities or substitute activities. Ditton and Sutton (2004) reported that willingness to substitute was negatively related to the importance placed on fishing.

Commitment for regulars is defined as attached, forming a significant portion of a participant’s identity (Unruh 1979). Many of the variables measuring commit-ment are linear continuums, which due to the large size of the regulars group, can result in a wide range of within group variance (see Table 5); a problem solved by having two distinct groups of regulars. Commitment for the insiders is defined as recruitment, such that not only is commitment the highest, it includes involvement in maintaining the continuance of the activity by a focus on bringing in new mem-bers. More than just being a part of their identity, it is their main identity. Because of this group’s association with fishing organizations (Gigliotti and Peyton 1993) and involvement with the resource, insiders tend to be more observant of agency decisions and are overrepresented in public meetings held by agencies. However, given that insiders are a minority (14%) and do not represent the full suite of anglers’ opinions, their opinions expressed in public meetings to commissions and wildlife boards should be carefully weighed against the interests of all anglers.

Segmentation and Subworlds. Strauss (1984) stated that an important fea-ture of social worlds is the inevitable differentiation into subworlds; a process by which special interests or concerns develop within the larger activity to form groups that differentiate some members of the social world from others. For example, Ditton et al. (1992, p. 39) proposed that recreational specialization is “a process by which recreation social worlds and subworlds segment and intersect into new subworlds.” Our technology scale, measuring attitudes towards the use of electronic devices for improving chances of catching fish, suggests that atti-tudes towards use of technology in fishing is a potential segmentation variable for identifying subworlds within the social world of fishing. Our analysis identified two potential subworlds of fishing, the larger group very favorable towards use of technology and the smaller group equally involved in fishing, but opposed to the use of technology. Strauss (1984) identifies a number of different sources or general conditions for segmentation into subworlds; some examples applicable to fishing are technology and skill, motivations, equipment, habitat, fish species, water body type, and ideology.


Although the relative rank of the motivations for fishing based on the rating scores was fairly similar for each importance of fishing level, the overall impor-tance of various motivations for fishing tended to increase with the importance of fishing. The importance of the social, nature, relaxation, and food motivations increased with importance of fishing up to the level of “very” important, and then either leveled off or slightly decreased at the highest importance of fishing level. However, the importance rating for the excitement, trophy, skills, and competi-tion motivations, which tend to define a “sporting” aspect of fishing, continued increasing to the highest importance of fishing level. This suggests that as fishing becomes more important, anglers tend to keep or maintain many of their original motivations while adopting additional motivations.

Summary and Limitations. Clearly, anglers vary in the importance or com-mitment they place on their opportunity to go fishing, and segmenting recre-ationists is analytically valuable to academicians and practitioners alike. With little additional response burden, the self-classification, single-item importance scale delineates anglers into five groups which exhibit distinct differences that may be useful in understanding the diversity of anglers using the resource. We suggest that the importance scale may be used as a proxy measurement for seg-menting anglers using Unruh’s social worlds construct and call for additional research that further validates the value of the importance scale in various research contexts wherein time and space are limiting factors. The social worlds model can provide a rich theoretical understanding of fishing that can provide insights into many management issues, especially in the retention and recruit-ment of anglers. Having an easily measured scale for applying the social worlds construct can expand the use of this model by offering managers a single-item scale that can be easily added to existing surveys and can augment analyses while keeping the researcher-responded interaction time brief.

This 5-point importance scale can be easily applied in a wide range of outdoor recreation research to coarsely classify the importance participants place on spe-cific activities in relation to other leisure activities. This scale offers the possibility of having a standardized measurement for comparing the relative importance placed on various leisure activities, thus enabling meta- analyses throughout lei-sure research. The ease of measurement and low response burden makes this an ideal variable to augment ongoing research to further explore the applicability of this measurement and bolster the managerial value of recreation studies.

Potential incomplete email coverage and nonresponse biases for the internet survey were not detected by the mail survey for the independent variable, impor-tance of fishing. If biases exist in the data, the likely nature of biases would be an underrepresentation of the lower importance of fishing levels since salience of the topic has been shown to be strongly correlated with survey response rate (Dillman et al. 2009; Sheehan 2001; Sheehan and McMillan 1999).

Note: Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.


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WILDLIFE VALUE ORIENTATION STABILITY AMONG SOUTH DAKOTA RESIDENTS:

SETTING THE STAGE FOR A LONGITUDINAL ANALYSIS

Larry M. Gigliotti1* and Andrew W. Don Carlos2

1U.S. Geological Survey,South Dakota Cooperative Fish & Wildlife Research Unit

Department of Natural Resource ManagementSouth Dakota State University

Brookings, SD 570072Department of Human Dimensions of Natural Resources

Colorado State UniversityFort Collins, CO 80523


ABSTRACT

The concept of wildlife value orientations (WVOs) has been useful for under-standing the diversity of public interests in wildlife management and has been shown to be a strong predictor of public attitudes towards a wide range of wildlife management actions and policies. WVOs consist of two predominant value ori-entations (domination and mutualism) defined by how people view their relation-ship with wildlife. WVO assessment, which analyzes response patterns on a series of scaled agree/disagree statements representing these two orientations, has led to the identification of four distinct types of people: a) utilitarian (high score on domination and low score on mutualism); (b) mutualist (low score on domina-tion and high score on mutualism); (c) pluralist (high score on both WVO scales); and (d) distanced (low score on both WVO scales). The theoretical framework of WVOs is based on evidence that changing lifestyles arising from moderniza-tion contribute to a gradual shift away from domination toward mutualism. This theory suggests a longitudinal process of change that was tested in 2004 by cross-sectional analyses in 19 western states. More recent replications of WVO assessment in South Dakota in 2012 measured relatively similar proportions of WVO types (50% and 49% utilitarian, 15% and 16% mutualist, 29% and 25% pluralist, and 6% and 10% distanced in 2004 and 2012, respectively). Also, we identified similar proportions of WVO types and recreation participation compar-ing two counties with the largest urban populations (Minnehaha and Pennington) to the remainder of the state. Our results illustrate opportunities for continuing longitudinal analyses of WVO with an additional focus on within state changes.

Keywords

wildlife value orientations, longitudinal study, value shift, South Dakota


INTRODUCTION

Emerging in the late 1990’s, the concept of wildlife value orientations (WVOs) has provided a much used and validated approach to understanding the diversity of public interests in wildlife management (Bright et al. 2000; Fulton et al. 1996; Manfredo 2008; Manfredo et al. 2003; Manfredo et al. 2009; Teel and Manfredo 2010). WVO theory applies a value-attitude-behavior model (Homer and Kahle 1988) which posits that human attitudes and behaviors relevant to an object or issue (e.g., support/opposition to various management actions to control deer populations) are driven by more stable, foundational factors such as values and ideologies. This influence on attitudes and behaviors is manifested through value orientations or schematic networks of beliefs that provide context for the expres-sion of values and ideologies (Manfredo et al. 2009). Prior application of this framework to examine public thoughts about wildlife and wildlife management has led to the identification of two predominant value orientations: domination (view of wildlife that prioritizes human well-being over wildlife and treats wildlife in utilitarian terms); and mutualism (view of wildlife as capable of relationships of trust with humans and defined by a desire for companionship with wildlife) (Teel and Manfredo 2010).

WVO assessment, which is used to analyze response patterns on a series of scaled agree/disagree statements representing domination and mutualism orienta-tions has led to the identification of four distinct types of people: (a) utilitarian or “traditionalist” (high score on domination scale and low score on mutualism scale); (b) mutualist (low score on domination scale and high score on mutual-ism scale); (c) pluralist (high score on both WVO scales); and (d) distanced (low score on both WVO scales) (Teel and Manfredo 2010). The largest application of this approach to date was a study conducted in 19 western U.S. states in 2004 (Teel et al. 2005). Results of this effort demonstrated considerable variation in the composition of WVO types by state. For example, west coast and southwest-ern states had higher proportions of mutualists when compared to Alaska and some states in the Midwest where the utilitarian type was predominant (Teel and Manfredo 2010).

WVOs have been shown to be strong predictors of public attitudes toward a wide range of wildlife management actions and policies (Manfredo 2008). This predictive potential is especially pronounced for some of the more controversial issues which directly involve the treatment of wildlife (e.g., actions such as lethal removal of wildlife involved in conflict situations with humans; Jacobs et al. 2014; Teel and Manfredo 2010). Similarly, people classified into different WVO types exhibit significantly different behaviors in terms of their engagement in wildlife-related recreation (Teel and Manfredo 2010). Many of today’s wildlife issues are the result of value conflicts, such as the various opinions regarding urban wildlife, endangered species, large carnivores management, reintroduced predators, and wildlife-agriculture issues (Hill 2015; Johnson 2014; Koontz et al. 2013; Lute and Gore 2014; Maheshwari et al. 2014; Marshall et al. 2007; McGuinness and Taylor 2014; Olive 2015; Serfass et al. 2014; Stevens et al. 1994), which may be confounded by the public’s perception of wildlife agencies’ lack of understanding


of non-traditional values (Duda et al. 1998). These findings illustrate the util-ity of WVO to inform wildlife management decision-making through a broad understanding of the basis for public thought and action related to wildlife. Key to successful application of the WVO theory depends on wildlife agencies’ acceptance of the legitimacy of this diversity of viewpoints in making wildlife management decisions and policy.

At the macro or societal level, WVO theory supports that changing lifestyles arising from modernization in North America have altered the nature of human interactions with wildlife (Manfredo 2008; Manfredo et al. 2009). Since value orientations are stable and enduring, change is gradual across generations (Teel and Manfredo 2010); this suggests a longitudinal process of change that has spawned the rise of a mutualism view of wildlife and a corresponding decline in domination. The model has thus far been tested primarily through cross-sectional (e.g., state by state) analyses in the U.S. Results of these tests support the idea of a WVO shift, with states representing a range of modernization as measured by income, urbanization, and education exhibiting considerable variation in WVO composition (Manfredo 2008; Manfredo et al. 2009; Teel and Manfredo 2010). However, tracking of actual changes in WVOs over time remains an important research need. Such an effort would allow state fish and wildlife agencies and other conservation organizations to better understand the root causes of change and predict stakeholder perspectives on a wide variety of wildlife management issues. Recognition of the diversity of values inherent in most wildlife issues emphasizes the need for new management tools, such as human dimensions, public involvement processes, conflict resolution, communication skills, media training, and adaptive impact management (Riley et al. 2002). These would enhance wildlife agencies’ ability to more effectively engage citizens and carry into the future the “public trust” mandate (Prukop and Regan 2005) inherent in the North American tradition of wildlife management.

Recent replications of WVO assessment in South Dakota provide the unique opportunity to attest for whether changes in WVO composition that have occurred since a baseline for that state was established in 2004. Additionally, the 2012 survey of South Dakota residents provides some baseline information for evaluating effects of urbanization on WVOs within a relatively rural state where traditionalists outnumbered mutualists by 3.3 to 1.0 in 2004 (Teel & Manfredo 2010). Compared to more populated states, South Dakota urban areas are small; however, South Dakota is undergoing urbanization with about 50% of its popu-lation now residing in the four largest cities (U.S. Census Bureau, 2014); thus, we selected South Dakota as a good candidate for longitudinal studies evaluating the relationship between urbanization and WVOs.

The following text provides the results of a test of WVO stability in South Dakota and discusses these findings in light of their potential implications for understanding the social context of wildlife management in the state. Specific objectives were (a) to compare WVO proportions and wildlife-related recreation behaviors longitudinally among South Dakota citizens, using data collected in 2004, 2008, and 2012; (b) to compare differences in WVO proportions and wild-life-related recreation between two counties with the highest urban populations


with the remaining South Dakota counties; and (c) to provide baseline data for future researchers to continue longitudinal studies of the WVO concept in South Dakota. Although urbanization was occurring in South Dakota during the time-frame of measurements (U.S. Census Bureau, 2013), given the short time frame in this study, WVO theory would predict little change in the overall proportion of WVO types among South Dakota citizens. However, because major increases in urbanization occurred in only a few select counties, it makes South Dakota an ideal state in which to document baseline within state differences between the most urban areas and rural areas important for longitudinal studies.

METHODS

Study Area. South Dakota is a relatively rural and sparsely populated state (2012 population: 833,000 or 10.7 per sq. mile (U.S. Census Bureau 2013). In 2010, about 43% of the South Dakota population resided in rural areas (U.S. Census Bureau 2012), compared to less than 20% for the U.S. as a whole (U.S. Census Bureau 2010). Residents of South Dakota also report relatively high levels of participation in fishing, hunting and wildlife viewing (Gigliotti 2012; Teel et al. 2005). The survey conducted in 2004 (2004 population: 771,000) identified South Dakota as one of the more utilitarian WVO states in the western U.S. (Teel and Manfredo 2010). South Dakota had the second highest proportion of the utilitarian WVO type (50%), the lowest proportion of mutualists (15%), the third highest proportion of pluralists (29%), and the lowest proportion of the distanced type (6%).

Despite population growth between 2004 and 2012, traditional rural lifestyles remain a predominant force in South Dakota. However, the urbanization trend that has been documented throughout the U.S. is evidenced here as well. For example, between 2000 and 2007, only 10 of South Dakota’s 66 counties showed a net gain in population due to in-migration (Brooks et al. 2009). The majority of growth occurred in just a few counties in the portion of eastern South Dakota around the city of Sioux Falls and the increasingly popular recreation and tour-ism centers in the state’s western Black Hills region (Brooks et al. 2009). The two largest cities in South Dakota are Sioux Falls in Minnehaha County (2012 popu-lation: 175,000) in the southeast and Rapid City in Pennington County (2012 population: 104,000) in the southwest part of South Dakota, and together they represented one-third of the total population and had relatively high growth rates from 2010 to 2014 (7.9% and 7.2%, respectively) compared to 4.8% for South Dakota overall (U.S. Census Bureau 2014). These two counties also had higher median household incomes (Minnehaha, $47,000 and Pennington, $41,000) than the overall South Dakota median household income of $35,000, and higher percentages of the population aged 25+ with a B.S. degree or higher (Minnehaha, 26% and Pennington, 25%) than the statewide average of 22% as measured in 2002 (Brooks et al. 2008).

Data Collection and Analysis. Study objectives were met using data from three survey efforts designed to assess WVOs and public perceptions on a range of wildlife and natural resource management issues in South Dakota. For the


initial 19-state western U.S. study, a random sample of South Dakota residents responded to mail-back questionnaires in the fall of 2004 (Gigliotti 2006; Teel et al. 2005). WVO measurement was repeated in 2008 with a sample of residents in the five southwestern South Dakota counties in the Black Hills region (Dietsch et al. 2011), and again with a statewide sample in 2012 (Gigliotti 2012). The 2004 statewide sample of South Dakota residents was compared to the 2012 sample and the 2008 Black Hills resident sample. For the 2004 and 2012 surveys, we used two mailings of the questionnaires and one postcard reminder, and for the 2008 survey we used two mailings of the questionnaire and two postcard remind-ers. Table 1 provides survey administration information for each of the datasets used for analysis (information on data weighting can be found in the citations listed). Factors such as questionnaire length, appearance, and the number of post-card reminders may account for the differences in response rate.

The 2004 survey used a 19-item scale to measure WVOs, which was reduced to a 14-item scale for the 2008 and 2012 surveys (Chase et al. 2016); however, one item was dropped (We should strive for a world where there is an abundance of fish and wildlife for hunting and fishing.) in the analysis of WVO types because of low correlations with the other items in the “hunting beliefs” dimension (Table 2). Wildlife-related recreations (Have you ever participated in fishing? Have you ever participated in hunting? Have you ever taken any recreational trips for which fish or wildlife was the primary purpose of the trip? – each activity measured sepa-rately) were measured in 2004 and 2012 surveys (wildlife-related recreations not measured in 2008). Chi-square tests of independence were employed to assess statistical differences (P < 0.05) between the baseline South Dakota WVO type proportions and participation in wildlife-related recreation from 2004 and the replications in 2008 and 2012 and to assess statistical differences (P < 0.05) between the WVO type proportions and wildlife-related recreation for the two counties with the highest urban populations (Minnehaha and Pennington) and the other South Dakota counties measured in 2012 with Cramer’s V and phi used to measure effect size (Vaske 2008). To ensure that these data are available for future longitudinal efforts, we have included all raw numbers used in the WVO analyses in Appendix A, the data for wildlife-related recreation in Appendix B, and coding instructions for developing the WVO scale in Appendix C.

Table 1. Survey administration details for three datasets used in the analysis of WVO among citizens of South Dakota 2004-2012.

Study Year

Population Sampled

Number Usable Returns

Number Pages (Questions)

Response Rate Citation

2004 South Dakota residents 751 12 (123) 27% Teel et al. (2005);

Gigliotti (2006)

2008South Dakota

residents in Black Hills region

4,544 4 (55) 54%Dietsch, Teel, Manfredo and

Gigliotti (2011)

2012 South Dakota residents 1,138 7 (60) 49% Gigliotti (2012)


RESULTS

The WVOs of South Dakota citizens measured in 2012 were similar to those identified in 2004 (Figure 1). While results of the Chi-square test indicated that the proportion of WVO types differed between the two samples (χ2 = 9.60, P = 0.022), the minimal effect size (Cramer’s V = 0.073) suggests little practical significance for this difference (Vaske 2008). Overall, the percentage of South Dakota residents was 50% and 49% utilitarian, 15% and 16% mutualist, 29%

Table 2. WVO items used in the 2004, 2008 and 2012 South Dakota surveys and reli-ability. The 2004 Cronbach’s alpha was recalculated for the 13-item scale using South Dakota survey respondents.

Wildlife value orientation, basic belief dimensions, and basic belief itema

Cronbach’s alpha

2004 2008 2012

Utilitarian/Domination 0.71 0.74 0.66Appropriate use beliefs 0.65 0.63 0.64Humans should manage fish and wildlife populations so that humans benefit.The needs of humans should take priority over fish and wildlifeprotection.Fish and wildlife are on earth primarily for people to use.Hunting beliefs 0.78 0.79 0.74Hunting is cruel and inhumane to the animals.b

Hunting does not respect the lives of animals.b

People who want to hunt should be provided the opportunity to do so.Mutualism 0.84 0.87 0.87Social affiliation beliefs 0.81 0.82 0.80We should strive for a world where humans and fish and wildlife can live side by side without fear.I view all living things as part of one big family.Animals should have rights similar to the rights of humans.Wildlife are like my family and I want to protect them.Caring beliefs 0.74 0.75 0.74I care about animals as much as I do other peopleI feel a strong emotional bond with animals.I value the sense of companionship I receive from animals.

aItem response scales range: 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).bItem was reverse coded prior to analysis.


and 25% pluralist, and 6% and 10% distanced in 2004 and 2012, respectively. To test the possible effect of using the shorter WVO scale in 2012, we reanalyzed the 2004 data using just the 13-items used in the 2012 survey. The change in WVO proportions was small (48% utilitarian, 16% mutualist, 31% pluralist, and 6% distanced) compared with the WVO proportions measured in 2012 (χ2 = 15.94, P = 0.001, Cramer’s V = 0.095). The WVO differences observed between 2004 and 2012 may be more likely due to the higher response rate achieved by the 2012 survey (49% vs. 27%) collecting a higher percentage of the distanced type (Groves et al. 2004).

The proportion of WVO types among Black Hills residents measured in 2008 and 2012 did not differ significantly (χ2 = 0.47, P = 0.925). Overall, the per-centage of Black Hills residents was 45% and 46% utilitarian, 21% and 19% mutualist, 24% and 25% pluralist, and 10% and 10% distanced in 2008 and 2012, respectively.

The percent of South Dakota residents reporting that they have ever fished (84%) or ever hunted (58%) in 2004 was similar to the percent having ever fished (83%) (χ2 = 0.31, P = 0.578, φ = 0.013) or ever hunted (60%) reported in 2012 (χ2 = 0.26, P = 0.609, φ = 0.012) (Figure 2). A slightly higher percent of South Dakota residents reported ever taking a recreational trip for which wildlife viewing was the primary purpose in 2004 (55%) compared to 2012 (49%) (χ2 = 7.42, P = 0.006, φ = -0.064). Although the minimal effect size suggests little practical difference (Vaske 2008), a 6.5% difference actually represents a drop of forty-one thousand people participating (both surveys were of adults 18 and older with an estimated population of 629,182 adults in 2012); however, the difference may be due to the higher response rate in 2012 collecting a higher percentage of people less likely to have taken wildlife viewing trips.

Figure 1. Proportion of WVO types among South Dakota residents in 2004 (measured using the 19-item scale and the 13-item scale) compared with 2012 (χ2 = 9.60, P = 0.022, Cramer’s V= 0.073 and χ2 = 15.94, P = 0.001, Cramer’s V= 0.095; respectively).


If any within state differences in WVO proportions are to be found in South Dakota, WVO theory would predict lower proportions of utilitarians and possi-bly higher levels of mutualists in the most urban areas, which would be within Minnehaha and Pennington counties. However, we found no relationship in proportions of WVOs in the two counties with the highest urban population

Figure 2. Percent of South Dakota residents indicating participation in fishing (χ2 = 0.31, P = 0.578, φ = 0.013), hunting (χ2 = 0.26, P = 0.609, φ = 0.012) and wildlife viewing trips (χ2 = 7.42, P = 0.006, φ = –0.064) in 2004 and 2012.

Figure 3. Proportion of WVO types comparing Minnehaha and Pennington counties with all other South Dakota counties in 2012 (χ2 = 5.28, P = 0.508, Cramer’s V = 0.051).


compared to the remaining counties (P = 0.508; Figure 3). Pennington County had a higher percent of residents who had fished (91%) compared to Minnehaha County (83%) and all remaining counties combined (81%) (χ2 = 7.44, P = 0.024, Cramer’s V = 0.075) (Figure 4). The percent of Pennington County residents who had hunted (60%) was higher than Minnehaha County (51%), but similar to all remaining counties combined (62%) (χ2 = 7.35, P = 0.025, Cramer’s V = 0.083) (Figure 4). The percent of residents who had taken trips primarily for viewing wildlife was similar for Pennington County (53%), Minnehaha County (49%), and all remaining counties combined (48%) (χ2 = 1.04, P = 0.594, Cramer’s V = 0.031) (Figure 4).

DISCUSSION

WVO theory predicts that generational changes are arising from changing lifestyles due to modernization (Manfredo 2008; Manfredo et al. 2009; Teel and Manfredo 2010). Differences in education, income and especially urbanization were identified as underlying factors explaining the large differences in WVO proportions among the 19 western U.S. states in a 2004 study (Teel et al. 2005). However, other factors and demographic trends today may interact to change the influence of modernization, especially the influence of urbanization. Marked changes between rural and urban lifestyle have changed slowly over the past century, with decreasing differences in income, education and, probably more importantly, connections with nature largely influenced by migration shifts in residential patterns (McGranahan and Beale 2002; Rathge 2008). For example, past migration patterns shifted large numbers of un-skilled, rural residents to

Figure 4. Percent of South Dakota residents indicating they have fished (χ2 = 7.44, P = 0.024, Cramer’s V = 0.075), hunted (χ2 = 7.35, P = 0.025, Cramer’s V = 0.083), and/or have taken wildlife viewing trips (χ2 = 1.04, P = 0.594, Cramer’s V = 0.031) compar-ing Minnehaha and Pennington counties with all other South Dakota counties (2012).


urban areas following the availability of high-paying manufacturing jobs, but the decline in manufacturing jobs has reduced the income disparity between rural and urban areas. Improved education in rural areas has also reduced this rural-urban disparity. Additionally, rural areas with natural amenities (e.g., topography, riv-ers, and lakes) are attracting high income urbanites to move back to rural areas (McGranahan and Beale 2002), Rapid City being a prime South Dakota example.

WVO theory proposes a generational shift from a utilitarian value orientation toward wildlife to a mutualistic value orientation due to lifestyle changes result-ing from modernization factors. South Dakota’s high proportion of utilitarian to mutualist WVO types and the initial measures of the WVO in South Dakota offer an opportunity for a longitudinal study of this phenomenon. Changes in demographic and other trends may change the relative importance of how the various factors influence future WVOs. For example, the economy of Sioux Falls has become more service-based and has relatively low unemployment, with sig-nificant growth due to migration from other states (Fogg and Harrington 2014) and from other countries. The type of residence history of this growth may have a greater influence on changes in future WVOs than can be explained by cur-rent demographic statistics depending on whether most of the migration is from large metropolitan or rural areas (Heberlein and Ericsson 2005). For example, the Argus Leader (2017) reported that Sioux Falls families have become more diverse in terms of racial background and financial need. In 2017, 18 percent of Sioux Falls residents were non-white compared to 2000, when eight percent of Sioux Falls residents were non-white. Most new Sioux Falls residents are coming from Ohio, Missouri, and Illinois, although many are coming from Southern California, Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona (World Population Review 2017). Also, many refugees (3,568 from 32 countries since 2002) have been resettled in Sioux Falls, most arriving from Somalia, Eritrea, Sudan, Republic of Congo, Iraq, and Burma (Omaha World Herald 2017).

Urbanization has been found to influence wildlife attitudes by reducing or changing people’s connections to nature (Heberlain and Ericsson 2005; Stedman and Heberlain 2002; Willits and Luloff 1995). More recently, wildlife agencies have developed programs providing more opportunities for urbanities to main-tain connections to nature. For example, whereas wildlife agencies have tradition-ally focused on providing quality fisheries that would motivate anglers to travel (Gilliland 2008; Schramm and Edwards 1994), more recently they have included programs providing fishing opportunities in close proximity to municipalities for urban residents who do not have access to traditional fishing opportunities (Botts 1984; Schramm 2008). Numerous efforts and programs have been created to provide city residents better opportunities to make connections to nature (e.g., Illinois DNR Green Cities Program and Step Outside events offered by many organizations). In South Dakota, the Game, Fish and Parks Department built outdoor learning centers in Sioux Falls (The Outdoor Campus – East, 1997) and Rapid City (The Outdoor Campus – West, 2011) to provide education about outdoor skills, wildlife, conservation and management to help preserve an outdoor heritage. Previous authors have suggested that the number and types of opportunities to maintain connections with the outdoors and nature may play a


role along with other factors in determining the proportion of WVO types in a state, which was why we included some baseline information for participation in fishing, hunting and wildlife viewing in our analyses (Geng et al. 2015; Nisbet et al. 2009; Restall and Conrad 2015). Because maintaining connections with nature may be an important factor explaining future patterns of WVO types, future research may be enhanced by developing a better scale for measuring people’s types and opportunities for maintaining connections with nature, such as, frequency of participation, interest in or importance of various outdoor activi-ties, and perceived opportunities for engaging in desired outdoor activities.

In addition to South Dakota being a good candidate for a longitudinal study of factors influencing the overall WVO proportions in the state, there are some interesting features and trends within the state which may contribute to a longi-tudinal study that could add valuable insight to the WVO model. First there are two relatively large, rapidly growing urban areas in a very rural state experienc-ing depopulation in many of the counties. These two urban areas have different features influencing growth: Sioux Falls with lots of jobs in the service and health sectors and Rapid City with strong natural resource amenities provided by the Black Hills area. Over time this transition toward a more urban population in the Sioux Falls and Rapid City areas surrounded by sparsely populated rural areas may contribute to a pronounced regional pattern of WVO types within the state. However, currently there is no statistical difference in WVO types between these two urban areas or the rest of the state, and our measure of wildlife-related rec-reation was relatively similar among these two urban areas and the remainder of the state. Thus, our 2012 data are baseline information that can be evaluated as conditions change over time. This suggests, for future research, the need for the collection of WVO information at finer degrees of spatial resolution (e.g., county level, Census Block Group level; see Dietsch et al. 2011; Teel and Manfredo 2010) to enhance the utility of findings for management decision-making.

As expected, we found very little change in the proportions of WVO types in South Dakota measured in 2004 and eight years later in 2012, which sup-ports the WVO model that WVO change is a gradual, generational change. To determine the effect of comparing data collected in 2004 using a 19-item scale with the 2012 13-item scale, we recalculated the 2004 data using just the same 13 items used in 2012. Although we found very little difference in proportions of WVO types for the two scales, good methodological procedures would call for future studies to use the same scale. The 19-item scale provides a more com-prehensive measure of each of the scale’s factors, while the 13-item scale has the advantage of being shorter and thus more easily included as part of other surveys that may be conducted in the future. The similar WVO proportions of South Dakota residents in the Black Hills measured in 2008 and again in 2012 using the 13-item scale with similar response rates demonstrates the reliability of the WVO scale. It appears that having similar response rates may be rather important for comparing WVO, particularly in longitudinal studies. We suspect that the main difference between the 2004 and 2012 data was due largely to the higher response rate in 2012 collecting a higher response from the distanced WVO type, i.e., people who are less interested in the topic of wildlife (Groves et al. 2004).


Because people with different WVOs view the fundamental relationship between humans and wildlife in different ways, a division of WVO types in the population can form the basis for controversy over certain wildlife management actions and poli-cies. WVO assessment has been shown to be a valuable tool for better understanding the drivers of such conflict and informing adaptive resolution strategies (Manfredo 2008). With an increasing number of South Dakota residents being raised in urban environments, WVO theory would predict a shift toward more mutualistic views. Understanding the networks that exist for social exchange between urban and rural residents may be important to understanding how the pace of WVO shift may differ regionally across the US. Continuing periodic assessments of WVOs in South Dakota will enable the opportunity to further explore the relationship between moderniza-tion influences and changes in the wildlife values of the public in one of the more rural U.S. states; thus, contributing more broadly to WVO theory by explaining rates of change over time and the generational factors contributing to value shifts.

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92 Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science, Vol. 96 (2017)A

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Appendix C. Question items and directions for computing the WVO in SPSS.

Questions – 1n sequence used in this study.1,4 Code2

Humans should manage fish and wildlife populations so that humans benefit. W1Animals should have rights similar to the rights of humans. W2We should strive for a world where there is an abundance of fish and wildlife for hunting and fishing. W33

I view all living things as part of one big family. W4Hunting does not respect the lives of animals. [RECODED] W5I feel a strong emotional bond with animals. W6The needs of humans should take priority over fish and wildlife protection. W7I care about animals as much as I do other people. W8Fish and wildlife are on earth primarily for people to use. W9Hunting is cruel and inhumane to the animals. [RECODED] W10We should strive for a world where humans and fish and wildlife can live side by side without fear. W11

I value the sense of companionship I receive from animals. W12Wildlife are like my family and I want to protect them. W13People who want to hunt should be provided the opportunity to do so. W14

1Questions measured on a 7-point scale: 1 = Strongly Disagree. 2 = Moderately Disagree, 3 = Slightly Disagree, 4 = neither, 5 = Slightly Agree, 6 = Moderately Agree, 7 = Strongly Agree2Belief Items: Domination/Utilitarian (Appropriate Use = W1, W7, W9; Hunting = W5R, W10R, W14); Mutualism (Social Affiliation = W2, W4, W11, W13; Caring = W6, W8, W12).3Note: W3 was dropped due to low scale reliability.4Question items and directions for computing the WVO in SPSS. Compute use = mean(W1, W7, W9). Compute hunting = mean(W5R, W10R, W14). Compute mutual = mean(W4, W2, W11, W13). Compute caring = mean(W6, W8, W12). Compute usehunt = mean(use, hunting). Compute mutualcare = mean(mutual, caring).*Create crosstabulated scale using both mutualcare and usehunt (4 categories: Utilitarian, Mutualist, Pluralist, Distanced).Compute usebymutual = 9.Missing values usebymutual (9).Value labels usebymutual 1 ‘Utilitarian’ 2 ‘Mutualist’ 3 ‘Pluralist’ 4 ‘Distanced’.If usehunt > 4.50 and mutualcare <= 4.50 usebymutual = 1.If usehunt <= 4.50 and mutualcare > 4.50 usebymutual = 2.If usehunt > 4.50 and mutualcare > 4.50 usebymutual = 3.If usehunt <= 4.50 and mutualcare <= 4.50 usebymutual = 4.If usehunt = 9 or mutualcare = 9 usebymutual = 9.Compute usebymutual = WVO.Coding instructions were provided by Dr. Tara Teel, Department of Human Dimensions of Natural Resources, Warner College of Natural Resources, Colorado State University


A RARE OCCURRENCE OF THE FOSSIL WATER MOLE GAILLARDIA (DESMANINI, TALPIDAE) FROM THE NEOGENE IN NORTH AMERICA

James E. MartinUniversity of Louisiana Geology Museum

School of GeosciencesLafayette, LA 70505

ABSTRACT

One of the rarest fossil mammals of the Neogene of North America is the desman, which dispersed to North America from Eurasia. The desmans, notably the genus, Gaillardia, did not persist in North America but were able to widely disperse, with occurrences known from New Mexico, Oregon, and Nebraska. Only three North American localities had previously been known to produce water moles, but a new discovery from southern Oregon, Lake County, adds to the known distribution. A tephra associated with the fossil specimens produced an 40Ar/39Ar date of 5.74 ± 0.01 Ma. Therefore, the Fort Rock Formation, which produced the specimens, was deposited during the latest Hemphillian North American Land Mammal Age (NALMA). The Gaillardia specimens are associ-ated with fish, anurans, shrews, beavers (Dipoides), rabbits, and arvicolin rodents (Cosomys) indicating a riparian environment of deposition.

Keywords

Gaillardia, Talpidae, Oregon Hemphillian, semiaquatic specialization

INTRODUCTION

The Desmanini includes small semiaquatic mammals classified within the typi-cally fossorial family of moles, the Talpidae. Only two extant desman species are recognized, Desmana moschata, the Russian desman, and the smaller Galemys pyrenaicus, the Pyrenean desman. These small mammals are well adapted to a semiaquatic manner of existence as evinced by a laterally flattened long tail, webbed feet, small eyes, chemoreception, absence of an external ear, acute hear-ing, and dense hair for buoyancy. They are also characterized by musk produc-tion from glands lying under the tail and a long, narrow, mobile proboscis with many vibrissae utilized in prey apprehension and tactile sensory functions. The Pyrenean water mole inhabits turbulent creeks and rivers, whereas the Russian water mole occurs in slower moving water of the Ural, Don, Dnieper, and Volga basins (Queiroz et al. 1996).


In the past, desmans were more widely dispersed; they are first known from the Oligocene of Europe and became widely dispersed across Eurasia during the Miocene. During the Barstovian NALMA (~14-16 Ma, middle Miocene), desmans appear in North America but are only known to persist through the late Hemphillian NALMA (~4.9-10 Ma, latest Miocene). They first appear in North America in the Barstovian Jacona Quarry in the Pojoaque Member of the Tesuque Formation in northern New Mexico (Chaney 1985; Tedford and Barghoorn 1993). Additional specimens occur in Hemphillian NALMA deposits at the McKay Reservoir Locality in the McKay Formation of the Dalles Group in northern Oregon (Shotwell 1956) and at the the ZX Bar Locality of the Upper Snake Creek beds in northwestern Nebraska (Matthew 1932).

Gaillardia thomsoni was named by Matthew (1932) based upon a dentary with three teeth from the Hemphillian Nebraska locality. Later, Shotwell (1956) named the desman, Hydroscapheus americanus, from a late Hemphillian northern Oregon site, based initially on postcranial elements, particularly humeri. This taxon was later synonymized with Gaillardia when dental material was discovered at McKay Reservoir (Hutchison 1968). Most recently, Chaney (1985) docu-mented Gaillardia from late Barstovian deposits in northern New Mexico, based principally on isolated teeth. These specimens represent the earliest occurrence of a desman in North American, and no others have been found to occur until the late Hemphillian in North America, a significant amount of the late Miocene time with no desman representatives.

As part of paleontological surveys conducted through the Bonneville Power Administration for power line construction/renovation across southern Oregon, a fourth occurrence of a desman was discovered. The water mole was found in late Hemphillian rocks assignable to the Fort Rock Formation (Hampton 1964) associated with fossil fish, anurans, beavers (including Dipooides), shrews, and rodents (including Cosomys). These genera are indicative of the late Hemphillian NALMA (e.g. Martin, 2008). Moreover, an 40Ar/39Ar radiometric date of 5.74 ± 0.01 Ma (New Mexico Geochronology Laboratory) was derived from a tephra associated with the specimens.

EULIPOTYPHLATALPIDAE Fisher, 1814

DESMANINI Thomas, 1912GAILLARDIA Matthew, 1932

GAILLARDIA sp. indet. cf. G. THOMSONI Matthew, 1932

Referred Specimens: University of Louisiana Geology Museum (ULGM) V12201, distal left humerus, and ULGM V12358, distal right tibiofibula, from ULGM Locality V-13, BPA Pole Locality 183/5, Lake County, OR.

Description: ULGM V12201 is the distal portion of a left humerus (Figure 1), characterized by a distinct teres tubercule that is oriented obliquely to the humeral shaft, by lack of a fossa for the M. flexor digitorum ligament, and by a very wide distal transverse expansion (10.73 mm transversely) characteristic of desmans and


unlike typical fossorial talpines. The entepicondylar and ectepicondylar processes are expanded, the entepicondylar foramen is distinct, and the trochlea is wide without a deep notch distinctly separating the trochlea from the ventral margin medially. Overall, the Lake County specimen is identical to humeral specimens of Gaillardia thomsoni collected from McKay Reservoir.

Figure 1. ULGM V12201, anterior view, distal left humerus, Gaillardia sp. indet. cf. G. thomsoni, from Lake County, OR. Scale graduated in half millimeters.

From the same locality, the distal portion of a right tibiofibula (Figure 2) of a desman was recovered. This specimen also resembles the tibiofibula of Gaillardia thomsoni. As is typical of desmans, the tibia and fibula are well fused distally (5.25 mm transversely), and the lateral malleolus is robust. The groove on the distal fibular portion of the element and the medial process above the tibial por-tion are not as distinct as those illustrated for Gaillardia thomsoni from McKay Reservoir in northern Oregon (Hutchison 1968 Fig. 36). Whether these charac-ters are significant at a specific taxonomic level will await a greater sample size.


Figure 2. ULGM V12358, anterior view, distal right tibiofibula, Gaillardia sp. indet. cf. G. thomsoni, from Lake County, OR. Scale graduated in half millimeters.

DISCUSSION

A newly discovered desman (water mole) was recently collected from Hemphillian deposits in southern Oregon. Only three areas had previously produced specimens of fossil water moles in North America. The newly found desman is based upon a distal humerus and distal tibiofibula that occurred in tuffaceous deposits of the Fort Rock Formation dated at 5.74 ± 0.01 Ma in Lake County. The discovery was the result of paleontological salvage resulting from surveys required for Bonneville Power Administration construction and renova-tion on federal land.

In most regards, the specimens from southern Oregon are similar to those of Gaillardia thomsoni, also known from late Hemphillian deposits. The humerus appears identical to Gaillardia thomsoni from McKay Reservoir in northern Oregon, and only minor differences appear between known specimens of the tibiofibulae. Until additional specimens are recovered to assess the significance of these differences, the specimens from southern Oregon are provisionally assigned to Gaillardia thomsoni.

Desman moles are extremely rare in North America, whereas they were a rela-tively common component of Neogene assemblages in Eurasia. Extant desmans occur in riparian habitats, and most fossil occurrences likewise have been found in such paleoenvironments. The new discovery was found in fluvial sediments in conjunction with other creatures adapted to a riparian habitat such as fish, frogs, shrews, beavers, and arviolin rodents. Therefore, this desman occurrence in southern Oregon occurs at an appropriate time in the North American fossil record and from an appropriate paleoenvironment for an insectivore adapted to a riparian habitat.


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I sincerely thank Mr. William Cannon, Bureau of Land Management, and Mr. John Wiley, Bonneville Power Administration, for making possible the surveys that resulted in this discovery. Their vision concerning the paleontology of Oregon resulted in extremely important specimens preserved for our scien-tific heritage. This contribution was greatly enhanced by the reviews of Dan S. Chaney from the US National Museum, Washington, DC, David C. Parris, New Jersey State Museum, Trenton, NJ, and Proceedings editor, Dr. Robert Tatina.

LITERATURE CITED

Chaney, D.S. 1985. The Jacona microfauna (late Barstovian), Pojoaque Member, Tesuque Formation; north central New Mexico, geology, taphonomy, paleoecology, Insectivora. Unpubl. M.S. Thesis, University of California., Riverside, CA. 172 p.

Hampton, E.R. 1964. Geologic Factors that control the occurrence and avail-ability of ground water in the Fort Rock Basin Lake County, Oregon. U.S. Geological Survey Prof. Paper 383-B:BN1-B29.

Hutchison, J.H. 1968. Fossil Talpidae (Insectivora, Mammalia) from the later Tertiary of Oregon. Mus. Nat. Hist., University Oregon Bulletin 11:1-117.

Martin, J.E. 2008. Hemphillian rodents from northern Oregon and their bio-stratigraphic implications. Paludicola 6(4):155-190.

Matthew, W.D. 1932. New fossil mammals from the Snake Creek quarries. American Museum Novitates 540:1-8.

Queiroz, A.I., A. Bertrand, and G. Khakhin. 1996. Status and conservation of Desmaninae in Europe. Council Europe Publ., Nature and Environment, no. 76:1-81.

Shotwell, J.A. 1956. Hemphillian mammalian assemblage from northeastern Oregon. Bulletin of the Geological. Society of America 67:717-738.

Tedford, R.H., and S.F. Barghoorn. 1993. Neogene stratigraphy and mammalian biochronology of the Espanola Basin, northern New Mexico. Vertebrate Paleontology in New Mexico, New Mexico Museum Natural History Science Bulletin 2:159-168.


PRELIMINARY CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF WATER FROM SITES NEAR THE SANFORD

UNDERGROUND RESEARCH FACILITY

Joseph M. Barnes1 and Micheal H. Zehfus2*1Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry & Department of Engineering.

Benedictine College,Atchison, KS 66002-1499

2 Department of Science, Black Hills State UniversitySpearfish, SD 57799-9008

*Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The Sanford Underground Research Facility (SURF) is located deep under-ground in the former Homestake gold mine in Lead, South Dakota. This study describes the chemistry of water sampled at several locations near SURF. Water from the 17 Ledge on the 4850-foot level, the outflow of the 4700-foot level onto the 4850-foot level, and the 4100-foot level was analyzed in situ for pH, dis-solved oxygen, temperature, conductivity, and ammonium using probes. Water from each location was also taken aboveground to be analyzed for dissolved and total iron, chloride, nitrate, sulfate, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, total hardness, bicarbonate, carbonate, and total alkalinity using titrations, pho-tometric reactions, atomic absorption spectrometry, and ICP-MS (Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry). The water chemistry from each site, including those on the same level, was relatively unique. Significant differences were also observed between levels: the 4100-foot level had higher concentrations of most cations, total hardness, conductivity, and lower pH, dissolved oxygen, and total alkalinity when compared to the 4850-foot level. Two sites at the 4850-foot level also contained high concentrations of arsenic. The results of this pre-liminary study provide the foundation for further investigation into the sources and flow of water through SURF, as well the basis for subsequent microbial study.

Keywords

Water chemistry, SURF, Homestake

INTRODUCTION

The Sanford Underground Research Facility (SURF) is located deep under-ground in the former Homestake gold mine in Lead, South Dakota. The mine was operational from 1876 to 2002, during which time it was excavated to a depth of 8000 feet below the city of Lead. After gold production ceased in 2002,


the mine was selected as the site for the national Deep Underground Science and Engineering Laboratory, which eventually became SURF. In addition to the high-profile physics experiments, biology, chemistry, and engineering experiments are also performed in the facility (Heise and DUSEL Collaboration 2010).

Despite the abundant information available on the geologic make-up of the SURF facility, the hydrology and water chemistry are still poorly understood. Only two studies exist with any information on the chemistry of the water in the vicinity of the SURF lab. Borehole water samples were collected near the Davis Campus on the 4850-foot level (Stetler 2015), and three other sites were char-acterized by Osburn et al. (2014). Here we report data from the 4100-foot level and the 17 Ledge on the 4850-foot level that have not been previously studied.

The water chemistry of the SURF lab is also of interest to microbiologists. The underground lab and associated mine tunnels contain numerous water micro-environments hypothesized to contain unique microbial communities (Osburn et al. 2014). To fully understand these microbial communities, one must first characterize the water in which the community is living.

This study was undertaken because of the paucity of water chemistry data at SURF and to provide a basis for subsequent microbial sampling. The objec-tive of this study was to characterize water chemistry at distinct and previously unsampled locations in the tunnels surrounding SURF, with particular emphasis on those areas undergoing microbial analysis.

METHODS

Sampling sites were located on two levels (4100-foot and 4850-foot) of the Sanford Underground Research Facility in Lead, South Dakota. Due to limited access only three samples were taken at the 4100-foot level. Samples were col-lected on four dates during June and July 2016 (Table 1). Flowing water samples were caught in a clean 500 mL plastic bottle while puddle samples were removed from the source in several portions using a 50-mL syringe and placed in a clean 500 mL plastic bottle. Additionally, samples for ICP-MS study were filtered using a Millipore Sterivex 0.22 μm filter unit. Sampling locations are depicted in Figures 1 and 2. At each sampling site, atmospheric pressure, air temperature, water temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, conductivity, and NH4

+ were measured in situ with a Vernier LabQuest connected to respective probes (Vernier Software & Technology, Beaverton, OR).

Filtered and unfiltered samples were also taken to Black Hills State University for laboratory analysis. Major cations (Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+) were measured in triplicate using a Perkin Elmer AAnalyst 300 Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (AAS). Dilutions of 1:5, 1:10, 1:100, and 1:1000 were performed as necessary, and concentrations were calculated relative to prepared standards. Fe2+, SO4

2–, and NO3

– were measured using a HACH DR/820 colorimeter and the associated reaction kits (HACH Company, Loveland, CO). For Total Fe, an unfiltered sam-ple was first reacted with A6000 Activator Solution from CHEMets Kit K-6010 (CHEMetrics, Inc., Midland, VA) and then its concentration was measured using

Figure 1. Sampling Sites on the 4100-foot Level.



the mine was selected as the site for the national Deep Underground Science and Engineering Laboratory, which eventually became SURF. In addition to the high-profile physics experiments, biology, chemistry, and engineering experiments are also performed in the facility (Heise and DUSEL Collaboration 2010).

Despite the abundant information available on the geologic make-up of the SURF facility, the hydrology and water chemistry are still poorly understood. Only two studies exist with any information on the chemistry of the water in the vicinity of the SURF lab. Borehole water samples were collected near the Davis Campus on the 4850-foot level (Stetler 2015), and three other sites were char-acterized by Osburn et al. (2014). Here we report data from the 4100-foot level and the 17 Ledge on the 4850-foot level that have not been previously studied.

The water chemistry of the SURF lab is also of interest to microbiologists. The underground lab and associated mine tunnels contain numerous water micro-environments hypothesized to contain unique microbial communities (Osburn et al. 2014). To fully understand these microbial communities, one must first characterize the water in which the community is living.

This study was undertaken because of the paucity of water chemistry data at SURF and to provide a basis for subsequent microbial sampling. The objec-tive of this study was to characterize water chemistry at distinct and previously unsampled locations in the tunnels surrounding SURF, with particular emphasis on those areas undergoing microbial analysis.

METHODS

Sampling sites were located on two levels (4100-foot and 4850-foot) of the Sanford Underground Research Facility in Lead, South Dakota. Due to limited access only three samples were taken at the 4100-foot level. Samples were col-lected on four dates during June and July 2016 (Table 1). Flowing water samples were caught in a clean 500 mL plastic bottle while puddle samples were removed from the source in several portions using a 50-mL syringe and placed in a clean 500 mL plastic bottle. Additionally, samples for ICP-MS study were filtered using a Millipore Sterivex 0.22 μm filter unit. Sampling locations are depicted in Figures 1 and 2. At each sampling site, atmospheric pressure, air temperature, water temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, conductivity, and NH4

+ were measured in situ with a Vernier LabQuest connected to respective probes (Vernier Software & Technology, Beaverton, OR).

Filtered and unfiltered samples were also taken to Black Hills State University for laboratory analysis. Major cations (Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+) were measured in triplicate using a Perkin Elmer AAnalyst 300 Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (AAS). Dilutions of 1:5, 1:10, 1:100, and 1:1000 were performed as necessary, and concentrations were calculated relative to prepared standards. Fe2+, SO4

2–, and NO3

– were measured using a HACH DR/820 colorimeter and the associated reaction kits (HACH Company, Loveland, CO). For Total Fe, an unfiltered sam-ple was first reacted with A6000 Activator Solution from CHEMets Kit K-6010 (CHEMetrics, Inc., Midland, VA) and then its concentration was measured using




the HACH colorimeter. If the concentration was above the detection limit of the colorimeter, then a visual comparison was made with standards included in the K-6010 kit. CO3

2–, HCO3–, and Total Alkalinity were measured by pH titration

using 0.09775 M HCl, with the data being recorded using a Vernier LabQuest (Kegley & Andrews 1998). Cl– was measured by potentiometric titration using 0.004949 M AgNO3, with the data being recorded using a Vernier LabQuest. Total hardness was measured by EDTA titration using 0.003247 M EDTA (Harris 1995) (Table 2).

Trace metals were measured using an Agilent 7900 Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometer (ICP-MS), using filtered samples preserved in 1% v/v HNO3. The operating conditions for the ICP-MS are given in Table 3, and the analytical Figures of Merit for the various elements using these settings are given in Table 4. For ICP-MS analysis 1:100 dilutions were used on Samples 4100-1, 4100-2, and 4100-3, and 1:10 dilutions were carried out on Samples 4850-1, 4850-2, 4850-3, 4850-4, 4850-5, and 4850-6. During a typical ICP-MS session 10 replicates were determined for the field blank and each sample was measured in triplicate. Field blanks were created by filtering deionized water through the same type of filter as the samples and then diluting the filtered blank with deionized water to match the dilution of the sample. System function was tested daily using a spike recovery experiment. In this procedure, the sample with the highest chloride content was spiked with 50 ppb of all metals being analyzed to see if the metals were being properly quantified by the instrument.

Data between the levels were compared using t-tests (SPSS (9.0) statistical analysis program) with α = 0.05.

Table 1. Sampling locations and dates of sample collection at SURF underground laboratory.

Level Site Date Designation Location Water Source

4100

1 07/06 4100-1 Northwest corner of crosscut

Flowing from unknown source

2 07/06 4100-2 Drift south of crosscut


3 07/06 4100-3 Drift north of Yates air door


4850

1 06/14 4850-1 17 Ledge wooden pallet cavern Pool2 06/14 4850-2 Thiothrix Falls outflow Flowing from Thiothrix Falls3 06/23 4850-3 17 Ledge Cave Silver cavern Dripping from above4 06/23 4850-4 Outflow from 4700-foot level Flowing from 4700 level5 07/19 4850-5 South end of drift to 17 Ledge Stagnant pool

6 06/23, 07/19 4850-6 North end of drift to 17 Ledge Pool with slight flow


Table 2. Parameters analyzed, location of measurement, and methods used for water chemistry analysis of samples from the SURF underground laboratory.

Parameter Measured Method Observable Range1

Air Temperature In situ Vernier Temperature Probe -40 – 135 °CWater Temperature In situ Vernier Temperature Probe -40 – 135 °C

pH In situ Vernier pH Probe 0 – 14Conductivity In situ Vernier Conductivity Probe 0 – 12800 ppm TDSAir Pressure In situ Vernier Pressure Probe 0 – 1600 mmHg

Dissolved Oxygen In situ Vernier Dissolved Oxygen Probe 0 – 15 mg/LNH4

+ In situ Vernier Ammonium ISE 1 – 100 mg/LNa+ BHSU AAS 0.500 – 5.000 mg/LK+ BHSU AAS 2.000 – 20.00 mg/L

Mg2+ BHSU AAS 0.299 – 2.990 mg/LCa2+ BHSU AAS 1.000 – 10.00 mg/L

Fe2+ BHSU HACH® Fe Test, Method 8008 (filtered sample) 0 – 3.00 mg/L

Fe (total) BHSUHACH® Fe Test, Method 8008

(unfiltered sample)ChemETS Kit K-6010

0 – 3.00 mg/L0 – 10 mg/L

Ba BHSU ICP-MS 0.01 – 10 μg/LAs BHSU ICP-MS 0.1 – 100 μg/LMn BHSU ICP-MS 0.1 – 100 μg/LSb BHSU ICP-MS 0.01 – 10 μg/LZn BHSU ICP-MS 10 – 1000 μg/LCu BHSU ICP-MS 0.1 – 1000 μg/LCr BHSU ICP-MS 0.1 – 1000 μg/LPb BHSU ICP-MS 1 – 1000 μg/LV BHSU ICP-MS 0.01 – 100 μg/L

Cd BHSU ICP-MS 0.01 – 100 μg/LNi BHSU ICP-MS 0.01 – 100 μg/LSe BHSU ICP-MS 1 – 1000 μg/LAg BHSU ICP-MS 0.01 – 100 μg/LHg BHSU ICP-MS 0.01-100 μg/LTl BHSU ICP-MS 0.01 – 100 μg/L

SO42– BHSU HACH® SO4

2– Test, Method 8051 0 – 70 mg/LCO3

2– BHSU pH TitrationHCO3

– BHSU pH TitrationCl– BHSU Potentiometric Titration

NO3– BHSU HACH® NO3

– Test, Method 8039 0 – 30.0 mg/LTotal Alkalinity BHSU pH TitrationTotal Hardness BHSU EDTA Titration

1Observable Ranges report the upper and lower concentrations that the instrument could quantify directly. Any data reported as exceeding this range was obtained by diluting the sample with an appropriate amount of deionized water.


Table 3. Operating conditions for ICP-MS analysis.

Nebulizer MicroMist

Spray chamber Scott typePlasma mode Low matrix

Radio frequency – power 1550 WSampling Depth (mm) 8.0

Plasma gas flow rate (L/min) 15Carrier gas flow rate (L/min) 1.05

Spray chamber temperature (°C) 2Sampling cone NickelSkimmer cone Nickel

Lens tune AutotuneExtract 1 lens 0 VExtract 2 lens –200 VOmega Bias –90 VOmega lens 10.8 V

Deflect –1.0 VHe flow rate (mL/min) 4.3Energy discrimination 5.0 V

Isotopes monitored45Sc, 51V, 52Cr, 55Mn, 60Ni, 63Cu, 66Zn, 72Ge, 75As, 78Se, 103Rh,

107Ag, 111Cd, 115In, 121Sb, 137Ba, 201Hg, 205Tl, 208Pb, 209BiIntegration time/mass 100 ms

Replicates 3Sweeps/replicate 10

Peak Pattern 3 points

Table 4. Analytical figures of merit in the analysis by ICP-MS.

Parameter Isotopes107Ag 75As 137Ba 111Cd 52Cr

Limit of detection (μg L–1) 0.001 0.02 0.004 0.002 0.01Limit of quantification (μg L–1) 0.003 0.06 0.01 0.006 0.03Linear correlation coefficient (r) 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000

Calibration range (μg L–1) 0.01-100 0.1-100 0.01-10 0.01-100 0.1-100063Cu 201Hg 55Mn 60Ni 208Pb

Limit of detection (μg L–1) 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.06Limit of quantification (μg L–1) 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.06 0.18


Parameter Isotopes

Linear correlation coefficient (r) 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000Calibration range (μg L–1) 0.1-1000 0.1-100 0.1-100 0.1-100 1-1000

121Sb 78Se 205Tl 51V 66Zn

Limit of detection (μg L–1) 0.001 0.27 0.0003 0.002 0.88Limit of quantification (μg L–1) 0.003 0.81 0.0009 0.006 2.6Linear correlation coefficient (r) 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000

Calibration range (μg L–1) 0.01-10 1-1000 0.01-100 0.01-100 10-1000

Limit of detection (LOD) = [(3.3 × BEC × RSD of blank)/100], based on 10 blank replicates; BEC, Background equivalent concentration = [Intensity of background signal/(Analyte intensity – Background intensity)] × Analyte concentration; RSD – Relative standard deviation; Limit of quantification (LOQ) = 3 × LOD

RESULTS

Water chemistry at each sampling site was relatively unique (Table 5). Water from location 4100-1 had a higher concentration of dissolved iron than any other site. This sample also had a manganese concentration 100 times higher than water samples from the other two sites on the 4100-foot level. Site 4100-2 water had a much lower concentration of magnesium and lower total water hardness than water from sampling locations 4100-1 and 4100-3. Sampling site 4100-3 was the only location with water containing detectable concentrations of lead. Water from site 4850-1 had the lowest conductivity of any location. At the 4850-foot level, water from location 48504 was much harder than water from any of the other sites at this elevation: the 17 ledge samples (sites 4850-1 and 4850-3) had relatively soft water, while water from the 4850-5 and 4850-6 sites was moderately hard. Water from the drift between the Ross Campus and the 17 Ledge (Samples 4850-5 and 4850-6) had arsenic concentrations much higher than water collected from the other sites.

Several significant differences in water chemistry were observed between the 4100-foot and 4850-foot levels (Table 6). The 4100-foot level had significantly higher conductivity readings (P = 0.000), significantly higher concentrations of cations (with the exceptions of sodium and iron) (NH4; P = 0.000, K+; P = 0.000, Mg2+; P = 0.002, Ca2+; P = 0.000), and significantly greater total hardness read-ings than the 4850-foot level (P = 0.002). However, the 4850-foot level had sig-nificantly higher mean pH (P = 0.005), dissolved oxygen (P = 0.006), and total alkalinity (P = 0.004) values than the 4100-foot level.


Table 5. Water chemistry values from nine locations in the SURF underground laboratory.

ParameterLocation

4100-1 4100-2 4100-3 4850-1 4850-2 4850-3 4850-4 4850-5 4850-6

Air temperature (°C) 23.9 23.6 23.4 32.2 23.2 29.5 26.2 23.2 23.2

Water temperature (°C) 23.2 23.3 22.4 30.9 29.9 30.5 25.2 21.5 20.9

pH 6.78 7.71 7.90 8.40 8.33 8.39 8.54 8.62 8.29Conductivity (TDS) (mg/L) 8,960 4,400 8,500 580 970 980 1,240 1,900 1,000

Air pressure (mmHg) 721.5 720.9 723.4 737.5 738.4 744.0 742.6 745.0 746.9

Dissolved oxygen 1.6 3.3 4.1 6.4 4.0 6.9 7.4 7.0 6.5NH4

+ (mg/L) 14.5 11.0 18.1 0.4 0.7 1.6 1.4 3.3 2.4Na+ (mg/L) 367.4 365.4 338.0 214.8 341.7 335.9 306.4 569.0 316.2K+ (mg/L) 184.8 112.0 201.8 9.6 16.9 17.0 19.1 32.3 20.3

Mg2+ (mg/L) 2,590 801 2,650 1.1 8.0 2.7 80.1 15.5 20.6Ca2+ (mg/L) 450 303 453 1.5 3.2 2.1 7.0 2.9 9.1Fe2+ (mg/L) 2.31 0.07 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.13 0.03 0.07 0.11

Fe (total) (mg/L) 10 9 1.26 - - - 0.13 - -Ba (mg/L) 22 30 20 - - 49 5 9 18As (μg/L) < 0.1 6 16 - - 17 14 90 38Mn (μg/L) 6,600 41 80 - - 4 1 10 21Sb (μg/L) < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 - - < 0.01 < 0.01 0.7 < 0.01Zn (μg/L) < 88 < 88 < 88 - - < 8.8 < 8.8 < 8.8 < 8.8Cu (μg/L) < 1 < 1 < 1 - - < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1Cr (μg/L) < 1 < 1 < 1 - - < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1Pb (μg/L) < 6 < 6 12 - - < 0.6 < 0.6 < 0.6 < 0.6V (μg/L) < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2 - - < 0.02 < 0.02 3.0 < 0.02

Cd (μg/L) < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2 - - < 0.02 < 0.02 < 0.02 < 0.02Ni (μg/L) < 2 < 2 < 2 - - < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2Se (μg/L) < 27 < 27 < 27 - - < 2.7 < 2.7 < 2.7 < 2.7Ag (μg/L) < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 - - < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01Hg (μg/L) < 1 < 1 < 1 - - < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1Tl (μg/L) < 0.03 < 0.03 < 0.03 - - < 0.003 < 0.003 < 0.003 < 0.003

SO42– (mg/L) 10000 3100 8000 16 130 150 600 510 150

CO32– (mg/L) 0 0 0 - - 58.9 187 209 0


ParameterLocation

4100-1 4100-2 4100-3 4850-1 4850-2 4850-3 4850-4 4850-5 4850-6

HCO3– (mg/L) 362 181 189 - - 557 267 538 688

Cl– (mg/L) 38.7 33.9 83.9 - - 46.6 28.7 55.7 59.3NO3

– (mg/L) 0.6 1.0 0.9 0.8 1.2 1.2 0.7 1.2 0.3Total charge

(cations) (meq/L) 256.8 100.4 261.9 9.8 16.2 15.5 20.8 27.2 16.6

Total charge (anions) (meg/L) 215.2 68.5 172.0 0.3 2.7 15.5 23.9 28.0 16.1

Total alkalinity (CaCO3) (mg/L) 297 148 155 - - 555 531 790 565

Total hardness (CaCO3) (mg/L) 11000 3700 13000 13 45 22 400 77 120

- Test not performed. The < sign indicates that sample concentration was too small to be quantitated, the number following the < sign is the LOD × the dilu-tion factor for that sample.

Table 6. Mean (SD) water chemistry values from two levels of the SURF underground research laboratory. Values in a bold are significantly different (P < 0.05)

ParameterDepth (foot-level)

P4100 4850

Number of samples 3 6Air temperature (°C) 23.6 (0.3) 26.3 (3.8) 0.293

Water temperature (°C) 23.0 (0.5) 26.5 (4.6) 0.241pH 7.5 (0.6) 8.4 (0.1) 0.005

Conductivity (TDS) (mg/L) 7,283.2 (2,510.6) 1,111.9 (439.9) 0.000

Air pressure (mmHg) 721.9 (1.3) 742.4 (3.7) 0.000

Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) 3.0 (1.3) 6.4 (1.2) 0.006

NH4+ (mg/L) 14.5 (3.6) 1.6 (1.1) 0.000

Na+ (mg/L) 356.9 (16.4) 347.3 (117.9) 0.896K+ (mg/L) 166.2 (47.7) 19.2 (7.4) 0.000

Mg2+ (mg/L) 2,013.7 (1,050.7) 21.3 (29.7) 0.002

Ca2+ (mg/L) 401.9 (85.9) 4.3 (3.0) 0.000

Fe2+ (mg/L) 0.8 (1.3) 0.07 (0.04) 0.183Fe (total) (mg/L) 6.8 (4.8) 0.1 0.353

Ba (μg/L) 24.1 (5.2) 20.5 (20.5) 0.784As (μg/L) 8.8 (6.1) 40.5 (30.9) 0.148Mn (μg/L) 2,253.7 (3,799.1) 6.8 (6.0) 0.275


ParameterDepth (foot-level)

P4100 4850

Sb (μg/L) < LOD 0.5 (0.3) N/AZn (μg/L) < LOD 3.1 (3.6) N/ACu (μg/L) < LOD 2.5 (1.9) N/ACr (μg/L) 0.4 (0.7) 0.2 (0.2) 0.565Pb (μg/L) 4.0 (6.9) < LOD N/AV (μg/L) < LOD 0.4 (0.6) N/ACd(μg/L) < LOD 0.06 (0.06) N/ANi (μg/L) < LOD < LOD N/ASe (μg/L) < LOD < LOD N/AAg (μg/L) < LOD < LOD N/AHg (μg/L) < LOD < LOD N/ATl (μg/L) < LOD < LOD N/A

SO42– (mg/L) 7,033.3 (3,550.1) 259.3 (236.1) 0.002

CO32– (mg/L) 0.0 (0.0) 113.7 (100.6) 0.114

HCO3– (mg/L) 244.0 (102.2) 512.5 (176.7) 0.068

Cl– (mg/L) 52.2 (27.6) 47.6 (13.7) 0.780NO3

– (mg/L) 0.8 (0.2) 0.9 (0.4) 0.784Total charge (cations) (meq/L) 206.4 (91.8) 17.7 (5.9) 0.001

Total charge (anions) (meq/L) 151.9 (75.4) 14.4 (11.1) 0.002

Total alkalinity (CaCO3) (mg/L) 200.0 (84.1) 610.3 (120.7) 0.004

Total hardness (CaCO3) (mg/L) 9,286.7 (4,959.3) 111.9 (144.7) 0.002

DISCUSSION

The underground water chemistry results obtained in this study are the first reported for several locations near SURF, and are relatively unique compared to the only other, very limited, investigation. Osburn et al. (2014) measured several parameters in common with our study, including water temperature, pH, con-ductivity, dissolved oxygen, Fe2+, NO3

–, Cl–, SO42–, Mg2+, Ca2+, Na+, K+, Mn, and

HCO3–. Osburn et al. (2014) sampled sites at the 17 Ledge (close to our Sites 4850-

1, 4850-2, & 4850-3) and the 4700-foot level. While environmental hazards pre-vented us from accessing the 4700 level, we could measure the water flowing out of this level at our 4850-4 site. In comparison to the values reported by Osburn et al. (2014) for the 17 Ledge, the values we obtained for dissolved oxygen, Fe2+, Cl–, and K+ concentrations were slightly higher, whereas, temperature, conductivity, NO3

–, SO4

2–, Mg2+, Ca2+, Na+, and HCO3– concentrations were slightly lower. The pH val-

ues we obtained at the 17 Ledge were intermediate of the two replicates reported by


Osburn et al. (2014). In comparison to Osburn’s 4700 data, our 4700 outflow data measured at site 4850-4 were higher in every parameter in common with Osburn et al. (2014) except water temperature, Ca2+, and HCO3

–, which were lower. It was not possible to directly compare manganese concentrations between the two stud-ies however, because the measurements reported by Osburn et al. (2014) were not as precise. These comparisons show that the chemistry of the water in those areas has changed only slightly over a two-year period. The minor differences that did exist could be due to sample site variation; we did not sample the exact same sites that Osburn did. Additionally, unlike Osburn et al. (2014), we could not sample directly at the 4700-foot level, but instead had to sample the outflow from this area on a ramp between the 4700-foot and 4850-foot levels (Site 4850-4).

This study is the first to report significant differences in water chemistry between levels at SURF. The approximately 100-fold differences in calcium and magnesium, nine-fold differences in total hardness, and ten-fold differences in hydrogen ion concentration are particularly dramatic. These differences could be caused by differences in the geology associated with the sampling sites. If the types of rock the water transits through are dissimilar, then dissimilarities in water chemistry may occur. Likewise, similarities in certain water chemistry components between the levels, such as sodium, are likely due to similarities in rock chemistry with respect to this element (Davis et al. 2003).

Another potential explanation for these differences is that the 4850-foot level was flooded for over a year, from January 2008 until May 2009 (Heise and DUSEL Collaboration 2010). This flooding, followed by de-watering could have easily changed the water chemistry at the 4850-foot level when compared to the 4100-foot level that was never flooded. To test this hypothesis, we should sample water at both the 4400-foot and 4550-foot levels, just above and below the 4530-foot level, the highest level of mine flooding. (Heise and DUSEL Collaboration 2010).

Lastly, sulfide-oxidizing bacteria (Voordouw et al. 1996) may contribute to the higher sulfate concentrations found in water from the 4100-foot level. These bac-teria were observed to be present near all three sites on that level. The significant differences in water chemistry between the levels suggest that there may also be different microorganism populations present at each level.

Similar to the significant differences in water chemistry between the levels, the differences in water chemistry among the sites on the same level could be due to differences in rock mineral composition or the microflora associated with each sampling location (Osburn et al. 2014). The unique water chemistry at each site suggests that there is either little water movement among the sampling loca-tions, or if there is water movement, then either rock chemistry or microbes are substantially altering the chemistry of the water as it flows from site to site. For example, the relatively large differences in hardness between site 4100-2 com-pared to the other 4100-foot level locations would appear to indicate a different water source, with a much lower magnesium content.

The primary source of all the water at SURF is ground water recharged by precipitation and stream runoff, with a likely inflow point in the large open cut (former surface mine site) that is connected to the rest of the facility by older drifts (Rahn and Roggenthen 2002). Despite this likely common source, the data


suggest that the water chemistry changes as it passes through the rocks that make up the facility. In a prior study, Stetler (2015) reported lower pH and higher conductivity values in borehole samples (water flowing through the rocks) taken on the 4850-foot level compared to our values from the same level (water exposed to air). These differences could be due to the differences between the sampling methods (borehole vs surface water), or they may be because our sample sites are about one kilometer away from Stetler’s boreholes.

The high manganese concentration from site 4100-1 is most likely due to the high dissolved iron concentration (as opposed to total iron, which also includes suspended particles) of the water because manganese is often found in combi-nation with iron-rich minerals (Nova Scotia Department of the Environment 2008). The very high arsenic concentrations detected in the drift going to the 17 Ledge exceed normal arsenic concentrations in Black Hills water (0.4-4.2 μg/L) (Williamson and Carter 2001) as well as the US EPA drinking water standard of 10 μg/L (United States Environmental Protection Agency 2001). This could be because in these places the water we sampled was in direct contact with rock which is high in arsenopyrites (Davis et al. 2003), rather than having an inter-vening layer of mud/sludge between the rock and the water. More investigation is needed to determine the source of this arsenic, particularly with the upcoming construction of the Long Baseline Neutrino Facility in the area near that drift (Acciarri 2016).

There are major cation-anion imbalances observed for sites 4100-1, 4100-2, 4100-3, 4850-1, and 4850-2. For the two 4850 sites, the imbalance is caused by the lack of chloride data, since chloride could not be determined for those two samples due to insufficient sample material. On the other hand, for the sites on the 4100-foot level, the cation-anion imbalance is most likely due to inaccuracy in the sulfate measurement. The HACH method 8051 used here relies on a turbi-dimetric determination of a precipitate and is inherently less accurate than other photometric methods. In addition, all of these samples had to be diluted between 100- and 1000-fold, greatly reducing the precision of the final measurement.

The differences in magnesium and hardness from water collected at site 4850-4 in comparison to the other 4850-foot level sites could be caused by the water actually having originated at the 4700-foot level. This sampling location was at a point where water from the 4700-foot level flowed down a ramp to the 4850-foot level. We do not know if samples taken from the 4700-foot level would produce similar results because we could not gain access. However, the water chemistry information reported by Osburn et al. (2014) suggests that the results would be similar.

The results of this preliminary study describing the chemistry of water from different locations within SURF provide the foundation for further investigation into the sources and flow of water throughout the facility. In addition, these results also provide the basis for subsequent microbial study. Additional research is needed to determine the influence of rock mineral composition and microbiota on water chemistry at SURF, the possible movement of water among the sites, and the effect of flooding and subsequent dewatering on the water chemistry of the 4850-foot level.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the South Dakota Science and Technology Authority and the guides at SURF for enabling access to the unimproved areas of the facility and Marcelo Guerra for help with the ICP-MS. The ICP-MS itself was obtained using fund-ing from the National Science Foundation Major Research Instrumentation grant (MRI-1429544). Funding for this research was provided by the National Science Foundation, Research Experience for Undergraduates program, Award No. 1560474.

LITERATURE CITED

Acciarri, R. 2016. Long-Baseline Neutrino Facility (LBNF) and Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment (DUNE): Conceptual Design Report. Volume 1: The LBNF and DUNE Projects. arXiv:1601.05471; FERMILAB—DESIGN-2016-01.

Davis, A.D., C J. Webb, and F.W. Beaver. 2003. Hydrology of the Proposed National Underground Science Laboratory at the Homestake Mine in Lead, South Dakota. 2003 SME Annual Meeting, Cincinnati, OH.

Harris, D.C. 1995. Quantitative Chemical Analysis, 4th Edition. W. H. Freeman, New York, NY.

Heise, J., and DUSEL Collaboration. 2010. The Sanford Laboratory at Homestake and the path to DUSEL. Nuclear Physics A 834:805c-808c.

Kegley, S.E. and J. Andrews. 1998. The Chemistry of Water. University Science Books. Sausalito, CA:

Nova Scotia Department of the Environment. 2008. The Drop on Water: Iron and Manganese. Available at https://www.novascotia.ca/nse/water/docs/droponwaterFAQ_IronManganese.pdf. [Cited on July 25, 2016.]

Osburn, M.R., D.E. LaRowe, L.M. Momper, and J.P. Amend. 2014. Chemolithotrophy in the Continental Deep Subsurface: Sanford Underground Research Facility (SURF), USA. Frontiers in Microbiology 5:1-14.

Rahn, P.H., and W.M. Roggenthen. 2002. Hydrogeology of the Homestake Mine. Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science 81:19-25.

Stetler, L.D. 2015. Water geochemistry and pressure buildup in drill holes on the 4850-ft level at the Sanford Underground Research Facility. Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science 94:317-327.

United States Environmental Protection Agency. 2001. Drinking Water Standard for Arsenic. EPA 815-F-00-015.

Voordouw, G., S.M. Armstrong, M.F. Reimer, B. Fouts, A.J. Telang, Y. Shen, and D. Gevertz. 1996. Characterization of 16S rRNA genes from oil field microbial communities indicates the presence of a variety of sulfate-reducing, fermentative, and sulfide-oxidizing bacteria. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 62:1623-1629.

Williamson, E.J., and J.M. Carter. 2001. Water-Quality Characteristics in the Black Hills Area, South Dakota. Rapid City, SD: U.S. Dept. of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey. Water-Resources Investigations Report 01-4194.


A COMPARISON OF TYPES OF INFORMATION ABOUT WEED DISTRIBUTION FROM COUNTIES

IN THE MISSOURI PLATEAU

Mark Gabel and Grace KostelHerbarium

Black Hills State UniversitySpearfish, SD 57799

Corresponding author email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

We noticed inconsistences in county weed distribution data from different sources in the Missouri Plateau. The Missouri Plateau contains 125 counties in five states. Due to the different types of data reported by different agencies, we decided to record presence/absence data for each county. We compared data for four well-established noxious weeds (Cirsium arvense, Euphorbia esula, Tamarix spp., and Lythrum salicaria) common in all five states. To contrast the well-established noxious weeds, we added four weeds that were introduced to the Missouri Plateau between 1989 and 2015. Those species include Alliaria peti-olata, Fallopia sachalinensis, Thymelaea passerina, and Hieracium piloselloides. Of the 1214 county reports of weed presence, the state with the most reports was Montana, with 377 from 41 counties (280,389 km2). Sources of weed informa-tion include three aggregator websites, state departments of agriculture websites, and two herbarium databases. We found that in the cases of the well-established noxious weed species, the aggregator websites had more county records than the herbaria or the departments of agriculture websites. For the newly discovered weeds, the sources of information were nearly equivalent, with the most recent weed discovery not being available on the aggregate or departments of agriculture websites. The aggregator and departments of agriculture sites generally are limited to county level precision or may be based upon reported observations, with no specimens cited. Herbarium data are based on voucher specimens with specific locality data for each citation.

INTRODUCTION

Weeds are often economically important plant species. Leistritz et al. (2004) noted that Euphorbia esula impacted the Northern Great Plains (Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota and Wyoming) by decreasing the grazing capacity by 90,000 cattle, with a direct impact of $37 million and secondary impact of $83 million. Pimentel et al. (2000) reported that weeds in pastures cost about $6 billion per year, while weeds in croplands cost $26.4 billion within the United States. Fuller and Mangold (2017) noted that non-native invasive weed species cause damages of $34 billion annually.


Noxious weeds are declared noxious by the U.S. government or by states. The federal government has declared 112 species to be noxious, but none of the eight species in this study are federally listed as noxious weeds. Most state noxious weeds are well established within the states. State noxious weeds are diverse in number and species among the states of the Missouri Plateau. Newly introduced weeds are generally not declared noxious species.

At the Black Hills State University Herbarium we are asked frequently to identify plant species, including weedy plants. As a part of this work, we also check known distributions of those plants to determine if the species has been previously reported for the locality, and whether the specimen represents a new county or state record. In the course of this work, we desired to determine the most efficient method of finding previous geographical reports of weedy species. The purpose of this study is to compare sources of information about the occur-rence and distribution of weedy plant species in the Missouri Plateau.

METHODS

The study area consists of 125 counties in five states (Figure 1). The five states represented in the Missouri Plateau (Trimble 1980) include Montana (41 coun-ties; 280,395 km2), Nebraska (7; 23,838 km2), North Dakota (30; 113,893 km2), South Dakota (39; 145,970 km2), and Wyoming (8; 75,220 km2).

We categorized sources of information about weeds into three classes, aggrega-tors, state departments of agriculture and herbaria. Aggregators include infor-mation from a variety of sources, and generally use county-level information to report data in the form of maps. The major aggregators are the Biota of North America Program (BONAP; Kartesz 2014), Early Detection and Distribution Maps (EDDMapS, EDDMapS 2017), and the United States Department of Agriculture Plants website (USDA, NRCS 2017). It is difficult to trace data to specific specimens when using aggregator data.

A second class of information is data produced by state departments of agriculture. This information is derived from different methods, even within states. The five states of the Missouri Plateau have different numbers of species declared noxious by state law. The state with the greatest number of noxious weeds in the Missouri Plateau is Montana with 29 species (Montana Weed Control Association 2017). Wyoming has 26 species (Wyoming Department of Agriculture 2017), Nebraska 12 (Nebraska Weed Control Association 2017), North Dakota 11 (North Dakota Department of Agriculture 2017), while South Dakota has only 7 species (South Dakota Department of Agriculture 2017). Discussions with county weed control officers revealed that sources of informa-tion on weeds may vary from reporting number of acres sprayed per year, GIS data of weed infestations, or other methods devised by the officers. These data are usually not specimen based.

A third class of information about weeds is data from herbaria. Two herbaria, the University of Wyoming Rocky Mountain Herbarium (RM 2017) and Black Hills State University Herbarium (BHSC 2017), have specimens with collection


data and mapping information derived from georeferencing of specimens. The BHSC database contains information from 23 herbaria (see Acknowledgements). Notes made by collectors can include comments about the size of the occurrence or numbers of stems present at the site.

We selected species for this study based upon the commonality of state declared noxious weeds. Among the five states, only four plant species have been declared noxious in all five. Those species, the families to which they belong and the year of the earliest specimen in the Missouri Plateau (from the BHSC 2017) are Euphorbia esula (Euphorbiaceae, 1899), Cirsium arvense (Asteraceae, 1929), Tamarix spp. (Tamaricaceae, 1936), and Lythrum salicaria (Lythraceae, 1942). These noxious weed species are well established in the Missouri Plateau.

Tamarix species are lumped here as Tamarix spp. In BONAP there are seven species of Tamarix listed as occurring in the United States. Of those, only T. chinensis is reported to occur in the Missouri Plateau. EDDMapS (West) lists six species of Tamarix, with T. ramosissima, T. chinensis and T. spp. occurring in the Missouri Plateau. The USDA, NRCS site reported 11 species for North America, but mapped only T. chinensis and T. ramosissima on the Missouri Plateau. The departments of agriculture show similar differences. Montana maps their weed occurrences with EDDMapS. The Nebraska Weed Control Association reported T. ramosissima and T. parviflora in the state, but treated Tamarix species as T. spp.

Figure 1. A map of the study area (in color) and county delimitations. Darker shades represent higher density/km2 of species.


The North Dakota Department of Agriculture stated that T. chinensis, T. parvi-flora and T. ramosissima are present, but they are again treated collectively as salt cedar. The South Dakota Department of Agriculture reports that T. aphylla, T. chinensis, T. gallica, T. parviflora and T. ramosissima are all noxious weeds in the state, but distributions of tamarisk are all mapped as salt cedar. The Wyoming Department of Agriculture reports only T. ramosissima as a noxious weed in the state. The taxonomy of Tamarix is difficult, especially due to hybridization of spe-cies, making identification to species difficult, if not impossible, by visual means (Gaskin et al. 2012).

We contrasted the noxious weed species with four species that are recent introductions to the region. Those species and the year of the first record of their introduction (from the BHSC 2017) are Alliaria petiolata (Brassicaceae, 2000), Fallopia sachalinensis (Polygonaceae, 2006), Thymelaea passerina (Thymelaeaceae, 1989), and Hieracium piloselloides (Asteraceae, 2015).

RESULTS

The number of counties (of 125 total counties in the Missouri Plateau) and percent of counties in which each of the selected species of plants are found are shown in Table 1. Numbers of counties and numbers of reports by state are shown in Table 2. The weeds present in the highest percentage of counties are Euphorbia esula (98%) and Cirsium arvense (96%). Unsurprisingly, the more recent introductions are reported as present in fewer counties.

The aggregators are sources of more complete geographic information about noxious weeds than either the departments of agriculture or the herbaria (Figure 2). BONAP reported the largest number of counties occupied by all four noxious weed species. The second largest number of counties to report the four noxious weed species was EDDMapS followed by USDA, NRCS. The state departments of agriculture reported weeds in more counties than either herbarium. The percentage of total counties reporting noxious weeds varies from 39% to 98%.

Table 1. Total number of counties (of 125) and percent of counties reporting spe-cies of selected weeds in the Missouri Plateau.

Species Total Counties Percent of Counties

Euphorbia esula 123 98.4Cirsium arvense 120 96Tamarix spp. 77 61.6Lythrum salicaria 49 39.2Alliaria petiolata 4 3.2Fallopia sachalinense 13 10.4Thymelaea passerina 4 3.2Hieracium piloselloides 1 0.8


Two or more of the sources lacked data for at least one species of the recent introductions (Figure 3). The state departments of agriculture had no informa-tion on any of the new weeds, while one herbarium (BHSC) had verifiable records of all four species. The percentage of total counties reporting the recently introduced weeds varies from 0.8 % to 10.4%.

Figure 2. Sources of information on noxious weed species from the 125 counties of the five states of the Missouri Plateau. BO = Biota of North America Program, ED = Early Detection and Distribution Maps, US = USDA, NRCS, DOA = Departments of Agriculture from the five states (MT, NE, ND, SD, and WY), RM = Rocky Mountain Herbarium (University of Wyoming), BH = Black Hills State University Herbarium. The Y-axis is number of counties reported by weed species based upon the six sources used in the study.

Table 2. Reports of county presence from all eight sources of weed information for the eight species selected for study in the Missouri Plateau Counties.

State Counties No. of Reports

Montana 41 377Nebraska 7 67North Dakota 30 328South Dakota 39 318Wyoming 8 124


DISCUSSION

Factors to consider when choosing a source of information about weed pres-ence in the Missouri Plateau include the completeness of data represented by the source. BONAP clearly has the most counties indicated for the established nox-ious weeds. The BONAP website indicates their data is accumulated from jour-nals, Natural Heritage Programs, specimen vouchers and “additional reference sources.” That site is followed by EDDMapS and USDA, NRCS. For recently introduced weedy species the choice is less clear. None of the above sources include all four recently introduced weed species.

Another factor to consider is the ease of use of the data source. Of the aggre-gators, we found EDDMapS and USDA, NRCS easiest to use. The herbarium databases were straightforward, but were specimen based rather than designed for county level occurrence data; however, searches for species present in any given county can be done using the herbarium databases.

It was not surprising to find that Tamarix and Lythrum were less widely dis-tributed than Euphorbia and Cirsium. Tamarix and Lythrum are found almost exclusively in association with streams or other water bodies occupying much less geographic area relative to more generalized habitat favored by Euphorbia and Cirsium.

The report of Fallopia sachalinensis in 12 counties in Montana reported by USDA, NRCS is open to question. Lesica (2012) in the most recent flora of the state indicates that no specimens of the species have been seen. It is likely that the USDA, NRCS (2017) report is a result of a misidentification. We requested

Figure 3. Number of counties (Y-axis) occupied by four recently introduced weedy spe-cies based upon six information sources (see caption on Figure 2) from the five states of the Missouri Plateau.


clarification from USDA NRCS about the report, but received no reply. Herbaria have a distinct advantage of indisputable proof of the presence of a species with a tangible voucher, rather than reliance on unconfirmed reports.

In evaluating the usefulness of any data source, the motivation of the contribu-tors should be considered. The operators of the aggregator sites considered in this study are motivated to accumulate as many county records for each species as possible. We requested information from the five state departments of agriculture about the methods each state used to acquire data for mapping weed distribution. One person from the Montana Department of Agriculture replied noting that their weed control personnel used EDDMapS. No other responses to our request were received. In personal communications with South Dakota county weed control supervisors, they indicated that some county reports to state agencies are based upon area sprayed with herbicide, some by actual GIS mapping, and some by less quantifiable means. Herbarium databases are based only on specimen data that usually include collector information, precise locality information and gener-ally habitat descriptions.

Selecting more than one type of data source is strongly recommended based upon the type of data required, especially for more recently introduced species. The authors recommend to compilers of data to keep their data current and to coordinate with selected herbaria by providing voucher specimens and GPS location data and by making official voucher deposits with these herbaria. The state departments of agriculture should standardize methods of reporting county data with available aggregators. EDDMapS is suggested because reports of weed species are vetted by a panel of knowledgeable people. The botanists supplying specimens to herbaria should continue to collect weedy species at every opportu-nity and follow-up by checking aggregator websites to verify the species has been recognized and, if appropriate, accounted for by state departments of agriculture.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to acknowledge the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation and the National Science Foundation for their generous support. We appreci-ate the cooperation of the curators of the herbaria who contributed data to the BHSC database. The contributing herbaria are:

Academy of Natural Sciences (PH), PhiladelphiaBadlands National Park (BADL), Interior, South DakotaBlack Hills State University (BHSC), Spearfish, South DakotaDakota Wesleyan University (DWU), Mitchell, South DakotaDevils Tower National Monument (DETO), Sundance, WyomingJewel Cave National Monument (JECA), Custer, South DakotaMilwaukee Public Museum (MIL), Milwaukee, WisconsinMinot State University (CMSC), Minot, North DakotaMontana State University (MSUB), BillingsMount Rushmore National Memorial (MORU), Keystone, South Dakota


North Dakota State University (NDA), FargoSouth Dakota State University (SDC), BrookingsThe Kriebel Herbarium (PUL), Purdue, IndianaTheodore Roosevelt National Memorial Park (THRO), Medora, North DakotaUnited States Forest Service, Black Hills National Forest (Spearfish, Custer,

Newcastle, Sundance)United States Forest Service Research Station, Rapid City, SDUniversity of Kansas (KANU), Lawrence, KansasUniversity of Montana (MONTU), MissoulaUniversity of Nebraska, Lincoln (NEB), Bessey HerbariumUniversity of North Dakota (GFND), Grand ForksUniversity of South Dakota (SDU), VermillionUniversity of Wyoming Rocky Mountain Herbarium (RM), Laramie, WyomingWind Cave National Park (WICA), Hot Springs, South Dakota

LITERATURE CITED

BHSC (Black Hills State University Herbarium). 2017. Database of vascular plants of the Missouri Plateau. http://www.bhsu.edu/Research/Centers/Herbarium/Database.aspx. Accessed March 2017.

EDDMaps. 2017. Early Detection and Distribution Maps. University of Georgia - Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health. Available at https://www.eddmaps.org/. [Cited March 2017].

Fuller, K.B. and J. Mangold. 2017. The costs of noxious weeds: what you can do about them. Available at http://www.msuextension.org/BSSA/assets/docs/ss2017noxiousweedcosts.pdf. [Cited March 2017].

Gaskin, J.F., A.S. Birken and D.J. Cooper. 2012. Levels of novel hybridiza-tion in the saltcedar invasion compared over seven decades. Biol. Invasions 14:693-699.

Kartesz, J.T. 2014, and continuously updated. The Biota of North America Program (BONAP). Taxonomic Data Center, Chapel Hill, NC. . Available at http://www.bonap.net/tdc. [Cited March 2017].

Leistritz, F.L., D.A. Bangsund and N.M Hodur. 2004. Assessing the Economic Impact of Invasive Weeds: The Case of Leafy Spurge (Euphorbia esula). Weed Technology 18:1392-1395.

Lesica, P. 2012. Manual of Montana Vascular Plants. BRIT Press, Fort Worth, TX.

Montana Weed Control Association. 2017. Montana Noxious Weeds. Available at http://mtweed.org/weeds/. [Cited August 2017].

Nebraska Weed Control Association. 2017. Nebraska Noxious Weeds. Available at http://www.neweed.org/Weeds.aspx. [Cited August 2017].

North Dakota Department of Agriculture. 2017. 2016 Noxious Weed Survey. Available at http://agdepartment.vision-technology.com/weedsurvey/report.aspt. [Cited August 2017].


Pimentel, D., L. Lach, R. Aunga and D. Morrrison. 2000. Environmental and economic costs of nonindigenous species in the United States. BioScience 50:53-65.

RM (Rocky Mountain Herbarium). 2017. University of Wyoming. Available at http://rmh.uwyo.edu/data/search.php. [Cited March 2017].

South Dakota Department of Agriculture. 2017. State Noxious Weed and Pest List. Available at https://sdda.sd.gov/ag-services/weed-and-pest-control/weed-pest-control/sd-state-noxious-weed-declared-pest-list-and-distribu-tion-maps/. [Cited August 2017].

Trimble, D.E. 1980. The geologic story of the Great Plains. U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1493.

USDA, NRCS. 2017. The PLANTS Database, National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA. Available at http://plants.usda.gov. [Cited March 2017].

Wyoming Department of Agriculture. 2017. Wyoming Weed & Pest Control Act State Designated Weeds and Pests. Available at https://www.wyoweed.org/images/Designated_List.pdf. [Cited August 2017].


FATES OF OVULES IN GROUNDPLUM MILK-VETCH (ASTRAGALUS CRASSICARPUS NUTT.)

IN SOUTH DAKOTA

Arvid Boe1* and Paul J. Johnson2

1Agronomy, Horticulture, and Plant Science Department2Insect Biodiversity LaboratorySouth Dakota State University

Brookings, SD 57007

ABSTRACT

Groundplum milk-vetch (Astragalus crassicarpus Nutt.) is a native legume found on gravelly to sandy prairie uplands throughout central North America. The large and fleshy fruits, or pods, of this species were consumed by indigenous people and European settlers, and are cached by rodents. Our previous research on native legumes of the northern Great Plains indicated seed predation by insects, notably bruchid beetles belonging to the genus Acanthoscelides Schilsky, was a dominant factor determining viable seed production in natural and artificial plant assemblages. However, although we have studied the reproductive biology of several species of Astragalus L., none had fleshy pods. Therefore, the objective of this study was to quantify the factors influencing viable seed production in nat-ural populations of GPMV in South Dakota. Mature pods were collected from two natural populations on the South Dakota State University Oak Lake Field Station during July 2000 and from one natural population on the Grand River National Grassland near Lodgepole, SD, in July 2003. Pods were dissected and number of ovules that: 1) produced viable seed, 2) were unfertilized, 3) produced aborted seed, and 4) produced seeds that were predated by larvae of the bruchid beetle Acanthoscelides fraterculus (Horn) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Bruchinae) were recorded for each of the two valves of individual pods. Our results indicated average seed set, i.e., percent of ovules that produced viable seed not predated, was about 55%, averaged across populations. Unfertilized ovules were 42% of the total. Predation by the bruchid beetle occurred in about 2% of the developed seeds, with aborted seed making up the rest of the ovule total. About 35% of pods infested contained larvae, or adults that were immured within the pod while attempting to exit, presumably due to the thick and leathery layers of the ovary wall. Predispersal seed predation was a relatively minor factor in the reduction of viable seed set in GPMV in South Dakota.

Keywords

Bruchid beetle, Acanthoscelides fraterculus, seed predation, unfertilized ovules, seed set


INTRODUCTION

Groundplum milk-vetch (Astragalus crassicarpus Nutt.) (GPMV) is a native legume commonly found in sandy-gravelly prairies throughout South Dakota (Van Bruggen 1985). Its natural range in the United States is west of a line from Arkansas to Minnesota (Barneby 1964). Pods of this species have long been eaten, fresh or dried, by indigenous Americans and European settlers, and rodents cache the pods for consumption during the winter (Stubbendieck and Conard 1989).

There is increasing interest in North America in the use of native legumes for forage, biofuel, conservation, revegetation, biodiversity enhancement, roadside beautification, and pollinator habitat (Cane et al. 2013; Kaye 1999). However, seed predation by insects may limit the availability of viable seed (Boe et al. 1988). Seed beetles in the genus Acanthoscelides Schilsky (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Bruchinae) are primary seed predators of native legumes (Johnson 1970) in the northern Great Plains (Boe and Johnson 2008a,b; Boe and Johnson 2015; Boe and Johnson 2016).

Johnson (1979) reported Acanthoscelides fraterculus (Horn) collected from pods of GPMV in Colorado and Manitoba. Kingsolver (2004) also listed GPMV, as well as 12 other species of Astragalus Linnaeus as a host for A. fraterculus, but did not provide collection site information. Trelease and Trelease (1937) reported A. fraterculus predation on seeds of two-grooved poisonvetch (A. bisulcatus (A. Gray)) containing 1475 ppm of selenium. We also collected A. fraterculus adults that emerged from pods of two-grooved poisonvetch growing in seleniferous soil on rangeland in northeastern Montana (unpublished data).

Although pods of ground-plum milk-vetch are of food value to humans and wildlife, little is known about its reproductive biology, including seed production and seed predators. Pods of GPMV have several unique morphological character-istics (Barneby 1964) relative to the other 25 or so species of Astragalus that occur in South Dakota (Van Bruggen 1985). In particular, the tardy indehiscence of the pods of GPMV provide a unique opportunity to conduct a comparative study of the various factors that influence viable seed production in native legumes. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to: 1) determine rates of ovule fer-tilization and normal seed development, unfertilized ovules, seed abortion, and seed predation in natural populations of GPMV in eastern and western South Dakota, and 2) identify and elucidate aspects of the life histories of seed preda-tors of GPMV.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Mature pods were collected from plants growing on shoulder/backslope posi-tions of south-facing slopes on natural grasslands in eastern and western South Dakota. The eastern SD sites were located in tallgrass prairie on glacial moraine (Buse-Langhei loam soil) on the South Dakota State University Oak Lake Field Station (OLFS) (44.5115 N, 96.5311 W). Two populations of GPMV, here-after referred to as OLFS-S (south) and OLFS-N (north), separated by about


2 km, were sampled. The western SD site was located in mixed-grass prairie on the Grand River National Grassland (GRNG) (45.8150 N, 102.5494 W) on a Reeder-Lantry loam soil. Collections were made during July 1999 on the OLFS and during July 2003 on the GRNG.

At each site, pods were collected from racemes lying on the soil surface. For the OLFS-S population, pods from six individual plants were placed in separate paper bags; whereas for the OLFS-N population pods were collected from only one plant. Not all of the plants in a population possessed pods, presumably due to pod predation by rodents. At the GRNG site, pods from two plants were placed in a single bag. Pods were stored in paper bags at room temperature until the following spring, at which time 30 individual pods from each population were split with a scalpel into their two complete valves along the medial suture between the septa (Figure 1). The exposed leathery endocarpal walls that covered the locules were removed with forceps to expose the contents (Figure 2), which were examined for determination of frequencies of ovule-fate categories (i.e., nor-mal seed, predated seed, aborted seed, and unfertilized ovules (Figure 3).

Fifty randomly selected individual pods from each of the two populations at OLFS were weighed on an electronic balance with centigram accuracy to deter-mine variation between and within populations for pod weight.

Chi-squared analysis was used to determine if frequencies of occurrence of the four ovule-fate categories were independent of population. Analyses of variance were conducted to determine the relative importance of among population, among pods within populations, and between valves within pods within popula-tion sources of variation for explaining variation for of each of the four ovule-fate categories (i.e., normal seed, aborted seed, predated seed, and unfertilized ovule).

Figure 1. Individual valve of pod from Grand River National Grassland; endocarp (i.e., septum) covering the locule is adnate for about 2/3 of the inner margin.


Figure 2. Placentae attached to the ovary wall with ovules extending into the locule of the valve for the pod of groundplum milk-vetch from the Grand River National Grassland.

Figure 3. Normal seed (left), predated seed (center) and unfertilized ovules and aborted

seed (right) of groundplum milk-vetch from the Grand River National Grassland.

RESULTS

At the OLFS site, plants from both populations had fully developed fleshy green pods, which were turning red on the exposed surface by 15 June 1999. These pods contained rapidly developing green seeds, as well as unfertilized ovules, in the same valve. On 26 June, seeds appeared fully developed, size wise, but were still green and the contents watery; also, early instar larvae of Acanthoscelides fraterculus were feeding on seeds inside the pods. On 3 July, pods had begun to dry and wrinkle, and by 12 July, pods were characteristically shriveled, rugose, and firm. On 26 July when mature pods were collected for


ovule-fate data collection and analysis, late instar larvae and pupae of A. fratercu-lus were active within pods. Similar phenological observations for pod, seed, and insect development were not possible for the population at the GRNG site due to a single evaluation/collection activity.

Acanthoscelides fraterculus (Figures 4) was the only seed predator observed feed-ing on seeds of GPMV during this study. Also, no hymenopterous parasitoids of A. fraterculus were encountered. We observed the empty egg chorions of A. frater-culus, usually oviposited singly, in depressions in the outer layer of the rugose pod. Entrance holes made by early instar larvae were nearby. If larvae survived to produce adults, they consumed the cotyledons of several, but usually not most, of the seeds in the locule, leaving relatively intact testas in the locule (Figure 3).

Pod weight varied widely within populations. However, no difference occurred between the two populations at OLFS for pod weight. Mean pod weight for a sample of 96 pods (48 from each of the two populations) was 0.36 ± 0.009 g, ranging from 0.15 g to 0.71 g.

Chi-squared analysis indicated that frequency of ovule fate was not indepen-dent of population (χ2 = 149.4, P < 0.001). For example, OLFS-N had a four times higher frequency (0.15) for aborted seed and a three times lower frequency (0.03) for predated seeds than the other two populations (0.05). Frequencies for normal seeds and unfertilized ovules were similar for the three populations. Mean number of ovules • valve–1 ranged from 16.6 for GRNG to 28.7 for OLFS-S (Table 1).

Intraclass correlations calculated from variance components generated from analysis of variance indicated about 55% of the variation for number of normal seeds • valve–1 was due to variation among pods within populations. Whereas, 35 % of the variation was associated with variation between valves within pods, and 10 % was associated with variation among populations. Similar associations were found for variation in number of unfertilized ovules and number of predated seeds valve–1.

About 35% of the pods infested by A. fraterculus contained dead early instar larvae in at least one of the valves or dead adults that expired within a tunnel they had chewed in the wall of the pod during attempted exits (Figure 5).

Due to their arrangement, individual placentae were readily noted under low magnification (3X), from their attachment on the wall of the ovary to suspension of their ovules in the locule of the valve. Number of placentae did not always match the number of ovules due to what appeared to be placental and/or ovular atrophy.

Table 1. Means and standard errors (in parenthesis) for fates of all ovules for individual valves for 30 pods from each of three populations of groundplum milk-vetch from South Dakota.

Ovule Fate (No. • valve–1)

Population Normal seed Aborted seed Unfertilized ovules Predated seed

Grand River 8.6 (0.7) 0.6 (0.1) 6.3 (0.5) 1.1 (0.3)Oak Lake S. 13.2 (0.9) 1.7 (0.2) 10.9 (2.1) 2.9 (0.8)Oak Lake N. 10.7 (0.6) 3.5 (0.3) 8.8 (0.4) 0.6 (0.3)


Figure 4. Acanthoscelides fraterculus; top dorsal habitus, lower lateral habitus.

Figure 5. Adult Acanthoscelides fraterculus immured in valve of Astragalus crassicarpus.


DISCUSSION

Although Johnson (1979) listed A. fraterculus as a seed predator of GPMV, no estimates of this species’ impact on seed production of GMPV were available prior to the current study. The levels of seed predation reported here were much lower than we have observed for other bruchid beetle-legume seed associations in the northern Great Plains (e.g., Boe et al. 1988; Boe and Johnson 2015; Boe and Johnson 2016) and were also lower than what others observed for A. frater-culus in native species of Astragalus in the western USA (Green and Palmblad 1975; Cane et al. 2013). Also, this is only the second bruchid beetle-legume seed interaction (Boe and Johnson 2015) for which we have not encountered chal-cidoid (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) parasitoids of the bruchid seed predator. However, the current collections were quite limited in terms of numbers of pods, geographic range, and number of years (Kaye 1999).

The significance of lack of fertilization as a factor reducing seed production was much greater than in a study on Astragalus australis (L.) Lam. var. olympicus Isely by Kaye (1999) in the Pacific Northwest. In that study, seed production was reduced by predispersal seed predation by a Tychius sp. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), seed abortion, and lack of fertilization, in that order of importance.

The relatively high frequency of the failure of adults of A. fraterculus to exit the pods of GPMV suggested that the morphology (i.e., three layers) and thick-ness of the wall of the valve of GPMV (Barneby 1964) provided formidable impediments to adult emergence. The inner and outer layers of the valve are firm and leathery, whereas the central and much thicker layer is pithy. Several of the expired adults that we observed had traversed the inner and central layers and had begun chewing through the outer layer, but failed to exit. This produced what appears to be a case of immurement involving the inability of A. fraterculus adults to leave the confines of their host pod.

The large variation among individual pod morphologies and weights within individual plants within populations was indicative of wide variation for valve/locule size and number of ovules • valve–1. However, even the smallest pods with less than 10 ovules • valve–1 still had unfertilized ovules. The analysis of variance and estimates of variance components was also informative regarding variation among pods within populations, since most of the variation in ovule and seed numbers could be explained by this factor.

Similar to several other native legumes (e.g., Boe and Johnson 2016), germi-nation tests of seeds of GPMV from a native prairie in eastern South Dakota indicated high levels of hard seed, but high germination rates after scarification (Sorensen and Holden 1974). Because of its adaptation to erodible land and its palatability to livestock and wildlife, GPMV is an attractive candidate for reveg-etation, roadside habitat enhancement, and other conservation activities. Results of this study quantified the major factors that would limit seed production for commercial purposes and identified ineffective pollination as having a greater negative impact than seed predators (i.e., A. fraterculus) on potential seed yield.


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We gratefully acknowledge support for this research provided by a grant from the Oak Lake Research Incentive Program and to Dr. Nels Troelstrup, Director of the Oak Lake Field Station, for his support and assistance during the study. Sophia Conzemius and Jordan Purintum are thanked for their helpful reviews on the penultimate manuscript draft. We would also like to thank personnel at the USDA Forest Service Grand River Ranger District Office, Grand River National Grassland & Cedar River National Grassland, Lemmon, SD, and Bismarck, ND, (Dakota Prairie Grassland Supervisor’s Office) for their support of our research on legume ecology on the Grand River National Grassland.

LITERATURE CITED

Barneby, R.C. 1964. Atlas of North American Astragalus. Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden No. 13.

Boe, A., and P.J. Johnson. 2008a. Seed predators of Canada milk-vetch and their parasitoids. Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science 87:229-236.

Boe, A., and P.J. Johnson. 2008b. Seed predation by Acanthoscelides submuticus and A. pallidipennis (Coleopera: Bruchidae) in false indigo in the north-ern Great Plains. Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science 87:223-228.

Boe, A., and P.J. Johnson. 2015. First report of seed predators of Platte milk-vetch Astragalus plattensis Nutt. Ex. T. & G. Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science 94:305-309.

Boe, A., and P.J. Johnson. 2016. Reproductive biology of American lico-rice (Glycyrrhiza lepidota Pursh) in western South Dakota with new seed insect associations. Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science 95:91-103.

Boe, A., B. McDaniel, and K. Robbins. 1988. Patterns of American licorice seed predation by Acanthoscelides aureolus (Horn) (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) in South Dakota. Journal of Range Management 41:342-345.

Cane, J.H., C. Johnson, J.R. Napoles, D.A. Johnson, and R. Hammon. 2013. Seed-feeding beetles (Bruchinae, Curculonidae, Brentidae) from legumes (Dalea ornata, Astragalus filipes) and other forbs needed for restoring range-lands of the Intermountain West. Western North American Naturalist 73:477-484.

Green, T.W., and I.G. Palmblad. 1975. Effects of insect seed predators on Astragalus cibarius and Astragalus utahensis (Leguminosae). Ecology 56:1435-1440.

Johnson, C.D. 1970. Biosystematics of the Arizona, California, and Oregon spe-cies o the seed beetle genus Acanthoscelides Schilsky. University of California Publications in Entomology Volume 59. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.


Johnson, C.D. 1979. New host records for Acanthoscelides (Coleoptera: Bruchidae). The Pan-Pacific Entomologist 55:61-71.

Kaye, T.N. 1999. From flowering to dispersal: Reproductive ecology of an endemic plant, Astragalus australis var. olympicus (Fabaceae). American Journal of Botany 86:1248-1256.

Kingsolver, J.M. 2004. Handbook of the Bruchidae of the United States and Canada. USDA-ARS Technical Bulletin No. 1912. Volume I.

Sorensen, J.T., and D.E. Holden. 1974. Germination of native prairie forb seeds. Journal of Range Management 27:123-126.

Stubbendieck, J., and E.C. Conard. 1989. Common legumes of the Great Plains. University of Nebraska Press. Lincoln, NE.

Trelease, S.F., and H.M. Trelease. 1937. Toxicity to insects and mammals of foods containing selenium. American Journal of Botany 24:448-451.

Van Bruggen, T. 1985. The vascular plants of South Dakota. 2nd ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA.


THIN SECTION MICROSCOPY OF THE FOSSIL FISH CYLINDRACANTHUS

Barbara S. Grandstaff1, Rodrigo A. Pellegrini2, David C. Parris2*, and Donald Clements2

1School of Veterinary MedicineUniversity of Pennsylvania

3800 Spruce StreetPhiladelphia, PA 19104-6045

2New Jersey State Museum205 West State Street

PO Box 530Trenton, NJ 08625-0530

*corresponding author email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Since discovery of the definitive specimen of Cylindracanthus in the Verendrye Formation of Hyde County, South Dakota, new interest has been focused this genus, known only from its distinctive rostral spines. Hypothetically linked to ascip-enseriform (sturgeon-like) fishes, the spines, found in circum-Atlantic Cretaceous to Eocene marine formations, have been examined in thin sections for more than a century. We have expanded this range of microscopy to include detailed descrip-tion of the tooth pedicels, examination of possible lesions and healed bony tissue, and petrography of the fossil, and probable functional anatomy. We have repeated the historical comparative studies with modern billfish specimens. Billfish rostral structure has no real resemblance (structural or mineralogical) to Cylindracanthus. The tooth base attachments in billfish are subdermal. In contrast, the tooth base structures and the lesions and damaged surfaces in Cylindracanthus give no evidence of having been subdermal. We have also expanded our comparative histological research to include Polyodon (paddlefishes) and Acipenser (sturgeons).

Although fish teeth are typically acrodont (i. e., fused to the oral surfaces of the jaw and palatal elements), the teeth of Cylindracanthus are functionally pleur-odont, attached along (in fact, within) a groove, from which they protrude only slightly. The teeth point backwards toward the mouth (away from the tapered end of the rostrum). Hypothetically, the teeth could function in predation by causing damage during a stabbing motion of the rostral spine; they would be useless in a striking and/or slapping motion. The teeth would be highly effective in head-on attacks of shelled cephalopods, such as ammonites. This would have been advan-tageous during the Cretaceous Period but of no value later during the Eocene, after the ammonites had become extinct. We conjecture that the teeth became vestigial after the K-Pg event, as they are unknown in Cenozoic specimens.

Keywords

Cylindracanthus, Cretaceous, Eocene, histology


INTRODUCTION

Agassiz (1833-1843) used the name Coelorhynchus for fossils which he identi-fied as probable rostral elements. Leidy (1857a) independently gave the name Cylindracanthus to fossils from New Jersey and Alabama which he interpreted as dorsal fin spines. He later (1857b) noted that his Cylindracanthus fossils resem-bled figures of Coelorhynchus published by Dixon (1850). Leriche (1905) pro-posed the name Glyptorhynchus to replace Coelorhynchus because Coelorhynchus was preoccupied by a chimaeroid, and noted that Glyptorhynchus is similar to the rostrum of Blochius. Glyptorhynchus is now considered a junior synonym of Cylindracanthus (Purdy et al. 2001). Smith-Woodward (1888, 1891) believed that Cylindracanthus (Coelorhynchus) was a fin spine. Histologic studies by Williamson (1849) and Carter (1927) did not clearly identify these fossils as either fin spines or rostra. Thus both anatomic and taxonomic interpretations of Cylindracanthus remain subject to question (Friedman 2012).

Our understanding of Cylindracanthus has advanced greatly in recent years. A specimen from South Dakota (SDSM 30638) was instrumental in confirming that this enigmatic fossil is a rostrum: this specimen preserves both teeth and ring-shaped tooth pedicels (Figure 1A). The tooth pedicels form elevations on the bottoms of two wider grooves that extend over the entire preserved length of the specimen. Teeth occupy the tops of many of the pedicels (Parris et al. 2001). Tooth crowns and pedicels are also preserved on a specimen from the Bluffport Marl Member of the Demopolis Chalk in Marengo County, Alabama, ASM-PV 994.2.111 (Parris et al. 2001). Both tooth-bearing specimens are Late Cretaceous in age. Other Cretaceous specimens, including Leidy’s type material from New Jersey (ANSP 5186-5188) and the Cretaceous specimen that was sectioned for this study (Figure 1C) preserve tooth pedicels but do not preserve any teeth. Some Eocene specimens from North Carolina (Figure 1B, D) and Alabama (Parris et al. 2001) preserve tooth pedicels; these specimens also lack associated teeth. No tooth crowns were preserved with any of the Eocene specimens we have examined to date. Tooth pedicels in Eocene specimens are smaller than those in Cretaceous specimens (Parris et al. 2001). Tooth pedicels on the New Jersey Cretaceous specimen are about 1mm across. Tooth pedicels on the North Carolina Eocene specimens are about 0.4mm across.

Absence of tooth crowns in most of the specimens that preserve tooth pedicels suggests the teeth are easily lost post mortem. Both of the Cylindracanthus speci-mens that preserve teeth (SDSM 30638 and ASM-PV 994.2.111) were recovered from sediments which record low energy depositional environments (shale and chalk respectively).

Tooth pedicels are not preserved in all Eocene specimens. Their absence might be taphonomic given that some Cylindracanthus specimens show significant loss of surface detail due to transport abrasion. The pedicels in Cylindracanthus occupy a relatively protected position at the bottoms of the surface grooves, however, and some relatively unworn Eocene specimens (such as ASM-PV 989.4.200) lack tooth pedicels. Fierstine (2001) reported that tooth pedicels are found on only some Cylindracanthus specimens. Teeth and tooth pedicels may have been entirely lacking in some Eocene members of this genus.


Distribution of Cylindracanthus. Cylindracanthus fossils have been found in North America, Europe, and Africa. Specimens of Cylindracanthus range from Cenomanian (Vullo et al. 2009) to Eocene (Leriche 1905; Fierstine 2001) in age, and Cylindracanthus has been reported from rocks as young as Miocene (Adnet et al. 2010). The South Dakota specimen (SDSM 30638) comes from the Verendrye Formation of the Pierre Shale Group (Campanian). Other speci-mens included in this study were recovered from the Cretaceous and Eocene of Alabama, the Eocene of North Carolina, and the Cretaceous of New Jersey.

Figure 1. Cretaceous (A, C) and Eocene (B, D) specimens. Arrows indicate locations of tooth-bearing grooves. A. South Dakota Cretaceous specimen SDSM 30638 showing one of two grooves in which tooth pedicels and teeth are located. B. Eocene from North Carolina. The two wider grooves with tooth pedicels are visible running down the center


of the specimen. A and B are at the same scale. C. New Jersey Cretaceous specimen donated by Mr. Tony Fabian prior to sectioning. A line of tooth pedicels is visible running along the length of the specimen. Scale is in millimeters. The specimen as figured here was sacrificed; it is now preserved as histologic slides NJSM PH1 through NJSM PH7. D. Eocene specimen from North Carolina showing a closer view of the tooth pedicels in wider grooves near the middle and bottom of the image. C and D are at the same scale to facilitate comparison of tooth pedicel sizes in Cretaceous and Eocene specimens; scale is in millimeters. The specimen figured in B and D is in the private collection of Mr. Eric Sadorf.

METHODS

Transverse and longitudinal histologic thin sections were made through tooth pedicels on a Cretaceous Cylindracanthus specimen from New Jersey (now NJSM PH1 through PH7) and an Eocene Cylindracanthus specimen from North Carolina (NJSM 24275). Lesions on a second Eocene specimen from North Carolina (NJSM 24276) were sectioned. No Cylindracanthus teeth were sectioned due to the extreme rarity of tooth-bearing specimens. Transverse and longitudinal histologic sections were made on segments removed from the middle of the bill and predentary of an Atlantic blue marlin taxidermy mount (Makaira cf. nigricans, NJSM TC1061). One marlin bill longitudinal section was oriented horizontally to sample histology along the length of the tooth-bearing band that covers the lateral aspect of the bill. Polyodon (paddlefish) sections were cut from a dermal scale removed near the edge of the rostrum about a quarter of the way behind the tip of the rostrum and from the rostral portion of one of the nasal bones of a desiccated head collected from the Missouri River banks south of Yankton, South Dakota (NJSM B477). The Polyodon dermal scale was sectioned horizontally, parallel to its surface. Both a transverse section and a vertical (para-sagittal) longitudinal section were made of the paddlefish nasal bone.

Histologic sections were prepared at the New Jersey State Museum by one of us (R.A.P). Fossil specimens were impregnated with Epo-tek 301 epoxy resin before thin sectioning; impregnation was done under vacuum to minimize bubbles. The modern Polyodon specimens were not impregnated prior to sectioning. Both transverse (mediolateral) and longitudinal (anteroposterior) histologic sections were made of Cylindracanthus, Makaira, and Polyodon. All thin sections were cut using a low-deformation wafer saw, ground flat on lap tables, then hand-finished and mounted on glass slides. Slide-mounted samples were processed on a Hillquist thin-section machine and hand polished to appropriate thickness for histologic study (approximately 0.1mm). Final polishing was done using cerium oxide from Covington Engineering. Photomicrographs were made using a Canon Rebel XSi EOS 450D camera and Clearshot 600 Digital Camera Adapter System for Canon SLR cameras from Alexis Scientific fitted to an Amscope Trinocular Polarizing Microscope. Photographs were made under both plane-polarized and cross-polarized light. The same Canon Rebel camera was used to make macro-photographs of intact specimens. Measurements on gross specimens were made with a bar caliper.


Institutional Abbreviations. Specimens mentioned in this study are reposited at the Academy of Natural Sciences of Drexel University (ANSP), the Alabama Museum of Natural History (ASM), the New Jersey State Museum (NJSM), and the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology (SDSM). All histologic slides are reposited at the New Jersey State Museum’s paleohistology collection (NJSM PH). The South Dakota Cylindracanthus, SDSM 30638, was collected from SDSM locality V9544. One specimen figured herein (Figure 1B, D) is in the private collection of Mr. Eric Sadorf of North Carolina.

RESULTS

The structure of Cylindracanthus is unusual in that the rostrum is made up of numerous wedge-shaped elements surrounding a central canal (paired at the base) that extends the length of the rostrum. Each wedge forms a ridge on the surface of the rostrum. Except for the presence of tooth pedicels and associated tissues, the transverse and longitudinal histologic sections of the Cretaceous (Figure 2A, B) and Eocene (Figure 2C, D) Cylindracanthus specimens in this study show the same fan-shaped array of small tubules within each wedge-shaped plate and the same porous zone between plates reported by Williamson (1849) and Carter (1927). The tooth pedicels are located in two wider inter-wedge grooves on the ventral side of the rostrum. Tooth pedicels are supported by a zone of irregular dense tissue that lacks the tubules seen within the wedges. Vascular channels lead into the tooth pedicels from deep within the rostrum.

Histologic sections of the tooth pedicels of NJSM 24275 (Figure 2D) resemble the acro-protothecodontal attachment described by Gaengler (2000). Tooth pedicels in all of the specimens we have examined conform to Gaengler’s group 4 acro-protothecodont attachment type, in which teeth are attached to the pedicel by a ring of connective tissue fibers and the pedicel is fused to the underlying jaw. Tooth pedicels are hollow, and had a pulp cavity. The teeth sit with their bases directly against the top surface of the hollow pedicels (Figure 2D, 3A). Tooth surfaces are covered by enamel, which forms a translucent cap at the tips of the teeth (Figure 3B). The teeth are recurved, with the tip of each tooth extending caudal to its base.

Pitting was observed in two places on one North Carolina specimen (NJSM 24276, Figure 3C). This pitting could represent pathologic lesions or in vivo traumatic damage to the rostrum. The pits do not appear to have been produced by taphonomic abrasion to the specimen, since the pit edges and ridged surface texture of the specimen are not very worn. The bottoms of the pits have an irregu-lar surface, with variable depth. The pits have irregular edges that are undercut by zones of tissue loss. Their overall appearance is unlike pits produced by boring organisms or by tooth punctures. The pits are much wider and deeper than the shallow “feeding trace” grooves observed on another North Carolina specimen, NJSM 24278. Histologic sections were made across both lesions on NJSM 24276. While the lesions have irregular surfaces and extend almost to the central cavity of the rostrum, they lack any clear indication of activity by either

Figure 2. Transverse histologic sections under plane-polarized light. A. NJSM PH1. Plates flanking the tooth row in the rostrum of a Cretaceous specimen from New Jersey. Tissue associated with the tooth pedicels is visible in the center of the image. The growth lines described by Williamson (1849), which are essentially parallel to the ridge surface, are labeled. B. NJSM PH1. Tissue lying within the tooth-bearing groove in the New Jersey Cretaceous specimen (arrow) at higher magnification. Williamson’s growth lines do not penetrate into the tissue wedge associated with the tooth pedicels. The tubules (labeled) that were described by both Williamson (1849) and Carter (1927) can be seen fanning out from the ridge core. These tubules also do not penetrate the tooth groove tissue. C. NJSM PH9. Tips of several plates making up the rostrum in NJSM 24275, an Eocene specimen from North Carolina. Each plate forms a ridge on the surface of the rostrum. Two of the ridges can be seen coalescing in the middle of this image. A fan of radiating tubules is visible in the upper portion of each plate (ridge). D. NJSM PH8. Tooth pedicel (arrow) in NJSM 24275 (Eocene, North Carolina). Tubules are visible in the ridges flanking the tooth-bearing groove but do not extend into the tissue under-lying the pedicel. This tooth pedicel is nearly centered in its groove, but pedicels can also be confluent with one of the two ridges which border the tooth-bearing groove.


osteoclasts or osteoblasts (Figure 3D). No osteocyte lacunae are visible in associa-tion with either lesion. A second North Carolina specimen, collected by one of us (D. C.), also has surface pits. This specimen (NJSM 24279) is quite worn and the pit edges are rounded, suggesting they could result from taphonomic modi-fication. This specimen comes from near the distal end of the rostrum, in the area where the central canal is small. It has not yet been sectioned.

Wall thickness (the distance between the outer surface of the canal and the surface of the specimen) and central canal diameter vary along the length of the Cylindracanthus rostrum. The wall is comparatively thin and the central canal is wide at the base of the rostrum. It is thicker, relative to the central canal in the distal part of the rostrum. The central canal at the base of NJSM 24277, an Eocene specimen from the Castle Hayne Formation in North Carolina, is about 8 mm wide and 6 mm high; basal wall thickness of this specimen is about 3 mm. Diameter of the canal is only about 3 mm closer to the tip of the rostrum, with a wall thickness of about 4 mm. In the Cretaceous South Dakota specimen (SDSM 30638), the central cavity is about 4 mm wide at the caudal end of the specimen, with a wall thickness of about 5 mm. Closer to the tip of the South Dakota specimen the central cavity is about 3 mm across, and the wall thickness is about 3 mm. The thin proximal walls of the rostrum could have represented a zone of weakness during lateral strikes. Any inherent weakness in the basal part of Cylindracanthus rostra might explain why the rostra are always found in isolation, with no associated skeletal elements.

The distal end of the rostrum is preserved in the Cretaceous Alabama specimen, ASM-PV994.2.111 (Figure 3E). In this specimen, the top of the rostrum is quite worn, yet its base is relatively unworn and retains sharply defined ridges. The tip wear does not appear to be taphonomic. This wear may have occurred during the life of the animal, and supports use of the rostrum as a stabbing weapon. The presence of two rows of backwardly-pointing teeth would have provided a fric-tion surface that might have helped the animal procure food, possibly by extract-ing ammonites from their shells.

The Castle Hayne Formation of North Carolina preserves a second fish taxon that has an elongated, billfish-like rostrum. This taxon has wide bands of small tooth pedicels on its ventral surface. Some “Cylindracanthus group” taxa have similar tooth-bearing bands (Fierstine 1974 2001; Fierstine and Applegate 1974). Leriche (1908) reported tooth pedicels in specimens of Glyptorhynchus, a genus he had erected (Leriche 1905) to replace Coelorhynchus Agassiz. He later (1910) restricted Glyptorhynchus to G. denticulatus, a species with broad bands of tooth pedicels extending along the length of the rostrum. Glyptorhynchus was originally proposed as a replacement for Coelorhynchus sensu Agassiz, and restricting the genus to G. denticulatus is invalid (Purdy et al. 2001). Casier (1946) therefore cre-ated a new genus, Hemirhabdorhynchus, for G. denticulatus. Fierstine (1974) and Fierstine and Applegate (1974) included Hemirhabdorhynchus in their informal “Cylindracanthus group”. Hemirhabdorhynchus (Leriche 1910; Purdy et al. 2001) and Aglyptorhynchus (Weems 1999; Fierstine 2001, 2005; Monsch 2005) rostra have broad bands of tooth attachments on the ventral surface; both resemble the non-Cylindracanthus rostra found in North Carolina. Hemirhabdorhynchus has

Figure 3. A. Tooth pedicels (white arrows) on the South Dakota Cretaceous specimen (SDSM 30638). Tooth pedicels tilt toward the caudal end of the rostrum; each is approx-imately 1 mm in diameter. B. Teeth on SDSM 30638. Tooth crowns slope toward the caudal end of the rostrum, with the tip of each tooth overlapping the base of the tooth caudal to it. Tooth tips are covered in translucent enamel (white arrows). Photographs in both A and B are 5 mm long, with caudal to the left. C. NJSM 24276 prior to sectioning, showing pits (possibly pathologic lesions) on a rostrum from North Carolina (dashed circles). D. NJSM PH12. Transverse histologic section of the larger lesion at the right end of NJSM 24276 (as shown in C) in plane-polarized light. The surface of the rostrum is to the upper right in this image. Arrowheads point toward a dense layer that covers parts of the tissue around the lesion. S = sediment grains partially filling the lesion. E. Worn tip of Alabama Cretaceous rostrum (ASM-PV 994.2.111). Scale is in millimeters. F. Detail of tip wear on the Alabama Cretaceous rostrum (ASM-PV 994.2.111).


been recovered from Miocene sediments in North Carolina (Purdy et al. 2001). Both Hemirhabdorhynchus and Aglyptorhynchus are known from more complete remains than is Cylindracanthus. Additional cranial and postcranial remains are known for Aglyptorhynchus (Fierstine 2001, 2005), and vertebral material has been found with rostra of Hemirhabdorhynchus (Purdy et al. 2001).

Histology of Cylindracanthus was compared to that of a modern billfish, an Atlantic marlin, and to a modern paddlefish because Cylindracanthus has pre-viously been classified as Xiphiidae incertae sedis or hypothesized as a possible chondrostean. Histology of the bill and predentary (Figure 4A-C) of the marlin (NJSM TC1061: Makaira cf. nigricans) is quite different from histology of the Cylindracanthus rostrum. The radial structure of the Cylindracanthus rostrum is seen both in its gross morphology and histologically (Figure 2). Histologic sections of the marlin are dominated by longitudinal canals (Figure 4B). Teeth are located in wide bands that extend along the lateral edges of the rostrum (Figure 4A) and form a shagreen covering the oral surface of the predentary (Figure 4C). The teeth are not confined in a groove, as they are in Cylindracanthus, but rather are located on the bone surface. Marlin teeth are smaller than those of Cretaceous Cylindracanthus. They are short and blunt, rather than long, sharply pointed, and recurved. Marlin tooth attachment rings are barely visible to the unaided eye, whereas tooth pedicels in both Cretaceous and Eocene Cylindracanthus are easily visible.

Polyodon spathula (paddlefish, NJSM B477) histology was examined for both a cranial osteoderm (Figure 4C, D) and in a skull bone, the nasal (Figure 4F). Osteocytes are present in both. Bone histology of Polyodon is very different from that of both Cylindracanthus and the living blue marlin, neither of which shows clear evidence of osteocyte lacunae. Internal structure of the Polyodon nasal is dominated by circumferential organization of growth lines and osteocyte lacunae. Weisel (1975) reported that osteocytes are present in dermal denticles located on the back and sides of Polyodon. While he described the gross appearance of Polyodon rostral squamation, Weisel did not describe the histology of rostral scutes. Sturgeons (Acipenser) also have cellular bone in both their axial skeleton and their dermal scutes (Leprévost et al. 2017).

DISCUSSION

Several conclusions can be drawn from this comparison of Cylindracanthus bone histology to the histology of extant holosteans (paddlefish, sturgeon) and billfish (the marlin). These are:

1. Cylindracanthus bone histology differs from that of both billfish (Atkins et al. 2014) and paddlefish (Weisel 1975). Our histologic sections confirm these differences.

2. Gross similarity of the Cylindracanthus rostrum to the billfish rostrum is hypothesized to be functional convergence – as is the similarity between the rostra of billfish and sawfish. The complex function (or functions) of the billfish rostrum are still not completely understood. The rostrum can affect hydrodynamic drag during swimming (Sagong et al. 2013). It can

Figure 4. Histologic thin sections of blue marlin (NJSM TC1061) and paddlefish (NJSM B477) bones. Both animals are adults. A. NJSM PH18. Transverse section of the lateral edge of the marlin bill showing the lateral tooth band. B. NJSM PH19. Horizontal lon-gitudinal section taken at mid-length of the marlin bill showing teeth (upper edge) and underlying longitudinal canals in the bone. C. NJSM PH17. Transverse section taken at mid-length of the marlin predentary showing the surface shagreen of small teeth, covered by a thin epidermis. The dentine basal portions of four of the teeth are marked (*). The rounded, enamel-covered crowns of two of these teeth are visible just below the epidermis. A-C were taken in cross-polarized light. D. NJSM PH21. Paddlefish rostral scute in horizontal longitudinal section. This section was taken parallel to the surface of a scute from approximately the mid-length of the rostrum. Numerous osteocytes are visible even at this magnification. E. NJSM PH21. Higher magnification view of osteo-cytes and canaliculi in the paddlefish rostral scute. F. NJSM PH14. Paddlefish nasal bone in transverse section. This section comes from midway along the anterior-to-posterior length of the nasal bone. Osteocytes are arranged along the surfaces of layers that parallel the surface of the nasal bone. Three of the osteocytes are indicated by arrows. D-F were taken in plane-polarized light.


be used as a defensive or offensive weapon (Shimose et al. 2007; Habegger et al. 2015). Rostra of some taxa, including paddlefish, have electrosen-sory organs that can assist in locating prey (Wueringer et al. 2012). The Cylindracanthus rostrum is morphologically more similar to the bill of a marlin than the rostrum of a swordfish. The marlin bill can be used for strikes from a variety of directions (Habegger et al. 2015), but the thin wall bounding the central cavity in the proximal part of the Cylindracanthus rostrum could have been a zone of weakness that might fracture during lateral strikes. A marlin bill may not be the best mechanical analog for the Cylindracanthus rostrum.

3. The tissue of Cylindracanthus is acellular. The cells that produced the calcified rostral tissue were probably located in a periosteum, as sug-gested by Meunier (2011) for other fishes with acellular bone. Osteoblasts might also have resided in the central canal. No soft tissue is preserved in Cylindracanthus, and osteoblast location in this genus cannot be known for certain. The surface of NJSM 24278, a specimen from the Eocene Castle Hayne Formation in North Carolina, has clusters of short, narrow, steep-sided scrapes that were probably produced by postmortem scavengers. These marks suggest there was at least a thin tissue layer on the surface of the rostrum during life.

4. Phylogenetic relationships of Cylindracanthus remain unclear. Meunier and Huysseune (1992) considered the distribution of cellular bone in Osteichthyes to be plesiomorphic, and that of acellular bone to be apo-morphic in higher teleosts, but Meunier later (2011) described loss of bone cells as a heterochronic process. While the presence of acellular bone in the rostrum can support placement of Cylindracanthus within derived teleosts (Meunier and Huysseune 1992; contra Parris et al. 2001, 2007) it does little to clarify where this genus might lie within teleosts. Kranenbarg et al. (2005) demonstrated that acellular bone is found in multiple actinopter-ygian clades. More recent phylogenetic interpretations (Near et al. 2012) do not alter the paraphyletic nature of acellular bone distribution within ray-finned fishes.

5. The greatest similarity of the Cylindracanthus rostrum, the only skeletal element known in this genus, is to rostra of other extinct fishes. Except for the presence of tooth pedicels (and the associated wedge of tissue support-ing the pedicels) transverse histologic sections of Cylindracanthus are very similar to a transverse histologic section of Glyptorhynchus that Fierstine published (at three magnifications) in 1974 (see his figure 14). Carter (1927) noted histologic similarities between Cylindracanthus and Blochius, and Fierstine (1974, 2001) has placed the “Cylindracanthus group” within the Blochiidae.

6. Fierstine (1974, 2001) and Fierstine and Applegate (1974) considered the relationship of “Cylindracanthus-group” genera to Xiphoidei to be questionable; the presence of acellular bone in Cylindracanthus does not change that interpretation. Unraveling the phylogenetic relationships of Cylindracanthus still awaits the discovery of more complete specimens.


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors thank Gudni A. “Tony” Fabian for his generous donation of a Cretaceous specimen from New Jersey. We thank Eric Sadorf and Joy Harrington for allowing us to study specimens in their private collections. We are grateful for the financial support provided by the Richards Fund of the New Jersey State Museum Foundation. The wafer saw and lap table used to produce the histologic slides used in this study were donated by Derek Yoost. The Amscope petrographic microscope used to study and photograph the slides was donated by the Bergen County Mineralogical Society. This manuscript was greatly improved by sugges-tions from Drs. Robert Carlton and Lincoln Hollister, and by the suggestions of an anonymous reviewer.

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ETHNOBOTANY AT SOUTH DAKOTA STATE UNIVERSITY: AN OUTGROWTH OF REGIONAL AMERICAN INDIAN RESERVATION TEACHING

AND RESEARCH COLLABORATIONS

R. Neil ReeseBiology & Microbiology


ABSTRACT

Development of an Ethnobotany program at South Dakota State University began almost 30 years ago to increase the involvement of the University with underserved residents of SD and to better fulfill the Land Grant mission. Establishment of this program was aided by strong support from the Ag/Bio College and some fortuitous introductions to tribal elders and tribal college faculty. The creation of successful collaborations that occurred as a result of the development of this program changed the direction and focus of my research. As extramural funding agencies are currently encouraging teaching and research components involving America Indians and other underserved minorities as part of obtaining research funding, experiences from this journey may hold insights for faculty members still developing their research programs.

INTRODUCTION

During my tenure at South Dakota State University (SDSU), I have been actively involved in teaching and research with tribal college faculty and tribal government officials, working as SDSU’s ambassador and developing long-term collaborations. These interactions have had a profound effect on my career and on my personal development as a scientist and human being. My experiences have provided me with insights into the cultures of the local tribes, which have helped to generate collaborative research funding on four of the local reserva-tions. During the past 10 years there has been an increasing interest by many of my university colleagues in developing working relationships with regional tribes to take advantage of federal research funding. This funding includes not only monies directed to the 1994 Land Grant colleges, but the federal mandates for all US granting agencies that promote funding to support the teaching and research needs of underserved communities living on America’s American Indian Reservations. This report is offered to shed light on how my successful collabora-tions developed.

My introduction to working with the many tribes that inhabit the upper Great Plains came in 1988 when I joined the faculty at SDSU and was assigned to teach


undergraduate Plant Physiology. My education was provided primarily by Land Grant Institutions and I was thoroughly committed to the Land Grant mission of serving all of the constituents of the state of South Dakota and the upper Great Plains. During the first two years of teaching at SDSU my classes included students from several foreign countries, and a majority of the states in the region, but no students from any of the state’s nine American Indian Reservations. At that time the population of American Indians in the state was 50,575 out of a total population of 696,004 (7.3%) (1990 Census, 1990) but SDSU only had an American Indian student participation rate of about 1%. Therefore, I initiated a native plant research project to attract and engage American Indian students in culturally relevant topics.

Initial interactions with tribal governments and colleges. Development of my native plants research program initially focused on Echinacea angustifolia, a culturally significant plant that is an important ingredient in many American Indian medicinal preparations. In the late 1980’s Echinacea had become a darling of the dietary supplement companies and was being illegally harvested on many of the region’s reservations. As this species has a rather robust root system that can reach down 2-3 meters into the soil, this theft was causing significant damage to many uncultivated lands.

Our initial approach was to collect seeds from populations from Texas to Canada east of the Rocky Mountains. We then established a common garden on the SDSU campus and began to evaluate the genetic variability within the spe-cies. These gardens and my interest in conservation of the species was noted in the local media and soon acted to attract the attention of tribal governments and individual elders and thus became my first introduction to working with mem-bers of the regional American Indian Reservations and tribal colleges.

As our studies progressed, I used the research as a means of finding tribal col-lege faculty with whom I could collaborate. At that time, these colleges were mainly very small two-year institutions with few or no permanent faculty, mak-ing joint research almost impossible. However, in 1994 eight of the tribal colleges in South Dakota and North Dakota were granted Land Grant status (The First 20 Years of the 1994 Land-Grant Institutions, 2015). This change in their mission provided direct linkages with SDSU, an 1862 Land Grant Institution and, more importantly, funding and Federal initiatives for research on these 1994 campuses. Through our research efforts and the recent interest in research by the 1994 Land Grant Institutions, several new opportunities presented themselves.

One of the personally most significant of these events was my meeting of Mr. Joseph Flying Bye, an Elder on the Standing Rock Reservation. He contacted me through an adopted granddaughter who asked me to meet him in Bismarck, ND, at a Powwow. He offered to act as my mentor, helping me to understand the cultural differences in the way plants and medicine are viewed by the Lakota, as compared to my western approach. Mr. Flying Bye shared his beliefs that the spiritual aspects of the plants outweighed the limited value of their biochemistry in the healing processes. Our discussions and field excursions resulted in my development of an appreciation of the differences in our world views and for his


in-depth understanding of the plants that “chose” to be selected for healing. His tutorials helped to guide me in finding culturally appropriate ways to be of service to American Indian constituents who were so badly underserved at SDSU. Mr. Flying Bye had a remarkable ability to understand people and plants and his guid-ance gave me new ways of thinking about my research and the Lakota people. His death in 2000, while we were at a Sundance in Little Eagle, SD, was a great loss to me. Knowing him however, motivated me to continue to find a better way to appreciate and serve the cultures of the many Tribes of the Upper Great Plains.

During this same period, two individuals, Tim Nichols (former Dean of the Honors College) and Diane Rickerl (former Associate Dean of the Graduate School) were both working in the AG/Bio College trying to attract American Indian students to SDSU. Initially they worked to establish three programs: 1) 2+2+2 - a teaching approach to train undergraduates, working with students for two years in high school, two years at a tribal college and then a final two years at SDSU. This program was funded by the US Department of Education Fund for Improvement of Post-Secondary Education and a USDA Higher Education Challenge Grant. 2) Developing Native American Scientists (DNAS) – an under-graduate program funded by the NSF and 3) an NSF Research for Undergraduate Education (REU) grant.

I was fortunate enough to participate in these programs and through them meet several tribal elders and faculty members at tribal colleges and tribal high schools in North Dakota, South Dakota and Nebraska. During one of the many bus trips that Tim arranged for SDSU faculty to get out and meet the people of the local reservations, I met Mrs. Dorothy Gill, a woman of considerable strength and character and one of my most beloved mentors.

After a year of planning and using funding obtained through the DNAS grant, we put together a Traditional Plants Class, Dakota Studies 183, for the Fall Semester at Sisseton-Wahpeton Community College (SWCC). I taught the botany from a western perspective and Mrs. Gill and two other Dakota elders whom we recruited – Mrs. Clara Eagle and Mr. Nathan Thompson – taught the traditional uses portion of the class. This class attracted a broad range of students from the community, including teachers, elders and students, some of whom I recruited to SDSU. Working with these elders provided me with new insights into a host of culturally significant native plants that are used for foods, medicines and a wide range of material and cultural needs. Great effort was made to impress upon me the value of this shared knowledge, the appropriateness with whom specific knowledge can be shared and my limitations in understanding specific nuances because of my lack of Dakota language skills. Mrs. Gill stressed to me on numerous occasions that many of the plant applications, especially medicinal uses, required a lifetime commitment by a student to become worthy to receive the knowledge of how these plants can be used to heal.

This experience further expanded my appreciation of traditional Dakota and Lakota knowledge and afforded me the opportunity to see how I might become someone in whom people on the reservation might find a trustworthy resource at SDSU. These elders stressed the need for research that benefitted the tribe without exploiting indigenous knowledge and strongly supported my efforts to


promote research with tribal college faculty and attract American Indian students to higher education and SDSU. An important outcome of this work was the development of a Native Plants Website. This site was used for sharing native plant uses and to promote the planting of native plants in gardens both on and off the reservation. The reintroduction of these plants helps to provide habitat for native insects and higher animal species. Currently this site is being moved to an archival site by the University and will continue to be expanded in the coming years (http://openprairie.sdstate.edu/nativeplant/).

The summer following the teaching of the Dakota Studies class at SWCC, I obtained additional funding for Mrs. Gill, her daughter Mrs. Deidra Keeble, Mrs. Georgia Peterson and my first Lakota student Karla Witt to take the traditional foods portion of the class to the reservation’s Boys and Girls Clubs. Traditional foods were presented in Dakota stories, projected photographs, live plants and dishes prepared for the young children to taste. These presentations were designed to strengthen the children’s cultural knowledge and to interest them in studying Dakota culture, botany and history.

In 2003, SDSU began its most important and successful project designed to integrate SDSU and tribal colleges. The Prairie PhD program (Cohort graduate program for tribal college faculty and agriculture/food systems professionals, 2003) was designed to create a welcoming atmosphere for American Indian stu-dents and to foster research with the regional tribal college faculty, by offering graduate programs to the tribal college faculty. This effort was funded in part by grants from the WK Kellogg Foundation, a USDA Higher Education Challenge Grant and John Baird of Cincinnati, OH. This program took graduate school to the reservations. Classes were conducted on the tribal college campuses, pre-sented on-line and taught on the SDSU campus during summer breaks. Student research was set up on the respective reservations and the SDSU faculty traveled to direct the research on location. The students were mostly already faculty or staff at the tribal colleges and the result of this program was the development of an understanding of the research needs of the tribes and the ways in which SDSU faculty could facilitate these research needs.

As part of this program, the students from the tribal colleges were given inter-national experience in addition to their scientific training. Many of the Prairie PhD faculty were engaged in an exchange program with the Unidad Académica Campesina (UAC) in Carmen Pampa, Bolivia. Students traveled to Carmen Pampa and participated in workshops that stressed the teaching of indigenous knowledge in a modern university setting. Later, students from the UAC were invited to the tribal colleges where they worked with the newly-trained faculty—graduates of the Prairie PhD program. In the end, the Prairie PhD program not only funded the education of the tribal college faculty and increased the quality of the science education provided by those colleges, but generated successful funding of collaborative research for years after the project terminated.

Research projects. While at SDSU, my training by the tribal elders and col-laborations with faculty and staff of the tribal colleges led to my participation in funded research, teaching and consulting on several of the reservations. Four


projects that resulted from these programs and the earlier work with the American Indian peoples of South Dakota will be discussed. The first project started as part of Kerry Hartman’s Prairie PhD program. We planted three Juneberry (Amelanchier alnifolia) groves on the Fort Berthold Reservation in North Dakota. Initial funding for this research was obtained through a USDA-CSREES grant. The project was designed to develop protocols and plant stocks to replace an important food source that had been largely lost by the damming of the Missouri River and the flooding of prime habitats for this species. Wild collected stock was compared to cultivars developed by the University of Saskatchewan. This research has remained an important teaching tool and natural resource for Fort Berthold Community College. Dr. Hartman, FBCC Science Director, continues to con-duct research with faculty on the SDSU campus and acts to promote SDSU as a place for his graduating students to seek a graduate education.

The second project was the development of an outdoor classroom at Sisseton-Wahpeton College (SWC) on the Lake Traverse Reservation in South Dakota. This project was an extension of the Dakota Studies teaching program that I developed there. Karla Witt, formerly SWC Extension and Science Director and a graduate of the Prairie PhD program, was the project director for this work. Initial funding was provided by a 1994 Land Grant Extension Grant. The project involved the restoration of about 80 acres of farm land back to native prairie. Planting plans were drawn up by Martin Maca, Professor of Landscape Architecture SDSU, and I developed native plant lists. This project continues to provide teaching and research for students at SWC and collaborations with SDSU faculty and students. As part of this project, I helped to develop a teaching herbarium and Dakota Language database. Research efforts by SDSU and Augustana University have also created an insect database and a natural history collection.

At Ogallala-Lakota College in Kyle, SD, on the Pine Ridge Reservation, a third project was conducted with a graduate of the Prairie PhD program–Leslie Henry. This project, entitled Oyate Kici Icaga, was designed to examine the production of native grasses for biofuels and the impact of prairie turnips (Pediomelum escu-lentum), a very important traditional food and a nitrogen-fixing legume on grass production. Funding for this work was provided by a grant through the USDA-Tribal College Research Program. The goal was to increase the availability of this slow-growing crop and improve grass production. Test plots were planted in Kyle and turnips were harvested in July when they became dormant. Grasses were harvested in October after they became dormant. This project has provided data on the nitrogen content (3-18% by dry weight) and growth rates of the turnips. Their impact on grass production has yet to be determined.

The final project with which I have been involved was different in that it did not involve a tribal college. This project was funded through the DOD/US Army Corps of Engineers and partnered me with the Center for Cultural Preservation on the Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe (CRST) Reservation in Dewey and Ziebach Counties of South Dakota. This project focused on the “taken lands” or shoreline of Lake Oahe that was returned to the tribe about 40 years after the Missouri was dammed and the lands originally confiscated. We conducted a plant inven-tory and began shoreline restorations in some areas. As part of the program we


developed an outdoor classroom that was designed by Don Burger, Associate Professor of Landscape Architecture at SDSU. This facility is designed to provide residents of Eagle Butte with access to culturally significant plants and to allow elders to share their knowledge with the younger generations living on the CRST Reservation. We also developed a Lakota Language database of native plants for use by tribal members. Lastly, we developed signage for the Native American Scenic Byway that shares the flora and fauna of the reservation with both Lakota and English-speaking visitors.

Establishing collaborations. In the past ten years the opportunities to obtain Federal Grant funding by collaborating with the American Indian tribal colleges and tribal governments have greatly expanded. The need for research on the reservations is immense and has been the focus of much work (Federal Funding and Unmet Needs in Indian Country, 2003). Not only are there grants designed specifically for research on the reservations, all of the major Federal funding agen-cies are providing incentives to collaborate with the tribal colleges in research and teaching efforts. The years that I have spent working with the American Indian Tribes in the upper Midwest have taught me that the only way to successfully address these problems and to obtain grant funding is through the development of true collaborations.

To become a resource for the people living on reservations, university faculty and administrative representatives need to meet the tribal college faculty and administrators. Finding and getting to know your counterparts at the tribal schools can be difficult. I had the luxury of having Tim Nichols and the Ag/Bio College reaching out to all of the regional tribal schools, but this seems to be a rarity. However, many of the state and private universities have American Indian Studies or Native American Resource Centers on campus. Take advantage of these resources and ask for help with introductions. Also, encourage your admin-istrators to develop college or university-wide interactions with the tribal colleges as a means of stimulating grant writing.

At an individual level, non-tribal college faculty can access the tribal college websites and find faculty and administrators that are teaching or directing the courses in your area of expertise. Call and introduce yourself. Ask about their work and ways that you might get to meet and discuss mutual interests. Discuss the possibility of joint classroom exercises and workshop presentations as a means of getting acquainted and to demonstrate areas of expertise. These types of activi-ties may spark interest in new questions that may promote interest in collabora-tive research and teaching at the tribal colleges.

When you meet with tribal college faculty and/or administrators, come pre-pared with knowledge of available grant sources. Funding, especially providing summer salaries for tribal college faculty, is an important consideration. Most of the tribal educators are paid only during the teaching year. Check out the Higher Education Challenge Grants Program (2017) for developing joint projects and be aware of the Tribal Colleges Research Grants Program (2017) which funds tribal college research, but provides a place for faculty from other universities to become Co-PIs. This second funding source is especially attractive to the tribal


colleges because they are responsible for the research direction and its manage-ment. These funding sources offer an opening to working together and will help to develop the kinds of collaborations that are necessary to pursue funding of your other research interests.

Developing productive collaborations on the reservations, as with any success-ful interaction, requires an open give and take to become aware of the concerns and needs on the reservation. Each reservation and tribe may have unique views as to what is a culturally acceptable type of research and different interests or goals that they want to see addressed. Asking how your skills and abilities might be of interest to the tribe and your potential collaborators, along with recognizing that you don’t have all the answers, will be of benefit to any researcher hoping to develop these types of collaborations. Only after these collaborations are in place will researchers then be able to successfully pursue granting opportunities.

Final note. This same approach is recommended to tribal college faculty and administrators that are interested in collaborative research and other educational opportunities. Be aware that there are many researchers and educators at the state’s public and private colleges and universities who would like to participate in col-laborations that would stimulate valuable research and provide opportunities to students at both schools. All of the schools have websites that can provide informa-tion as to the areas of research and types of funding that faculty members have. Contact a faculty member, department head or college dean and let them know you’d like to visit. Bring some students and I am sure you will be well received.

LITERATURE CITED

1990 Census. 1990. 1990 Census of Population, General Population Characteristics. South Dakota. Available at https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1990/cp-1/cp-1-43.pdf. [Cited 22 June 2017].

Cohort graduate program for tribal college faculty and agriculture/food sys-tems professionals. 2003. Available at https://portal.nifa.usda.gov/web/crisprojectpages/0196133-cohort-graduate-program-for-tribal-college-fac-ulty-and-agriculturefood-systems-professionals.html. [Cited 22 June 2017].

Federal Funding and Unmet Needs in Indian Country. 2003. Available at http://www.usccr.gov/pubs/na0703/na0204.pdf. [Cited 22 June 2017].

The First 20 Years of the 1994 Land-Grant Institutions. Standing on Tradition, Embracing the Future. (2015). Available at https://nifa.usda.gov/sites/default/files/resource/1994%20LGU%20Anniversary%20Pub%20WEB_0.pdf. [Cited 22 June 2017].

Higher Education Challenge (HEC) Grants Program. (2017). Available at https://nifa.usda.gov/funding-opportunity/higher-education-challenge-hec-grants-program. [Cited 12 July 2017].

Tribal College Research Grants Program. (2017). Available at https://nifa.usda.gov/funding-opportunity/tribal-colleges-research-grants-program-tcrgp, [Cited 12 July 2017].


ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES AT THE SOUTH DAKOTA SCHOOL OF MINES & TECHNOLOGY

Andrew G. Detwiler* and Paul L. SmithAtmospheric and Environmental Sciences Program

South Dakota School of Mines and TechnologyRapid City, SD 57701

*Corresponding author email address: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The Institute of Atmospheric Sciences (IAS) was established at the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology (SDSMT) in 1959. It started a pro-gram in weather modification research slowly as a part-time effort involving existing SDSMT and South Dakota State University faculty, but began to grow rapidly in 1964 with the hiring of its first full-time director, Richard Schleusener. Strong support from federal research agencies, particularly the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation, led to development of a large internationally-recognized research program at SDSMT employing more than 50 staff in the late 1960s. Support for weather modification research began to diminish in the 1970s. Staff numbers declined. The IAS diversified its research portfolio to include a broader meteoro-logical and environmental perspective. A core research effort in storm phenomena relevant to weather modification was maintained. In the 1990s a very successful program in satellite remote-sensing developed, but in 1997 that group moved to a different institution to continue its efforts. In the 2000s a new focus on earth system science developed. Again, the development faltered with the departure of key researchers and shrinking of staff numbers. Through all of these changes an active research program has survived. We survey the scientific achievements of IAS researchers and their continuing successes in the area of atmospheric physics and dynamics, atmospheric chemistry and air quality, remote sensing, land sur-face-atmosphere interaction, and earth system science and biogeochemical cycles.

INTRODUCTION

Great interest in weather modification developed during the 1950’s, particu-larly in the arid regions of the western United States. An Advisory Committee on Weather Control was formed in 1953 to evaluate the potential of cloud seeding to beneficially modify precipitation. U.S. Senator Francis Case of South Dakota played a key role in the establishment of the Advisory Committee; A.M. Eberle, then Dean of Agriculture at South Dakota State University (SDSU) was named vice-chairman. In 1958 the committee reported favorably regarding the use of cloud seeding for beneficial weather modification. Congress then took action to establish a federally-funded research program.


The early years of atmospheric sciences in South Dakota. The Institute of Atmospheric Sciences (IAS) was established at the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology (SDSMT) in 1959 by Special Resolution No. 30-1959 of the Regents of Education of South Dakota “... to provide for and to conduct a program of basic and applied research in the several atmospheric sciences, which research shall be calculated to expand the knowledge in the atmospheric sci-ences and to discover methods or procedures for the utilization of old and newly acquired knowledge in the art of weather modification; ...” This resolution took note that the U.S. Congress had implemented support of basic research in the atmospheric sciences and that it was reasonable and proper that South Dakota talent be mobilized to advance that research with this federal support.

In 1961 Congress charged the Bureau of Reclamation within the Department of Interior to develop and manage a program “to conduct research on increasing rainfall by cloud seeding throughout the western states.” The legislation included commitments for the establishment of new atmospheric science research pro-grams in many of these so-called Reclamation states. This broad distribution of potential funding brought many members of Congress on board as co-sponsors. U.S. Senator Karl Mundt and Representative E. Y. Berry from South Dakota were enthusiastic supporters who made sure that their state would get its share of the newly available funds. The program that Reclamation started was named Project Skywater. It was managed by Reclamation’s Engineering and Research Center in Denver under the direction of Archie Kahan.

A National Science Foundation (NSF)-sponsored conference on atmospheric science research was held in Rapid City in February 1962. Recommendations were made that provided an overall road map for development of the South Dakota research and educational program which followed. The participants included Vincent Schaefer, a member of the research team at the General Electric Company Research and Development Center that discovered the scientific basis for modern cloud seeding and recognized the natural cloud laboratory that the Black Hills provided. Decisions were made to concentrate on studying the pos-sibility of increasing rain and decreasing hail damage from convective clouds.

Pursuant to those recommendations, limited field programs were carried out in the summers of 1963 and 1964. These field experiments in weather modifica-tion proceeded under the leadership of Professor Joseph Cope at SDSMT with collaboration by Professor Emily M. Frisby of SDSU. An introductory course in meteorology was listed in the SDSMT catalog under the Physics Department in the early 1960s.

Richard A. Schleusener was hired to head the IAS as its first full-time direc-tor near the end of 1964. He had previously been a consultant to the Bureau of Reclamation while a professor at Colorado State University (CSU) and was quite familiar with the South Dakota plans, having participated in the 1962 Rapid City conference. Senator Mundt’s verbal commitment that Reclamation’s support for the IAS program would be on-going helped persuade Schleusener to leave CSU and take the reins of the IAS. See Figure 1 for a photograph of the principal par-ticipants in the formation of the IAS.


Figure 1. Senator K. Mundt, President F. Partlo, Director R. Schleusener, and Congressman E. Y. Berry during meeting on SDSMT campus in 1965.

In 1965 major research and educational thrusts in cloud modification began. Under Schleusener’s leadership, the IAS began to grow. Arnett Dennis joined as associate director. Harry Orville (whose father, Howard, had chaired the Advisory Committee on Weather Control mentioned above) came to found numerical cloud modeling efforts. Paul Smith took charge of engineering and radar opera-tions. Briant Davis established a cloud physics laboratory to study the nucleating characteristics of various cloud seeding agents.

In December of 1965 the Board of Regents approved a Master of Science degree program in meteorology at SDSMT. Schleusener was named head of the department as well as director of the IAS. The M.S. curriculum was developed by Orville and Dennis. The standard offerings at the beginning were courses in gen-eral and synoptic meteorology, physical and dynamic meteorology and specialty courses in radar, fundamentals of nucleation, physics and dynamics of clouds, precipitation physics, and weather modification.

With support from Reclamation’s Project Skywater, the NSF, and other federal and state sponsors, IAS researchers undertook several important field programs in weather modification, cloud physics and radar meteorology. The field work conducted in South Dakota, North Dakota, and Nebraska involved cloud seed-ing by aircraft, radar surveillance of the seeded clouds, and a series of rain gauge and hailpad networks on the ground to monitor precipitation. The IAS operated several of the aircraft, including an instrumented Piper Apache and military surplus T-6 trainers, and contracted for use of others. At one time, nineteen IAS radar systems were in operation at five sites in the three states.

Numerical cloud modeling and laboratory experimentation also expanded. The numerical modeling work involved many weekend trips to the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) computer laboratory in Boulder, Colorado, to use the large computers there. This was the era of entering programs and data into computers using decks of punched cards, and getting output in the form of stacks of fan-folded printer paper, and later, microfilm. Remote access to large computers was a decade or more in the future.

The cloud physics laboratory work involved cloud-chamber studies of the activ-ity of nucleating agents for cloud seeding. Little was known at the time about how these agents worked and the field was wide open for new discoveries.

In the summer of 1966 a field experiment called Project Hailswath was hosted in Rapid City. Personnel from seventeen organizations from around the country and abroad converged on the Black Hills and carried out hailstorm studies. See


Goyer et al. (1966) for a description of the project. At the same time, and in the Black Hills region, the Rapid Project was being conducted to study effects of silver iodide seeding on convective rain showers. The Rapid Project continued through 1968, to be followed by Project Cloud Catcher which ran from 1969-72 (Dennis et al. 1975). Related projects such as the North Dakota Pilot Project and the Grand River Project were initiated in neighboring areas. In 1969, the IAS operated four field sites simultaneously at Alliance, Nebraska; Watford City, North Dakota; and Lemmon and Rapid City, South Dakota. A relatively large workforce was required during this era of numerous field projects and extensive laboratory and computer-based research. Total employment in the IAS exceeded 50 in this era with annual budgets exceeding $1M.

IAS research helped establish the extent to which summertime convective clouds in the northern Great Plains can be modified to increase rainfall (Dennis et al. 1975) and reduce hail damage (Schleusener 1968). Partly as a result of this research, the South Dakota Legislature funded an operational cloud seeding pro-gram in parts of the state from 1972 until 1976.

The Rapid City flood that occurred in June of 1972 led to cessation of cloud seeding activity in the immediate Black Hills area. Hygroscopic (powdered salt) seeding operations had been carried out by IAS researchers on the plains east of the Black Hills earlier in the day of the Rapid City flood. The flood occurred late in the evening as a large slow-moving thunderstorm sat over the upper Rapid Creek catchment in the central Black Hills. IAS and independent review scien-tists concluded that the seeding experiments had not contributed to the flood (St. Amand et al. 1972), and persons raising that possibility never proposed any physical mechanism through which the IAS experiments over the plains could have influenced developments in clouds that reached the central Black Hills a few hours later. Nevertheless, an association between the seeding and the flood remained in the minds of some of the residents of the area.

Elsewhere in the state, operational seeding continued, but not without oppo-sition. The main source of concern in these areas was that cloud seeding could be suppressing rather than enhancing rainfall in the counties participating in the program. Typical stories circulated at protest meetings concerned promis-ing clouds that failed to produce rain after an airplane, assumed to be part of the seeding program, flew over or under them. The opposition grew with time, eventually leading to the cessation of the state cloud seeding program in South Dakota after 1976.

The graduate program in meteorology at SDSMT started out much smaller than the nationally supported IAS research program. The first two M.S. degrees were awarded in 1968, to John Yu-Ming Liu and Martin Schock. While students, they were employed as research assistants on the IAS research projects. Since that time over 200 degrees have been awarded. Most graduate students have been supported during their studies by graduate research assistantships funded under IAS research projects. Results from roughly half of their masters theses have led to publications in national and international scientific journals.

The T-28 storm penetrating aircraft (Figure 2) was acquired and outfitted for research in 1969 with funding from the NSF. Paul MacCready, a renowned


soaring pilot and aeronautical engineer as well as meteorological researcher, had championed the idea of armoring an aircraft for storm studies during Project Hailswath. He partnered with Schleusener to bring the idea to fruition at SDSMT. After extensive modifications including 700 pounds of armor plat-ing on all leading edges, a few test flights were conducted in 1970 during the Northeast Colorado Hail Experiment (NECHE). Wayne Sand was hired to pilot the T-28 in 1971, but engine problems prevented participation during the subsequent 1971 NECHE summer field season in Colorado. After a new larger engine was installed, the first series of research flights were conducted during the National Hail Research Experiment (NHRE) beginning in 1972 in northeast-ern Colorado and continuing through 1976 (Sand and Schleusener 1974). The unique capabilities of the T-28 made it central to the research conducted during NHRE, and it became a fixture in a wide variety of successful convective storm field programs for more than three decades.

Figure 2. Armored T-28 flying by Mt. Rushmore in 2003.

Major Reclamation research support committed to the IAS for cloud seed-ing experiments ended in 1973, during a period of general cutbacks in federal research expenditures. The era of running regional weather modification field research programs ended at SDSMT. With reduced funding, staff numbers were dramatically reduced; some IAS staff left SDSMT while others moved to dif-ferent positions. Schleusener moved up to become Vice President and Dean of Engineering of SDSMT (and within two years its president) and Dennis became director of the Institute. Orville was appointed head of the Department of Meteorology.

After the weather modification field programs. An era of research diversifica-tion began in the IAS in the mid-1970’s and new courses were introduced in the department. Air pollution became part of the curriculum in 1974, and many of the staff researched air quality and the relationship between regional air quality


and the energy developments in Wyoming and Montana. This involved both field work and computational studies (Davis et al. 1976; Orville et al. 1981). Much of the field work was accomplished using a specially-equipped motorhome obtained with funding from the Department of Energy in 1976. This effort involved a variety of air-quality-related measurements conducted repeatedly over a circuit involving the five states of South Dakota, Nebraska, Wyoming, Montana, and North Dakota. The air quality group went on to perform studies related to the fugitive dust problem in the Rapid City area in the late 1980s and early 1990s (e.g. Davis et al. 1981), providing the basis for improving air quality in the met-ropolitan area.

Early in 1978 the IAS was awarded the contract for the design and evaluation of the High Plains Experiment (HIPLEX). This was a national study of sum-mertime rain enhancement capabilities in the US High Plains region funded by Reclamation. Exploratory phases of this project had started a few years earlier with sites in three states (Montana, Kansas, and Texas). Many of the IAS staff were involved in this effort in either field work or computational studies. The HIPLEX project summer field experiments continued through 1980 when they were suspended so the large multi-agency-supported Cooperative Convective Precipitation Experiment (CCOPE) could be hosted at the Miles City, Montana, HIPLEX research site in the summer of 1981. Because of subsequent cuts in fed-eral funding, HIPLEX never got back into the field in subsequent years. Results based on a smaller dataset than originally planned suggested limited capability to increase precipitation in the High Plains region from summertime clouds by cloud seeding (Mielke et al. 1984). The early 1980s saw the end of significant involvement of Reclamation in weather modification research.

The research portfolio of the IAS continued to diversify in the 1980s. Andre Doneaud joined the IAS in the late 1970s after fleeing repressive conditions in Romania. He developed a program of research on mesoscale precipitation sys-tems, developing the area-time-integral method for estimating precipitation from radar observations. See, e.g. Doneaud et al. 1981, 1987.

Ronald Welch joined the lAS in 1982 and created a research program in remote sensing, satellite meteorology, and global environmental change. Welch was the recipient in 1992 of the largest contract ever awarded up to that time to a SDSMT faculty member: $15,000,000 to support research as part of sev-eral National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Earth Observing System programs which were expected to continue through the year 2002. With this funding, Welch assembled a remote sensing group consisting of a dozen or more researchers at any one time. In 1997 Welch and most of his remote sens-ing group left SDSMT to continue their work at the University of Alabama-Huntsville and Marshall Space Flight Center. This was a loss of roughly one third of the IAS staff at that time.

The T-28 participated in its first field project abroad with a trip to Switzerland in 1982 to participate in the Grossversuch IV project, a study of the use of cloud seeding to reduce hail damage. The aircraft stayed for a second season in 1983, and T-28 observations inside the thunderstorms revealed that the conceptual model upon which the seeding approach to hail suppression was based was not


applicable to Swiss storms (Waldvogel et al. 1986). In 1985 the T-28 went to Alberta, Canada, to participate in a similar hail suppression project. In 1987, the T-28 entered into a formal NSF facility mode of operation with the NSF providing base support to maintain the aircraft, and covering deployment costs for NSF-funded projects requiring its services. A part-time facility staff of six was associated with this mainly summertime operation. The aircraft was operated in this way through 2003, and was retired in 2004. During this period as a facility it supported almost two dozen national research projects in various regions of the US.

The 1990’s saw the end of air quality laboratory work at the IAS, and Davis became dean of graduate education and research at SDSMT. The South Dakota Space Grant Consortium came into being in the early 1990’s. Local Space Grant activities were managed by the IAS for the first few years before being transferred to the graduate dean in 1995. Also in 1995 the local National Weather Service (NWS) forecast office moved from the Rapid City Regional Airport to a site adja-cent to the SDSMT campus, as part of the national move to co-locate National Weather Service offices with universities. At the same time a NWS WSR-88D Doppler weather radar was sited near New Underwood, about 20 miles east of Rapid City. The office co-location and availability of sophisticated radar obser-vations in the region opened the door for increasing collaboration between IAS researchers and NWS forecasters on research related to regional weather. Examples include Klimowski et al. (2004) and Bunkers et al. (2006).

The later years. The mid to late 1990s were years of major changes for the IAS and the department. Orville stepped down as academic Department Head in 1994, and Smith retired as IAS director in 1996. Patrick Zimmerman became the Director of IAS in 1997, and, as noted earlier, the Remote Sensing Group relocated to Alabama.

Zimmerman sought to broaden the IAS and academic departmental focus to an Earth systems perspective with new emphases on atmosphere-biosphere interactions, global change, and linkages between atmosphere, ocean, land, and subsurface processes. He brought on board several energetic and capable young faculty and researchers.

The first major institute-wide project under Zimmerman was the Upper Missouri River Basin Pilot Project (UMRBPP), which was undertaken to bet-ter establish and understand the water budget for the region. This collaborative research project, involving various universities and federal agencies, was funded by NASA as part of the Global Energy and Water-cycle Experiment (GEWEX) and Continental-scale International Project (GCIP). South Dakota Senator Larry Pressler was a strong proponent of water budget studies within the Upper Missouri River Basin, and was influential in seeing that funding was provided. Early preparatory work for this project was supported by the NSF-EPSCoR pro-gram. An intensive observing period for UMRBPP was centered over the Black Hills region in spring 1999. A comprehensive data set was obtained, but funding to analyze the data and publish results was limited.


In the early 2000s, the Earth systems emphasis adopted a much stronger focus on the carbon cycle and carbon sequestration. Zimmerman was able to convince Governor William Janklow of the need for additional state-supported positions within IAS. Two additional positions were instituted through the governor’s office: a State Carbon Scientist and a State Wildfire Meteorologist. Both posi-tions involved teaching, research and service. These staff members competed for additional research funding from state and federal agencies, supported graduate research assistants, served the state as members of various committees and com-missions, and in the case of the wildfire meteorologist, served as incident fore-caster during wildfire events.

In the mid-2000s, key Earth systems researchers left for tenure-track appoint-ments at other institutions. Zimmerman left the IAS in 2007 to concentrate on carbon sequestration efforts in private industry based on a patent he obtained for a procedure to certify carbon sequestration during agricultural operations he named C-Lock (Zimmerman et al. 2005). These researchers were not replaced. Leadership of the IAS fell to John Helsdon until in 2012, campus manage-ment eliminated the IAS from the campus organizational chart and made the Atmospheric Sciences Department into a tenure-track academic unit. During this period major research efforts included lightning and storm electrification, assessment of weather forecast accuracy and reliability, stream and wetland ecol-ogy, and severe storm dynamics.

In 2013 the Department of Atmospheric Sciences became the Department of Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences (AES) in an effort to make its name better characterize its curricular and research strengths. Then in 2014 during a period of austerity on campus, the department was eliminated. As a predomi-nately graduate department with small classes it was not generating sufficient tuition income compared to other departments, and at the same time research funding was in decline. Faculty were dispersed to other departments with larger undergraduate programs, including Chemistry and Applied Biological Sciences, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science, and Physics. This organization continues. These AES faculty still teach in support of the AES academic programs in addition to teaching courses in their new depart-ments. They continue their ongoing atmospheric and environmental research projects and are developing new collaborative research with their colleagues in their new departments.

Research portfolio. The following is a survey, rather than a comprehensive sum-mary, of major research activities and accomplishments of IAS and Department of AES researchers since the founding of the IAS in 1959. Examples are given and references cited that represent the main research activities in the different periods in which they existed. A complete summary of all research would require a book-length treatment.

The IAS began as a pioneering research group relating cloud physics to severe storm research, an area of national concern with strong federal funding support. During the 1960s the IAS organized numerous field projects while conduct-ing research on cloud seeding for rainfall enhancement and hail suppression


(see, e.g., Dennis et al. 1970; Biswas and Dennis 1971; Dennis and Koscielski 1972; Dennis et al. 1975; Koscielski and Dennis 1976). In the 1970s and 1980s IAS researchers were involved in several large national and international proj-ects focused on hail damage mitigation, including NECHE, NHRE (Knight et al. 1979), Grossversuch (Waldvogel et al. 1986), and the Alberta Hail Project. Airborne in situ observations were crucial in better understanding processes occurring in the cores of hailstorms studied during these projects (Musil et al. 1973, 1986, 1991).

Although research activities in weather modification declined, some projects continued in the 1980s and 1990s. IAS researchers were in involved in several field projects in Illinois and North Dakota that were focused on better under-standing of the cloud seeding process under the NOAA Federal-State Cooperative Program in Weather Modification. In 1988, a year of drought in the region, the IAS also organized a locally-funded trial cloud seeding effort directed at augment-ing water resources in the Black Hills. This trial was coordinated with numerical simulations (Farley et al. 1997). During the 2000s a small program of observa-tional and numerical investigations of hail damage mitigation was sponsored by Reclamation (Farley et al. 2004). Statistical analysis of results from operational cloud seeding programs also contributed to better understanding of the effects of cloud seeding (Smith et al. 1997).

Work on weather modification conducted by researchers at the IAS and many other institutions worldwide has generally shown that the promise of cloud seed-ing for reliable, consistent precipitation enhancement and hail suppression is more difficult to achieve than was expected when activities began in earnest in the early 1950s (Garstang et al. 2005). Operational cloud seeding does continue in parts of the US and elsewhere; more projects are conducted abroad than within the US.

During its weather modification research era, researchers at the IAS spear-headed efforts directed at computer-controlled radar scans and data processing with real-time visual displays of radar data that helped lay the groundwork for modern radar meteorology (Boardman and Smith 1974). Laboratory work con-tributed to better characterization of the performance of cloud seeding aerosols, some of which are still in use today (e.g. Davis et al. 1975). Observational studies used various airborne instruments custom-developed to probe storms to deter-mine strength of updrafts and downdrafts, concentrations and types of cloud and precipitation particles, and, beginning in the late 1980s, electric fields (Bringi et al. 1997) and cloud chemistry. These contributed to advances in the basic science of convective storms. Since the 1980s there have been important research efforts in in situ verification of polarimetric radar hydrometeor classification schemes, a key line of research that can enable more effective use of new radar technol-ogy for research and forecasting. The recent NWS WSR-88D radar polarimetric upgrades are based in part on results from IAS research collaborations. More recently there has been significant work on characterizing hydrometeor size dis-tributions for use in understanding radar signatures of rain and snow (Kliche et al. 2008; Johnson et al. 2011, 2014).


Beginning in 2012 researchers at SDSMT became involved in the development of a long-awaited replacement for the T-28 armored storm penetrating aircraft. The project was led by the Center for Interdisciplinary Remotely-Piloted Aircraft Studies at the Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey, California. The aircraft chosen was an A-10 “Warthog” aircraft, which is more versatile than the T-28. The project currently is in-progress. When modifications are complete, there will be new observing capabilities for convective storm studies and also for other atmospheric studies as well.

The IAS numerical cloud modeling group addressed a variety of topics over the years. Throughout much of the history of the IAS the effort was directed at the development, refinement and application of various schemes to simulate micro-physical processes for studies of basic convective cloud microphysical processes including the growth of hail and the effects of cloud seeding (Orville 1978; Lin et al. 1983; Farley 1987). Cloud mergers, microbursts, marine stratocumulus, cold season orographic clouds, and the effects of waste heat on convection have also been modeled (Hjelmfelt et al. 1978; Hjelmfelt 1992; Wang et al. 2003; French and Parker 2012).

Physics-based storm electrification/lightning modeling was originated and developed by IAS researchers (Chiu 1978; Helsdon and Farley 1987). Capabilities were developed for simulating charge separation in storms, and initiation and propagation of lightning discharges. These improved the understanding of charg-ing mechanisms and microphysical interactions for comparisons with observa-tions and for studying lightning’s effects on atmospheric chemistry (Helsdon et al. 2001; Zhang et al. 2003). Better understanding of cloud electrification and lightning is useful in many lines of research and forecasting, including forecast-ing “dry” lightning for predicting wildfire danger and examining the potential for modification to reduce lightning-caused fires. Lightning is a primary producer of nitrogen oxides. The only in situ observations of these gases in storm cores have been made using the T-28 storm-penetrating aircraft. These observations and the cloud electrification simulations challenge some currently held estimates and theories. Beginning in 2011 numerical simulation studies of lightning were further augmented with a field study of lightning including VHF mapping and high-speed video of lightning events that gave new insight into lightning initia-tion and propagation (Warner et al. 2013).

Numerical weather prediction models have been used by IAS researchers to study the effects of topography and surface characteristics in regional-scale weather systems. These models are used in the Black Hills to study storm devel-opment and predict precipitation distribution. Coupled with land surface and hydrologic models, the local-regional scale hydrologic cycle, including snowmelt, runoff and flash floods has been simulated. Feedbacks to storm initiation have been and continue to be studied (Davis et al. 1999). Cloud modeling studies and cooperative research with the Rapid City National Weather Service Forecast Office on severe storms with damaging winds, hail, and flash floods are aiding forecasts of these events. Observations and numerical models are also used to study lake-effect snow storms that impact tens of millions of people and cause hundreds of millions of dollars in damage a year. This long-term collaborative


research is an example of the application to national problems of capabilities developed for studying South Dakota weather issues. A project with the U.S. Department of Defense was completed to assess the role of assimilating abridged atmospheric data into incident meteorology scenarios. Results from efforts to downscale global climate model results to study regional effects in the upper Missouri River basin were published (Wang et al. 2014).

The remote sensing group led by Welch was very productive during the 15 years it was part of the IAS. Its research ranged from basic investigations in radia-tive transfer (Kuo et al. 1996) to application of the best theoretical knowledge to practical problems in the analysis and interpretation of satellite imagery (Han et al. 1997; Christopher 1998). These IAS researchers formed integral parts of several NASA teams associated with new missions involving satellite observations of Earth’s surface, The Mission to Planet Earth.

Atmospheric chemistry and air quality research by IAS researchers contrib-uted both to fundamental observational science (Davis et al. 1994) as well as to addressing local air quality issues related to particulate matter in the air. With the arrival of Zimmerman in 1997, biogeochemical investigations dealt mainly with terrestrial vegetation and the carbon cycle. Examples are Baker et al. (2000) and Vierling et al. (2006). More recently the focus of biogeochemistry research work has been on coupled cycles of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, ecosystem dynamics and microbial ecology, ecosystem structure and function, wetland ecology, water quality issues, and the dynamics of coupled natural and human systems. In 2005, P.V. Sundareshwar obtained a major equipment grant through the NSF to establish the Biogeochemistry Core Facility; projects utilizing the analytical equipment in this lab and others led to work on wetland and stream biogeochemistry published in national and inter-national journals (Sunsdareshwar 2009, 2011; Kunza and Hall 2013). As state carbon scientist, Sundareshwar also contributed to studies of the environmental impact of extraction, transportation, and use of coal (Sundareshwar 2011).

Researchers in the IAS have developed models and remote sensing techniques to simulate and monitor local and regional hydrologic processes. They also are developing tools applicable for mitigating sediment from agricultural practices and examining regional water resource issues (Das et al. 2004). Remote sensing is used for determining fire danger and burn severity, the hydrology of the post-fire environment, the vegetation stress, and for modeling of water deficiencies. Current and future emphasis is to establish the Black Hills as a laboratory to study fire weather processes and behavior. The state wildfire meteorologists had previously conducted research on the science of fire weather (Benson et al. 2009; Clabo 2017).

The IAS has been a driving force in high-end computing and visualization at SDSMT. Other departments involved include Electrical and Computer Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science, and Mechanical Engineering.

With the retirement of the T-28 came the need for an archive of the airborne in situ observations obtained during the T-28’s history of summer thunderstorm field projects. All digital data from projects occurring within the period 1989-2004 and all reports related to T-28 activity from 1969-2014 are housed in an


on-line archive maintained by the Earth Observing Laboratory at NCAR in Boulder, Colorado (https://www.eol.ucar.edu/field_projects/t-28; Detwiler et al. 2012). Data in this archive have been used to develop an observational climatol-ogy of the physical characteristics of storm interiors (Honomichl et al. 2013).

A recent NSF project entitled He Sapa Bloketu Woecun paired science with Native American culture through the exploration of special places in the Black Hills and surrounding area. Groups of Native American middle and high school students, along with a family member, participated in week-long summer camps in 2007 and 2008. Project scientists worked with several of the camp participants in preparing entries for the High Plains Regional Science Fair the following spring.

Other current research efforts include weather and climate-related impacts on infrastructure resilience; the dynamical interactions between neighboring convec-tive storms and storm systems, meteorological education, and nutrient cycles in several rivers and streams in South Dakota and neighboring states.

Graduate research assistants. The IAS graduate research assistant population has been quite diverse. Nearly 40% of the over 200 graduates of the program are from foreign countries. Taiwan has provided the greatest share of these (32), being a major source of foreign students up to 1990. The People’s Republic of China has provided the second largest contingent of foreign students (23); most of these have been post 1990. These are followed by India (10), Morocco (6), Romania and Thailand (3 each), Korea (2), Nepal (2) and one each from Bangladesh, Belize, Germany, Jordan, Russia, Ukraine, Vietnam, and Zimbabwe. The U.S. Agency for International Development foreign assistance program funded most of the students from Morocco and Thailand. Foreign student numbers dropped dramatically following restrictions put in place as a result of security concerns in the wake of the events of 9/11/2001.

Most states are represented by our American graduates. The largest contingent of these are from South Dakota, with strong representation from neighboring states and the upper Midwest. New York and Pennsylvania have provided the majority of students from eastern states. Several of our graduates came into our programs as a result of being stationed at Ellsworth Air Force Base; most of these were during the 1970s.

The majority of graduates from the M.S. program found employment as forecasters with the National Weather Service or commercial forecast providers, computer programmers in federal and state research laboratories, in air quality work either for consulting firms or government regulatory agencies, and a variety of other areas of the economy. Roughly one in four went on to earn Ph.D. degrees elsewhere, although in the last two decades several earned their Ph.D. through interdisciplinary Ph.D. programs at SDSMT. These graduates have gone mainly into academia and government research laboratories, although several have been successful in the commercial sector, some working in areas far removed from atmospheric science.


Summary. The IAS was established at SDSMT in 1959 in response to national and international interest in the science and practical application of cloud seeding to enhance rainfall and mitigate damage from hail. The Black Hills region was a natural laboratory for scientific studies and the western Dakotas are a semi-arid region plagued with high crop losses due to hail, making this region a natural home for such a research enterprise. Initial efforts involved a collaboration with agricultural interests at SDSU but in a short period, with generous federal sup-port, the research effort at SDSMT ramped up and became independent of SDSU. Collaborations between SDSMT and other national and international institutions with strong research efforts in weather modification were established in the 1960s and 1970s. Research opportunities in weather modification began to diminish in the later 1970s. At the same time the research portfolio of the IAS began to broaden into regional energy-related weather and climate issues, air chemistry and air quality, regional-scale storm systems, and the science and application of radar and satellite remote sensing to weather and climate issues. A core effort in convective storm dynamics and physics continued. In the 1990s the local NWS forecast office moved to a site adjacent to campus and increased col-laboration developed between the NWS and the IAS. In the late 1990s research efforts began to trend more toward Earth system science, while effort continued in the areas of remote sensing, storm physics, land-atmosphere interactions, and regional climate interactions. Researchers in the IAS were active members of national and international research communities in these fields.

The IAS was dissolved in 2012 and the atmospheric science researchers com-bined into a traditional academic department structure as its six Ph.D. research-ers converted to tenure-track faculty in the Department of Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences. This situation lasted only a short time. In 2014, that department was eliminated. Atmospheric and environmental science faculty were assigned to other existing departments. Currently these faculty continue their ongoing atmospheric and environmental research efforts while beginning new interdisciplinary collaborations with their new departmental colleagues.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This discussion is derived from a more personnel-oriented treatment of the history of the SDSMT Institute of Atmospheric Sciences that can be accessed at http://www.ias.sdsmt.edu/Documents/IAS-50yrs.pdf. Drs. Arnett Dennis and Robb Campbell provided helpful reviews of an early draft. We also thank an anonymous external reviewer for helpful comments and suggestions.

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Zimmerman, P.R., K. Updegraff, W.J. Capehart, M. Price, and L.A. Vierling. 2005. Pages 131-150 in P.C. Fusaro and M. Yuen, editors. C-Lock-A Method to Maximize Carbon Sequestration Value to Agro-forestry Producers and Purchasers. GreenTrading(TM) Markets: Developing the Second Wave, GreenTrading, Inc., NY.


SHOOT POSITION EFFECTS ON FRUIT CHARACTERISTICS OF BRIANNA GRAPE

Rhoda L. Burrows*Agronomy, Horticulture, and Plant Science Department

South Dakota State University West River Agricultural CenterRapid City, SD 57702


ABSTRACT

Basal shoots of various Vitis vinifera and V. labrusca cultivars are less fruitful than shoots arising from more distal nodes on the canes. The purpose of this research was to investigate whether ‘Brianna’, a more recently developed interspe-cific hybrid with V. vinifera, V. labrusca and V. riparia in its parentage, also exhib-its this tendency. Short canes (two fruiting nodes only) and long canes (4 to 6 fruiting nodes) were selected randomly from a block of ‘Brianna’ at a commercial vineyard near Yankton, S.D. Ripe fruits from each cane were collected separately at each node position. Cluster and berry weights and numbers were recorded, and fruits were crushed to obtain juice, soluble solids (Brix), pH and titratable acidity (TA). Regardless of cane length, fruit from the nodes closest to the cordon (“basal”) had lower weights, Brix, and pH, and greater TA compared to the fruit from the second most distal node. On long canes, increasing node number from the base resulted in increasingly higher fruit weights and berry numbers, and lower TA levels. However, no significant effect was found when comparing the fruit of long vs. short canes. These results suggest short vs. long-cane pruning will not significantly affect fruit yield or quality of Brianna. However, when thinning clusters, growers should first remove the clusters of the shoot nearest the cordon.

Keywords

Grape, Fruit, Vitis, Titratable Acidity, Brix, Pruning

INTRODUCTION

Pruning practices can greatly affect yield and fruit characteristics of grapes, and thereby the profitability of a vineyard. In addition to the arrangement of the canes on the trellis, a basic decision for management is how short or long each cane should be pruned. Among other factors, the fruitfulness of a given shoot may vary depending on its position on the cane, especially for some cultivars.

The nodes at the base of a cane tend to be less fruitful than more dis-tal nodes in certain Vitis vinifera and V. labrusca grape cultivars (Khanduja and Balasubrahmanyam 1972). ‘Thompson Seedless,’ ‘Crimson Seedless’, and ‘Perlette’, all seedless V. vinifera cultivars, produce fewer fruit on nodes at the base


of each cane (Sanchez and Dokoozlian 2005; Abdel-Mohsen 2013; Tomer 1990). Conversely, V. vinifera cultivars ‘Chardonnay’ and ‘Cabernet Sauvignon’ did not exhibit this tendency of poor basal node yield (Sanchez and Dokoozlian 2005). For optimal yield, cultivars with poor basal-node yield are long-cane pruned, since short-canes have a greater percentage of lower-yielding basal buds. Morris et.al. (1984) found that 3-node canes of V. labrusca ‘Concord’ produced lower yields per node than 6- or 9-node canes, and the fruit of 3-node canes tended to higher acidity.

‘Brianna’ is a cold-hardy, interspecific hybrid developed from native and European species (V. labrusca, V. riparia and V. vinifera) and released in 2001. Growers in South Dakota have anecdotally noted that basal node shoots seem to produce smaller and fewer clusters than more distal nodes. This study was undertaken to confirm this observation, and to determine whether long-cane pruning might optimize yield or affect the overall average of fruit soluble solids, pH or titratable acidity.

METHODS

Twelve short canes (two fruiting nodes only) and twelve long canes (4 to 6 fruiting nodes) were randomly selected from a block of ‘Brianna’ at Lewis & Clark Vineyard near Yankton, South Dakota. The block was in transition between training systems, and many plants had a combination of short and long shoots. All fruit clusters from each selected cane were collected and bagged separately by node position, noting which cane node number the cluster(s) had developed from, starting with the basal-most node. The fruit was transported in coolers with bagged ice, and frozen within 8 hrs. The frozen clusters from each shoot were weighed together, and cluster numbers recorded. Berries were then removed from each cluster, and total berry weights and number of berries per node position recorded, before returning the fruit to the freezer.

After four months, thawed fruits were analyzed chemically. The berries were crushed with gentle pressure on the plastic bag containing them, and the juice was sieved thru a fine-mesh metal sieve. Juice soluble solids (Brix) was assessed with a hand-held refractometer, and juice pH and titratable acidity (g/100 mL) (TA) were assessed with a minititrator (model HI 84532, Hanna Instruments, Woonsocket, RI).

Statistical Analyses. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) with α = 0.05 and two-tailed t-tests with a = 0.05 (MSUSTAT) were used to compare yield (cluster weight, cluster number, berry weights, and berry numbers) and fruit quality (juice Brix, pH, and TA). Comparisons included:

Fruit from short canes vs. fruit from long canes:1) One-way ANOVA of Node 1 (basal) fruit from short vs. long canes2) One-way ANOVA of Node 2 fruit from short vs. long canes3) Fruit data within each cane were averaged, and a one-way ANOVA used to

compare fruit characteristics of long vs short canes. These combined fruit are what would constitute the total yield for the grower, and fruit characteristics for the winery.


Fruit from differing node positions:4) Two-tailed, t-tests with α = 0.05 were used to compare fruit of Nodes 1 vs.

2 across all canes, and separately in short canes and long canes.5) Fruit from Nodes 1, 2, 3, and 4 of long canes were compared using

ANOVA, with canes as a blocking factor. When there were significant differences (P ≤ 0.05), means were separated using Tukey’s method. Because four of these canes had just 4 nodes, only the fruit from nodes 1-4 were analyzed to avoid uneven sample sizes.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Cane length (short vs long) did not significantly influence fruit yield (cluster weight, cluster number, berry weight, or berry numbers) or quality (Brix, pH or TA) in this study (Table 1).

Table 1. Means of fruit characteristics of “Brianna” grapes on short vs. long cane lengths, comparing fruit from basal (node 1), node 2, or all fruit on an individual cane combined. Short canes had two nodes; long canes had from 4 to 6 nodes; n = 12 for all comparisons.

Total Cluster Weight

(g)

Number of

Clusters

Berry Weight

(g)

Number of

Berries

Brix Units pH

Acidity (g/100

mL)

Node 1Short cane 136.4 1.8 132.1 58.5 17.8 3.55 0.69Long cane 120.4 1.8 115.6 50.5 16.6 3.50 0.78

F-value 0.30 0.01 0.33 0.46 2.27 1.11 1.62P-value 0.5902 0.9379 0.5693 0.5021 0.1454 0.3041 0.2159

Node 2Short cane 193.2 1.9 179.5 74 18.4 3.65 0.63Long cane 161.8 2.0 154.9 69 17.1 3.55 0.69

F-value 1.05 0.11 0.77 0.19 3.38 3.58 1.75P-value 0.3163 0.7468 0.3888 0.6649 0.0794 0.0716 0.1999

All fruit* Short canes 169.9 1.9 159 68.15 18.0 3.59 0.66Long canes 181.8 2.1 175 75.1 16.8 3.56 0.70

F-value 0.22 1.2 22.83 44.75 3.11 0.86 0.87P-value 0.6405 0.2842 0.4806 0.4580 0.0909 0.3637 0.3603

*All fruit from each cane averaged before statistical analyses


Node position affected yield (cluster and berry wt.), pH and TA, depending on the shoot length (Table 2). Across all canes, and in short canes, cluster and berry weights were significantly higher at the 2nd node than the basal node. In long canes this difference between the two bottom nodes was not significant; although fruit weights from the 2nd node were greater than those from the 1st node, there was too much variability to be significant. Berry numbers did not differ significantly between nodes 1 and 2 in short or long canes. Fruit weights and berry numbers of node 1 were significantly lower compared to those of node 4 of long canes; berry numbers and weights steadily increased from the basal node to node 4 of long canes.

No significant differences in Brix were observed due to node position (Table 2). Juice pH increased significantly from node 1 to node 2 in short canes; no node position differences were significant in long canes, although pH increased gradually with increasing node position in long canes (Table 2). Finally, TA decreased with increased node position, although this was significant only in long canes (Table 2).

Table 2. Comparisons of fruit characteristics of ‘Brianna” grapes produced on the first (basal) or second node positions on canes, within all canes or short (2 node) canes only, using two-tailed t-tests (α = 0.05); and fruit produced on node positions one (basal) thru four of long canes, using ANOVA, randomized complete block design.

Number of

Clusters

Total Cluster Wt (g)

Berry Wt. (g)

Number of

Berries

Brix Units pH

Acidity (g/100

mL)All canes (n = 24)

Node 1 1.8 128.7* 124.2* 58 17.2 3.53* 0.74*Node 2 2.0 183.4* 171.4* 71 17.7 3.59* 0.66*

t 1.445 3.308 3.018 1.707 1.785 2.547 3.596P 0.1615 0.0030 0.0059 0.1007 0.0869 0.0177 0.0015

Short canes (n = 12)Node 1 1.8 136.4* 132.1* 69 17.8 3.55* 0.70Node 2 2.0 203.4* 186.7* 78 18.2 3.64* 0.63

t 0.8978 2.674 2.292 0.8892 1.390 2.249 1.865P 0.3870 0.0203 0.0408 0.3914 0.1899 0.0441 0.0890

Long canes (n = 12)Node 1 1.8 120.4 A** 115.6 A 50 A 16.6 3.50 0.78 ANode 2 2.0 161.8 AB 154.9 AB 69 AB 17.1 3.55 0.69 ABNode 3 2.1 187.0 AB 180.4 AB 77 AB 16.4 3.55 0.69 ABNode 4 2.3 235.0 B 220.8 B 94 B 17.1 3.58 0.67 B

Tukey’s Q 0.729 87.61 83.31 35.3 1.18 0.104 0.098 F3,32 1.62 4.40 4.13 3.84 1.45 1.32 3.27P 0.2031 0.0106 0.0139 0.0187 0.2463 0.2852 0.0337

* Denotes significant differences between the first and second node positions. **Means within a column followed by the same letter do not differ at P ≤ 0.05 by Tukey’s test; absence of letters indicates no significant differences between treatments.


For ‘Brianna’, the most basal fruiting node on a cane bears fruit that has lower weight, greater acidity and lower pH, compared to fruits further out on the cane (Table 2). The changes in number of berries per node position, however, were not significant in short canes. Fruit differences between nodes 1 and 2 were signifi-cant only in short canes. In longer canes, there was a more gradual change from node 1 to node 4, with only nodes 1 and 4 differing significantly from each other.

In some Vitis cultivars, smaller clusters and greater TA in the fruit of basal node shoots has been attributed to the decreased light exposure of these nodes, as shoot positioning to achieve increased light levels diminished the differences between the node positions (Morris et al. 1984). Sanchez and Dokoozlian (2005) found that increasing the light exposure of basal nodes of “Thompson Seedless” grapes the previous season increased fruitfulness, but not enough to equal the yield of more distal nodes. In contrast, increasing light exposure for basal nodes of ‘Flame Seedless’ greatly decreased the difference in fruitfulness between basal and more distal nodes, with greater effect under higher light exposures.

In my study, light exposure was not measured, but short and long canes would have had similar amounts of light the previous season when the fruiting buds are set, perhaps explaining our lack of difference between short and long cane yield components. However, in analyzing fruit chemistry, which is determined primarily by current season conditions, I found no significant differences in fruit of node positions one and two of short- vs. long-pruned canes. If shading was a factor in fruit quality, the lack of difference between the basal fruit of the two cane lengths suggests that the longer canes were not shading basal shoots more than short canes.

My results suggest that growers will not greatly affect yield nor quality with short vs. long-cane pruning of ‘Brianna’. However, when thinning clusters, growers may choose to remove the clusters of the shoot nearest the cordon (basal nodes), as these clusters tend to be inferior in yield and desired fruit chemistry.

LITERATURE CITED

Abdel-Mohsen, M.A. 2013. Application of various pruning treatments for improving productivity and fruit quality of Crimson Seedless grapevine. World Journal of Agricultural Sciences 9(5):377-382.

Khanduja, S.D., and V.R. Balasubrahmanyam. 1972. Fruitfulness of grape vine buds. Economic Botany 26(3):280-294.

Morris, J.R., D.L. Cawthon, and C.A. Sims. 1984. Long-term effects of prun-ing severity, nodes per bearing unit, training system, and shoot positioning on yield and quality of ‘Concord’ grapes. Journal American Society for Horticultural Science 109(5):676-683.

Sanchez, L.A., and N.K. Dokoozlian. 2005. Bud micro-climate and fruitfulness in Vitis vinifera. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture 56(4):319-329.

Tomer, N.S. 1990. Fruiting potential and qualify of “Perlette” grape (Vitis vinif-era) with differential pruning trained on head system. Indian Journal of Agricultural Science 60(5):327-331.


ERRATUM

Swanson, D. L. 2015. From Tabeau to SDOU: A brief history of ornithology in South Dakota with special reference to works published in

the Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science. Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science 94:29-51.

An error occurred on page 34 of Swanson (2015), where I stated that “The Mississippi Kite record, a specimen collected by Duke Wilhelm on 30 August 1823 from the Bijou Hills, current Brule County, South Dakota, is particularly noteworthy. This specimen served as the model for Alexander Wilson’s painting of this species in American Ornithology.”

The statement about the specimen serving as the model for Wilson’s painting in his American Ornithology, was based upon my misinterpretation of the notes in Wilhelm’s journal (1973), and is incorrect. Alexander Wilson died on 23 August 1813 (Burtt and Davis 2013), and the portrait of the Mississippi Kite appeared in the third volume of the series, published in 1811 (Wilson 1811; Bolen and Flores 1993), so Wilson obviously could not have been the painter of a specimen collected in 1823. In addition, descriptions of Wilson’s collection of a Mississippi Kite, from which he painted the portrait that appears in American Ornithology, have appeared elsewhere (Wilson 1811, Cantwell 1961; Bolen and Flores 1993; Burtt and Davis 2013). The bird was shot by Wilson, but was only injured and not killed outright, and when he retrieved the bird it embedded its talons deeply into Wilson’s hand, so that he had to cut the “sinew” of the back toe (probably the Achilles tendon) to remove the bird from his hand (Wilson 1811; Burtt and Davis 2013). Wilson kept the bird alive and made the painting for the American Ornithology portrait from the live bird (Cantwell 1961).

I am unaware of the final disposition of the 1823 Wilhelm specimen of Mississippi Kite from the Bijou Hills, as Wilhelm’s natural history collection was scattered or destroyed after his death in 1860 (Lottinville 1973, Kinzelbach 2013).

LITERATURE CITED

Bolen, E.G., and D. Flores. 1993. The Mississippi Kite: Portrait of a southern hawk. University of Texas Press, Austin, TX.

Burtt, E.H., Jr., and W.E. Davis, Jr. 2013. Alexander Wilson: The Scot who founded American ornithology. Belknap Press of Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, MA.

Cantwell, R. 1961. Alexander Wilson: Naturalist and Pioneer. J.B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia, PA.

Kinzelbach, R. 2013. Die Vogelsammlung Karl Eduard Hammerschmidt und verschollene Teile der Sammlung des Herzogs Paul Wilhelm, Prinz von Württemberg, am Gymnasium am Kaiserdom zu Speyer und in der


Zoologischen Sammlung Der Universität Rostock. Vogelwarte 51:81-96. (English Abstract)

Lottinville, S. 1973 Editor’s Introduction to Wilhelm, P. 1973. Travels in North America 1822-1824. Translated by W.R. Nitske, Edited by S. Lottinville. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, OK.

Swanson, D.L. 2015. From Tabeau to SDOU: A brief history of ornithology in South Dakota with special reference to works published in the Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science. Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science. 94:29-51.

Wilhelm, P. 1973. Travels in North America 1822-1824. Translated by W.R. Nitske, Edited by S. Lottinville. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, OK.

Wilson, A. 1811. American Ornithology, Vol. 3. (See Brewer, T.M. 1840. Wilson’s American Ornithology. Otis, Broaders, and Co., Boston, MA). Reprinted in 1970 by Arno Press & The New York Times, New York, NY.

Abstracts of

Senior Research Papers and Posterspresented at the

102nd Annual Meetingof the



CHILD OBESITY IN RURAL COMMUNITIES OF SOUTH DAKOTA: COMMUNITY-BASED

PARTICIPATORY RESEARCH

Manuel A. Guillen, Nicholas J. Wixon, and Tamara K. Pease*Division of Natural Sciences

Mount Marty CollegeYankton, SD 57078


ABSTRACT

According to the CDC, more than 1/3 of children and adolescents were overweight or obese in 2012. In order to identify ways to promote exercise and healthy habits in children (3rd to 5th grade, n = 7) from rural communities, we had subjects participate in a variety of activities (e.g., basketball, soccer, tennis, etc.) for 1½ hours, 3 times a week. They were also invited to attend Family Night activities. Waist circumference, BMI, height, weight, heart rate, and recovery from a one-minute stress test were measured. Psychosocial surveys (Kid Kindl©) were administered to evaluate mood/attitude toward physical activity, friendships, and family. Participants were asked to self-report their steps with pedometers. Results show that overweight children have less positive feelings toward friends and a lower sense of general well-being. Although physiological parameters didn’t change significantly, community response was favorable towards the development of a sustainable program.


DISCOVERING GENETIC PATHWAYS INVOLVED IN SOYBEAN ROOT NODULE DEVELOPMENT

VIA BIOINFORMATIC ANALYSIS

Geoffrey Gray-Lobe1, Alexandra Suriani1, and Etienne Gnimpieba2*1Chemistry DepartmentMount Marty CollegeYankton, SD 57078

2Biomedical Engineering ProgramUniversity of South Dakota

Vermillion, SD 57069*Corresponding author email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Root nodules are formed by a symbiotic interaction between the roots of some legumes and nitrogen-fixing bacteria. However, the genetic pathways responsible for the development of these important structures are poorly understood. This study identified leading pathways which appear to be key factors in the develop-ment of soybean root nodules. Broad Institute’s GSEAPreranked and Leading Edge analysis tools were chosen for their ability to accept transformed data files as inputs. R was used to transform the data input files. Gene set enrichment analysis revealed 24 interrelated sets of genes with normalized enrichment scores over 3.00, which may be responsible for the differentiation between root nodules and morphologically similar structures. The relationships between these genetic pathways will be examined with Cytoscape network visualization and analysis tools to facilitate further study of the genetic basis of nodule development.


SURVIVAL AND DRIFT BEHAVIOR OF PALLID STURGEON FREE EMBRYOS AND LARVAE

IN AN ARTIFICIAL CHANNEL

K. J. Buhl* and T. W. SchaefferU.S. Geological Survey

Yankton Field Research Station31247 436th AvenueYankton, SD 57078


ABSTRACT

Laboratory studies were conducted to quantify survival and dispersal behaviors of pallid sturgeon free embryos and larvae, and to assess their tolerance to differ-ent water velocities. The dispersal behavior experiments were conducted in two large oval flumes in both 2014 and 2015. Both flumes produced nominal water velocities of 0.15 m/s (at 19 ± 1 ⁰C) and were nearly identical, except for different water delivery systems in 2014 and the addition of different substrates (sand and gravel) in 2015. Experiments were initiated with 10 newly-hatched free embryos, and survival and dispersal behaviors were monitored every three hours for 21-28 days. There was no difference in the overall survival of fish between flumes within a given year (30% in 2014 and 40-60% in 2015). Estimated dispersal velocities decreased by 20-72% for fish at ≥11 days posthatch (dph) in 2014 and by 12-93% for fish at ≥9 dph in 2015 compared to the corresponding water velocities. Fish were observed holding position (for at least 30 seconds) along the bottom at 12 dph in 2014 and at 9 dph in 2015. Our findings indicate that free embryos began transitioning to the benthic-orientated larval stage at 9 dph in 2015 and at 11 dph in 2014. In separate velocity challenge studies conducted in oval tanks, we exposed free embryos of pallid sturgeon and paddlefish and16-dph pallid sturgeon larvae to a graded series of velocities ranging from 0.00-0.45 m/s to estimate median lethal velocities (LV50). Free embryos of both species (5-day LV50, 0.11 m/s) were twice as sensitive to the test velocities compared to pallid sturgeon larvae (5-day LV50, 0.22m/s).


QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF TEMPO AND KEYS/MODES EFFECTS ON HEART RATE AND BLOOD

PRESSURE

Maggie Wallis and Kenneth Tice*Division of Arts and Humanities

Mount Marty CollegeYankton, SD 57078


ABSTRACT

Heart disease is the number one cause of death in the United States. While the death rate is high, there is still little we know to help prevent heart disease or lessen the symptoms. The long-term goal of this project is to explore the potential of new music therapies that may help reduce symptoms of, or treat, heart disease. This study included 30 participants who were not diagnosed with heart disease and are not taking heart regulatory medication. The experiment consisted of four 30-min listening sessions of either instrumental or piano classical music. Each playlist was organized in descending or varied tempi and major or minor modes. The music did not have any lyrics. The goal of this summer trial was to determine at what tempo(s) heart rate and blood pressure are affected, and if the major or minor mode is a factor in those effects.


COMMUNITY-BASED PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH: ADOLESCENT EXERCISE AND WELLNESS IN RURAL SOUTH DAKOTA

Nicholas J. Wixon*, Manuel A. Guillen, and Tamara K. PeaseMount Marty CollegeYankton, SD 57078

*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

According to the CDC, adolescent obesity has quadrupled over the past 30 years. Given such dramatic increases we used Community-Based Participatory Action Research to determine how to motivate adolescents to live active and healthy lifestyles. Adolescents (6th-8th grade, n = 20) engaged in physical activities and nutrition education in a six-week study. Physical parameters (BMI, blood pressure, resting heart rate, etc.) were taken at the beginning, middle, and end of the study. General well-being, self confidence, and positivity toward family and friends were evaluated via Kid Kindle Surveys. Physiological parameters showed no significant change over the 6 weeks. In the psychosocial surveys, subjects scored high in nearly every category, except self-confidence. Physically fit subjects who participated and scored higher on the psychosocial satisfaction survey had strong parental support, and were happier as a whole. Community response was strong and supports the development of a sustainable program.


ANALYSIS OF DNA DOUBLE STRAND BREAKS INDUCED BY PSEUDOMONAS SYRINGAE

VIRULENCE FACTORS

Victoria Biach and Andrew R. Russell*Northern State University

Aberdeen, SD 57401*Corresponding author email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Organisms encounter DNA damage from a wide variety of sources, including ultraviolet light, genotoxic chemicals, reactive oxygen species, and DNA repli-cation errors. Perhaps the most devastating damage that can occur is a double strand break (DSB) in which both sides of the DNA double helix become sev-ered. Recently, DSBs were shown to occur in plants after challenge with known pathogenic microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, and oomycetes. This phenomenon is also triggered by many animal and human pathogens and may be a common strategy used to inflict damage on host cells. Collectively, these studies give evidence of a conserved pathogenic mechanism; however, we know very little about how microorganisms inflict such damage to the host’s genetic material. To elucidate the molecular basis of how pathogens induce DSBs, we are studying the virulence factors from various pathovars of the plant pathogen Pseudomonas syringae. One pathovar, P. s. DC3000, has been shown to induce DSBs in the plant model system, Arabidopsis thaliana, yet the molecular weap-ons that cause this damage are unknown. Our current approach is two pronged: First, we inoculated several related pathovars onto Arabidopsis in an attempt to find at least one that does not induce DSBs. Second, we are using comparative genomics to catalog genetic differences between these pathovars that provide a potential genetic basis for this phenomenon. Initial comparisons have revealed that P.s. DC3000 contains far more effector proteins (55) compared to three other sequenced pathovars (27, 22, and 19, respectively). Likewise, P.s. DC3000 is the only sequenced pathovar that expresses the phytotoxin coronatine. Future studies will focus on reconstruction of the molecular interactions necessary for DSBs. The resulting work should provide valuable information about how micro-organisms exploit normal cellular processes in their host. Moreover, it will give us a clearer picture of how pathogens establish successful infections in plants, animals, and humans alike.


PARASITOID WASPS FROM SOYBEAN APHID, APHIS GLYCINES MATSUMURA (HEMIPTERA: APHIDIDAE), IN EASTERN SOUTH DAKOTA

Abigail P. Martens and Paul J. Johnson*Insect Biodiversity Lab

Department of Agronomy, Horticulture and Plant ScienceSouth Dakota State University

Brookings, SD 57007*Corresponding author email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Late-season parasitoid wasp diversity on soybean aphid (Aphis glycines Matsumura; Hemiptera: Aphididae) was assayed in unsprayed plots at the U.S.D.A. Soil and Water Research Farm, 2 miles north of Brookings, South Dakota. Binodoxys communis Gahan (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), a widely-released introduced species, and two introduced Aphelinus (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) species were released in South Dakota and neighboring states. Random plant samples (n = 12 per variety) were examined for the presence of aphid mummies indicating parasitoid presence, with beige mummies repre-senting aphidiine wasps and black mummies Aphelinus aff. varipes (Foerster). Adult wasps were reared from occupied mummies for confirmation of identity. Complementary sweep samples in plots resulted in a diversity of 16 parasit-oid wasp species for all soybean varieties combined; two Lysiphlebus testaceipes (Cresson), a few A. aff. varipes, and mostly species of other Braconidae that occurred in low numbers each, species of Chalcidoidea representing several families, and singletons of various Ichneumonidae. The braconid and ichneu-mon wasps are parasitoids of moth caterpillars and the larvae of other non-aphid insects, and indicate substantial parasitoid diversity in unsprayed soybean. A chi-square analysis revealed a significant difference (P < 0.01) between the numbers of L. testaceipes and A. aff. varipes mummies on `Brookings’ and ‘Hefty 19Y11’ varieties of soybean, and in the number of mummies between varieties (P < 0.01). Aphelinus aff. varipes was the primary parasitoid of soybean aphid and seemed to occur at effective biocontrol levels. This species is not reported from soybean in South Dakota. Binodoxys communis was not recovered.


CYTOTOXICITY OF URBAN DUST AND DIESEL EXHAUST PARTICULATE IN MURINE

ASTROCYTE CELLS

Tyler R. Fortuna, Peyton C. Price, Kevin J. Lopez, Andrew J. Schwader, and Paula A. Mazzer*

Department of Chemistry and Physical ScienceDakota Wesleyan University

Mitchell, SD 57301Corresponding author email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Alzheimer’s and related neurodegenerative diseases affect as many as 24 mil-lion individuals world-wide—a number which will increase with our increasing global population. In a recent survey of epidemiological evidence, a panel of experts concluded that the existing data suggest a lower incidence of age-related dementia in developing regions. A potential link between urban environments and neurodegenerative diseases was found by a series of studies conducted in dogs and humans in Mexico City, Mexico, which found markers of amyloid-b accu-mulation and oxidative stress in their brains. Dogs and humans from rural areas did not show these neuropathological findings. These findings suggest that the difference may be due to the heavy, airborne particulate matter in Mexico City.

We studied the ability of urban dust (NIST SRM 1649a) and diesel exhaust particulate matter (NIST SRM 2975) to induce cytotoxicity and oxidative stress in murine astrocyte cells (ATCC C8-D1A). Diesel exhaust particulate matter (DEP) and urban dust (UD) have very different organic components, with UD containing a higher concentration of oxidized aromatic compounds. Therefore, we hypothesized that these two airborne particulate types would produce differ-ent toxicological effects in our astrocyte cells.

LC50 determinations showed DEP to be more toxic with an LC50 of 35 μg/mL versus the LC50 of UD at 52 μg/mL. A caspase 3 activity assay showed that the enzyme was activated by DEP but not by UD. These data suggest that DEP is inducing apoptotic cell death, while UD is inducing necrotic cell death. The dif-ference in cell death suggests that UD could be more harmful in vivo due to the release of intracellular components caused by the rupture of the cell membrane. The necrotic cell death could lead to the oxidative stress found in previous studies of brains from polluted environments.


MODELLING DISTRIBUTION FUNCTIONS FOR SIMULATION PARAMETERS

USING C++ GENERATING SCRIPTS

Caleb Vangerpen* and J. A. MaloneyDakota State University

Madison, SD 57042*Corresponding author email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

In the field of scientific research, simulating real-world scenarios for testing requires accurately generated parameters. These parameters can be modelled using a variety of distribution functions, such as uniform or Gaussian. Data in particle and accelerator physics can follow lesser-known distribution functions. Many simulation codes do not directly model these less common distributions. Number generating scripts are developed and evaluated for a variety of distribu-tion functions. Necessary input parameters can be supplied to generate output that fits the desired distribution function. The output is compared and evaluated.


THE HERTZSPRUNG-RUSSELL DIAGRAM AND CLASSIFICATION OF STARS

Cheyanne M. HardtDakota State University

Madison, SD 57042Corresponding author email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The system of classification of stars and the Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) dia-gram provide information about the size, luminosity, surface temperature, and elemental composition of stars. The seven main categories of stars, and their sub-divisions are described and the system of classification of stars is explained. The Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) diagram is explained with examples of known stars with differing characteristics.


COMPOSITION OF INVERTEBRATE PREY IN SELECTED WESTERN SOUTH DAKOTA RIVERS

E. Peterson, N. H. Troelstrup*, Jr., S. Jones, K. N. Bertrand, and B. D. S. Graeb

Department of Wildlife and Fisheries SciencesSouth Dakota State University


ABSTRACT

Invertebrates are an important resource for consumers and should be con-sidered in management of sportfish populations as a factor influencing the health of the fishery. Our study ultimately seeks to draw a relationship between invertebrate prey availability and the channel catfish fishery of western South Dakota through diet analysis, but aquatic invertebrates have only been sampled sporadically in this half of the state. We visited 23 mainstem sites across the Grand, Moreau, Cheyenne, Bad, and White River basins to collect aquatic inver-tebrates and channel catfish. We found 146 unique taxa of aquatic invertebrates across all sites. The 5 most abundant genera, representing 5 taxonomic fami-lies, made up a cumulative 65.6% of the relative abundance of all invertebrate prey. These taxa were Cheumatopsyche (Hydropsychidae, 39.1%), Polypedilum (Chironomidae, 10.5%), Caenis (Caenidae, 5.4%), Simulium (Simuliidae, 5.3%) and Tricorythodes (Leptohyphidae, 5.1%). Chironomidae, Simuliidae, Hydropsychidae, and Leptohyphidae were also the most abundant families in the channel catfish diets, accounting for 51.5%, 21.4%, 11.9%, and 5.9% of total invertebrate prey items, respectively. There were no significant differences in invertebrate diversity or evenness within or between the river basins. These results suggest that channel catfish prey are ubiquitous in the region and that cat-fish may select disproportionately for some diet items, such as Hydropsychidae. Additionally, our study added as many as 12 new taxa to the South Dakota Aquatic Invertebrate Collection. This repository provides state-level invertebrate distribution information that can be useful to agencies seeking to manage fresh-water fisheries that rely on these prey resources.


SIMULATING DIET SELECTION OF CATTLE GRAZING MIXED-GRASS PRAIRIE

C. J. Zilverberg1*, J. Williams1, J. Angerer2, and L. J. Metz3

1Texas A&M AgriLife ResearchTemple, TX, 76502

2Department of Ecosystem Science and ManagementTexas A&M University

College Station, TX 778403USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service

Resources Assessment DivisionTemple, TX 76502

*Corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Simulation models allow scientists to evaluate multiple hypothetical scenarios in situations where time or cost prohibit field research. We improved the APEX model’s ability to simulate grazing of diverse vegetation communities by imple-menting selective grazing. Available forages were classified into preference cat-egories (Preferred, Desirable, Undesirable, Non-consumed) based on their digest-ibility, crude protein content, and an antiquality factor. Simulated digestibility, crude protein, and antiquality change daily as species mature. We demonstrated use of the selective grazing algorithm by simulating the mixed grass prairie at Cottonwood, SD, using historic weather from 1963-1972. Three functional groups were simulated: C3 grass (western wheatgrass; Agropyron smithii), C4 grass (blue grama; Bouteloua gracilis), and forb (western ragweed; Ambrosia psylo-stachia). In agreement with our hypothesis, the simulated cattle preferred the C3 grass in the spring and autumn but preferred the C4 grass through most of the summer. Cattle preference for the forb increased through the growing season, but the forb was always less preferred to grasses due to its antiquality factor. Future work should validate simulation results by collecting field data on seasonal diet selection in mixed grass prairie. Once validated, the simulation model could be applied by, for instance, providing recommendations on timing and intensity of grazing to control an invasive C3 grass (e.g., crested wheatgrass; Agropyron cristatum) while encouraging growth of native C4 grasses (e.g., blue grama, big bluestem; Andropogon gerardii). The model might also be used to predict medium-term species dynamics (C3 vs. C4) in response to different stocking rates or grazing intensities.


CRYSTAL STRUCTURE AND MAGNETISM IN MN2FeSb HEUSLER COMPOUNDS

Jace Waybright, Basanta Bhusal, Yung Huh, and Parashu Kharel*Department of Physics



ABSTRACT

The increasing interest in spin-transport-based electronics has led to a con-siderable search for new materials from the Heusler family of compounds. The Mn-based Heusler compounds have special importance because they are mostly ferrimagnetic with high Curie temperatures (Tc) and some of them are crystal-lized in the tetragonal crystal structure with high magnetic anisotropy. However, the synthesis of these materials with perfect crystalline order is very difficult and most of the reported materials have substantial structural disorder. We are inter-ested in understanding how the structural and magnetic properties of Mn2FeSb, a predicted half-metal in cubic L21 structure, change as the Mn concentration is changed slightly. We synthesized Mn2.2FeSb, Mn2FeSb and Mn1.8FeSb with vary-ing Mn concentrations using arc-melting. X-ray diffraction showed that all three compounds crystallized with single-phase tetragonal crystal structure, which is different from the theoretically predicted structure for its most stable phase. The room-temperature high-field (30 kOe) magnetization of Mn2FeSb was 24 emu/g, which increased slightly to 26 emu/g for Mn2.2FeSb and 27 emu/g for Mn1.8FeSb. All the samples exhibited high Curie temperatures much above room temperature where the Tc for Mn2.2FeSb, Mn2FeSb and Mn1.8FeSb were respectively 515 K, 456 K and 433 K. We will discuss the effect of nanostructuring and heat treat-ment in the structural and magnetic properties of these materials.

This research is supported by Research/Scholarship Support Fund, Office of Research Assurance & Sponsored Programs, South Dakota State University. We would like to thank Prof. David Sellmyer, Yunlong Jin, and Dr. Shah Valloppilly, Nebraska Center for Materials and Nanoscience, for their help in the synthesis of ribbon samples and analyzing structural data.


SIMPLE EXTRACTION AND PURIFICATION OF ARTEMISIA CANA:

SEARCHING FOR THE MALARIA MEDICATION ARTEMISININ

Alec B. Millner1, Daniel L. Heglund1*, Aubree R. Rypkema1, Tyler J. Ryther1, John A. Dixson2, and Margaret Braasch-Turi3

1Department of Chemistry and Applied Biological SciencesSouth Dakota School of Mines

Rapid City, SD 577012School of Natural Sciences–Chemistry

Black Hills State UniversitySpearfish, SD 57799

3Chemistry DepartmentColorado State UniversityFort Collins, CO 80523


ABSTRACT

Nearly half the world’s population inhabits areas where malaria is a concern. There are several drugs available to treat malaria, including artemisinin, a com-pound first extracted from Artemisia annua. There is significant counterfeiting for artemisinin drugs throughout the supply chain, even in pharmacies. The goal of this research project is finding a domestic supply of artemisinin through extraction and simple purification of the sage Artemisia cana. A. cana was har-vested near Newell, SD, air dried, and Soxhlet extracted with methylene chlo-ride. The solvent was removed, leaving a mixture containing many compounds, such as chlorophyll, camphor, and potentially artemisinin. The crude extract was determined with reverse phase, isocratic, high performance liquid chroma-tography (HPLC) with diode-array detection, showing ~12 major compounds, and a minor compound suspected to be artemisinin. Several solvent washes were performed with a separatory funnel to isolate the minor compound with dif-ferent solvent pairs. The efficiency of isolation was verified with HPLC, where the UV spectrum and retention time of the isolated compound matched stan-dards. A simple solvent pair of methylene chloride and slightly basic water was found to isolate with very high purity the suspect drug from other compounds. Additionally, the eluate from the HPLC was collected and the ultraviolet-visible spectrum was compared to pure compounds of artemisinin, artesunate, dihydro-artemisinin and artemether. Preliminary results indicate the isolated compound from A. cana is artemisinin.


INTERSEXUAL DISPLAYS AND VOCALIZATIONS OF ANOLIS CAROLINENSIS

S. G. Kramer, T. I. Durnin, and A. M. Anderson*Northern State University

Aberdeen, SD 57401Corresponding author email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Most reptiles are mute, however some possess the ability to vocalize—most notably those within Gekkonidae, Chamaeloeonidae, and Iguandidae. Vocalization has also been observed in at least 16 species within Anolis (Polychrotidae), with this ability most well known in A. grahami. Despite the extensive history of behavioral study, vocalization has not been described for the model organism Anolis carolinensis. The absence of vocalization information may be a result of our own inadequacies. Humans can only hear sounds up to 20 kHz, so it is possible that this species is making sounds above this threshold. To determine if this is the case, four male and two female A. carolinensis were tested using a Song Meter SM4BAT ultrasonic audio recorder. This device recorded the animals in three situations: (1) two males placed in a terrarium adjacent to the female terrarium, allowing both sexes to see each other, (2) two females placed in a small terrarium which was inserted into the males’ terrarium and (3) males and females recorded by themselves without intersexual stimuli. The resulting audio files were analyzed using Kaleidoscope sound analysis software to determine whether certain vocalization patterns occur. This experiment has produced several recordings characteristic of animal vocalizations thus far which seems to extend to the ultrasonic range. We anticipate further analysis will determine which stimuli elicit vocalizations.


FELID FOOD CACHING TAPHONOMY: PRELIMINARY RESULTS OF A CONTROLLED

STUDY WITH FELIS CATUS AND BEHAVIORAL CORRELATIONS WITH WILD, PREDATORY

CARNIVORA

Ed Welsh*Badlands National Park,

Interior, SD 57750*Corresponding author e-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Studies concentrated on skeletal remains within denning and cave sites to understand food caching behavior of wild carnivorans frequently conveyed rea-sonable doubt towards a distinct contributor. Interpretations included suspicion of multiple predators contributing a particular prey resource. Some studies have demonstrated contamination from non-predatory contributors. A controlled study with Felis catus was conducted over the course of three days to examine the prey assemblage of Peromyscus from an individual predator. Field study included grid-mapping and documenting of carcasses and associated fecal material to account for the variables involved with initiating bone accumulation in a den site. Eleven incomplete Peromyscus carcasses were discovered, five crania and six various components of the pelvic girdle. Partial carcasses typically were comprised of crania, hind legs, and tails. F. catus demonstrated feeding preferences with Peromyscus, discarding remains comprised of mostly indigestible material. This compares to previous controlled feeding studies of leopards (Panthera pardus) on hyrax carcasses. Also, thirteen uneaten carcasses demonstrate surplus killing behavior, likely due to high prey density. Factors of prey accumulation duration, prey availability, along with surplus killing behavior are considered with com-parative wild predator behavior. Data from this analysis can serve as a model in understanding wild denning sites of other predators.


APPLICATION OF A STANDARDIZED METRIC OPTIMIZATION PROCESS FOR

THE DEVELOPMENT OF INDICES OF BIOTIC INTEGRITY IN SOUTH DAKOTA

Lyntausha C. Kuehl, Chad Kaiser, Katie N. Bertrand, and Nels H. Troelstrup, Jr.*

Department of Natural Resource ManagementSouth Dakota State University,


ABSTRACT

Indices of biotic integrity (IBI) are useful monitoring and assessment tools to evaluate progress toward goals of the Clean Water Act. A macroinverte-brate IBI (M-IBI) has already been developed for the Northern Glaciated Plains (NGP) ecoregion in eastern South Dakota. The specific objective of this study was to develop an optimized M-IBI for perennial, wadeable streams of the Northwestern Great Plains (NWGP) ecoregion. Macroinvertebrates were sampled from 65 wadeable streams throughout the NWGP in 2014 and 2015. Metrics of assemblage structure (n = 103) were calculated with corrected counts of genera and evaluated by examining value ranges, signal to noise ratios, correlations with natural gradients, discrimination between good and poor sites, redundancy, and a final range of values. Over 50% of the metrics were eliminated due to low value ranges and low signal to noise ratios. No metrics required correction for natural gradients. The NGP IBI (IBI range – 24 to 100, x = 54) was based upon the Hilsenhoff Biotic Index (HBI), percent abundance of climbing taxa, percent abundance of insects, and Trichoptera generic richness. The NWGP IBI (IBI range – 21 to 90, x = 46) included invertebrate family richness, non-insect generic richness, HBI, and Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera generic richness. Both IBI’s were capable of differentiating streams of good and poor condition. Data generated from the use of these IBI’s will provide an objective basis for evaluating stream biotic integrity against the State’s narrative biocriteria.


WATERSHED VULNERABILITY TO FORECASTED LAND-USE AND LAND-COVER CHANGE

UNDER MULTIPLE SCENARIOS OF FUTURE DEVELOPMENT

A. Suehring and N. H. Troelstrup, Jr.*Department of Natural Resource Management



ABSTRACT

A projected increase in global population by mid-century will likely further intensify agricultural practices in the region given future demand for food, increasing the strain on the state’s aquatic resources. Our objectives were to assess watershed vulnerability to land-use/land-cover (LULC) change under multiple scenarios of future development and prioritize watersheds for protection and restoration in the Northwestern Great Plains level III ecoregion of western South Dakota. We used U.S. EPA’s Analytical Tools Interface for Landscape Assessment (ATtILA) to analyze spatially explicit forecasted LULC maps for the year 2100 from the FOREcasting SCEnarios of Land-use Change model under four Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change scenarios. Vulnerability hotspots were consistently concentrated in the Moreau Prairie across all four scenarios. Areas presently dominated by agriculture experienced relatively little anthropo-genic LULC expansion at the end of the forecasting period and were classified as restoration priorities (i.e., low vulnerability and low watershed condition). Results were consistent with scenario assumptions emphasizing the economy over the environment, with a greater percentage of watersheds classified as pro-tection priorities (i.e., high vulnerability and high watershed condition) under the economic versus environmentally friendly scenarios. The assessment results presented here provide decision-makers a valuable tool to gain a better under-standing of landscape vulnerability to LULC change in an uncertain future, and to prevent potentially harmful future impacts to the state’s aquatic resources.


EFFECTS OF PULSED AND PRESSED DRAW-DOWN ON MACROINVERTEBRATE COMMUNITIES

OF TEMPORARY WETLAND MESOCOSMS

Lindsey Meiers and Nels Troelstrup, Jr.*Department of Natural Resource Management



ABSTRACT

Future climates are predicted to alter hydrology of freshwater ecosystems throughout the Midwest. This may have serious implications for temporary and seasonal wetland assemblages throughout the Prairie Pothole Region. The objective of this study was to evaluate changes to macroinvertebrate assemblage structure in response to pulse and press drying disturbances. Replicate wetland mesocosms (n = 4) were seeded with 2 kg of net (500 μm) material from a nearby seasonal wetland. Treatments included unaltered controls, pulse water draw-down to 25% of total volume repeated throughout the summer and press draw-down to 25% of total volume sustained throughout the summer. Invertebrate samples were drawn from each mesocosm after acclimation at the beginning of the experiment and at the end. Total invertebrate abundance increased in all mesocosms from the beginning to the end of the experiment (x Increase = 2581 individuals). Gastropods (91%) were found in the highest numbers, followed by annelids (7%) and insects (0.7%). Gastropods tended to be more abundant while annelids and insects were least abundant under pressed draw-down conditions. None of those treatment effects varied significantly from controls. However, percent abundance of minor contributing taxa were significantly depressed by both treatments from near 1% of total abundance in controls to near zero. While many of the dominant invertebrates of our seasonal wetlands appear to be well adapted to seasonal draw-down, these disturbances are likely to impair assem-blage diversity through elimination of minor contributing taxa should frequency and intensity increase in the future.


DIVERSIFICATION AND MAINTENANCE OF DISEASE RESISTANT GENES IN THE BREAD WHEAT

(TRITICUM AESTIVUM L.) GENOME

Ethan J. Andersen and Madhav P. Nepal*Department of Biology and Microbiology



ABSTRACT

Use of wheat cultivars resistant to yield-reducing pathogens provides a rela-tively cheap and environmentally friendly method for combating crop disease. Recently available complete genome sequences of wheat (Triticum aestivum) and its progenitors (T. urartu and Aegilops tauschii) allow for investigation into the evolution and diversity of gene families, including those that confer resistance to pathogens, such as Coiled-coil, Nucleotide-binding-site, and Leucine-rich repeat (CNL) genes. The objectives of this study were to identify and analyze the CNL gene orthologs of T. aestivum, T. urartu, and A. tauschi. We identified 609, 318, and 392 CNL genes in T. aestivum, T. urartu, and A. tauschii, respectively. Selection pressure analyses showed that CNL genes experienced purifying selec-tion and exhibit evolutionary patterns similar to that in barley and other grass species. Implementation of a duplication-loss model shows numerous instances where one or two of the three species experienced gene duplication or species-specific loss of their orthologs. Homology to RPM1, RPP13, RPS2, Lr21, Yr10, MLA, and many other characterized resistance genes was observed, providing a basis for functional characterization. Future studies should aim to quantify expression and signaling mechanisms regarding such genes in wheat.


DO NATIVE PLANTS DEPLOY MORE RAPIDLY EVOLVING GENES THAN THEIR CULTIVATED

RELATIVES DO?

Lauren E. Lindsey, Ethan J. Andersen and Madhav P. Nepal*Department of Biology and Microbiology



ABSTRACT

Due to conserved nucleotide sequences, nuclear ribosomal DNA and chloro-plast ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase large subunit (rbcL) DNA sequences are commonly used in phylogenetic analysis of various plant species. In contrast, resistance genes (R-genes) are highly variable within plant genomes that diver-sify in response to rapidly evolving pathogens. In this study, we compared the mutation rates of nuclear Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS), chloroplast rbcL, and R-gene sequences from 21 native grass species and ten crop species. Native grasses showed a higher mutation rate among R-gene sequences compared to that in crop species, with all 31 species retaining more conserved ITS and RBCL sequences. Multiple amplicon sequences were found in native grasses, which we infer to be the result of expansions in the R-gene family that were not seen in crop species. Our data support the hypothesis that the genes in native grass spe-cies diversify faster than in crop species, although the genome of both native and crop species contain both fast and slow evolving genes.


SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF POLYCARBONATES FROM

1,4:3,6-DIANHYDRO-D-MANNITOL

J. A. Pallas and Ts. Filipova*Chemistry and Applied Biological Sciences Department

South Dakota School of Mines & TechnologyRapid City, SD 57719


ABSTRACT

Polycarbonate resins are commonly manufactured from raw materials obtained from oil resources. Bisphenol A polycarbonate (BPA-PC) obtained from 2,2-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)propane has a wide range of applications including optical recording media, prescription eyeglasses, architectural window glazing, automotive moon roofs, and aircraft canopies. BPA-PC has high transparency and heat resistance and excellent mechanical properties such as impact resistance. The synthesis of polymeric materials based on monomers from renewable resources is a progressively growing field of interest stimulated by the rising concern for the environment. Synthetic efforts in our group have been directed toward the synthesis of novel bio-based polycarbonates which may have potential in higher performance applications. We were interested in exploring how incorporation of 1,4:3,6-dianhydro-D-mannitol (isomannide) moieties might affect the properties of newly synthesized copolycarbonates. Isomannide is obtained from D-mannose and is linked to its rigidity, chirality, and non-toxicity. When incorporated into polycarbonate, this rigid secondary diol imparts high chain stiffness, which could result in an increased glass transition temperature (Tg). Solution polycondensa-tion of isomannide with both a 50/50 and a 75/25 molar ratio of isomanniade and 2,2-bis-(4-(4’-hydroxyphenyl)phenyl)propane monomers was performed using triphosgene and pyridine. Preliminary results indicate that polymers formed are soluble in chlorinated solvents. Results related to the synthesis of the novel bio-polycarbonates, with highlights put on the difficulties encountered to polymerize isomanniade-based materials, were reported. The molecular structure of the synthesized isommanide-based homo-copolycarbonates was analyzed by 1H NMR and FTIR spectroscopy. Tg was investigated by differential scanning calorimetry.


IDENTIFICATION OF POTENTIAL LECTINS USEFUL FOR DIAGNOSING EGGS OF DIFFERENT

TRICHOSTRONGYLE NEMATODE GENERA IN SOUTH DAKOTA CATTLE

A. J. Nikolas, P. Khanal, P. S. Heliso, L. M. N. Monga, and M. B. Hildreth*Department of Biology & Microbiology



ABSTRACT

Ruminant livestock are parasitized by several genera of trichostrongyle nema-todes that vary in their pathology, control strategies, and tendency to develop anthelmintic resistance. Diagnosing trichostrongyle species is difficult as their eggs are morphologically indistinguishable. Lectin staining is used to diagnose eggs of the three most common trichostrongyles in sheep and goat; however, similar studies haven’t been conducted with cattle trichostrongyle eggs. To identify potential lectin candidates for future evaluation, we initiated a study involving an eastern South Dakota cow-calf herd shown (with PCR analysis) to be excreting eggs from the 4 most common species of cattle trichostron-gyles from this region: Ostertagia ostertagia, Cooperia oncophora, Haemonchus placei and Trichostrongylus spp. Eggs, isolated from fecal samples, were fixed in formalin, washed in water, incubated for one hour in 30/ml of each of 23 lectins (rhodamine conjugated screening kits I or II or fluorescein screening kit III from Vector Lab Inc.) diluted in HEPES buffer, washed again in water for 30 min, added to a drop of Vectashield (Vector Lab. Inc.) on a microscope slide covered with a cover-slip, and finally photographed with an Olympus BX53 epifluorescence microscope equipped with rhodamine and fluorescein filter cubes. Out of 23 lectins tested, 13 of them showed significant bind-ing to at least some of the eggs; these were Erythrina cristagalli lectin, Arachis hypogaea (peanut) agglutinin, Jaquelin lectin, Maclura pomifera agglutinin, Datura stramonium lectin, Solanum tuberosum (potato) lectin, Lycopersicon esculentum (tomato) lectin, Pisum sativum agglutinin, Lens culinaris agglutinin, Concanavalin A, Lotus tetragonolobus agglutinin, Aleuria aurantia agglutinin, and Phaseolus vulgaris erythroagglutinin.


THE HETZ GENE REGULATES HETEROCYST FORMATION IN ANABAENA SP. STRAIN PCC 7120

P. Videau1*, V. A. Swenson1, M. O. Gaylor1, S. M. O’Hanlon2, and L. M. Cozy3

1College of Arts and SciencesDakota State University

Madison, SD 570422School of Psychological Science

Oregon State UniversityCorvallis, OR 97331

3Department of BiologyIllinois Wesleyan University

Bloomington, IL 61701*Corresponding author email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

To form a complex multicellular organism, stem cells must differentiate into each cell/tissue type along proper spatiotemporal scales. The study of differentia-tion and organismal development has historically been conducted in prokaryotes due to their genetic and morphological simplicity. Anabaena sp. strain PCC 7120 is a multicellular filamentous cyanobacterium that differentiates a morphologi-cally distinct secondary cell type, the heterocyst, in response to a lack of com-bined environmental nitrogen. Heterocysts are regularly spaced along filaments and fix atmospheric dinitrogen to maintain organismal viability in its absence. Previous work suggested that the hetZ gene is involved in heterocyst differentia-tion, but the insertional mutants created produced inconsistent phenotypes, so a specific role was not assigned. In this work, a clean hetZ mutant incapable of het-erocyst differentiation was generated and the mutation was complemented with the reintroduction of hetZ alone. Overexpression of hetZ bypassed a mutation of hetR, the master regulator of heterocyst differentiation that controls biologi-cal pattern formation, but not a mutation of hetP, a regulator of commitment to a differentiated cell fate, which places hetZ roughly between these processes. A protein-protein interaction study showed that HetZ interacts with both HetR and itself. Assessment of transcriptional fusions between the hetZ, hetR, hetP, and patS (an inhibitor of HetR) promoter regions and GFP, and overexpression of HetR in a hetZ mutant resulted in the differentiation of heterocyst-like cells, together indicated that HetZ may act in concert with HetR as an early regula-tor of development. Taken together, these data describe a non-linear pathway of regulation leading to heterocyst development governed by both HetR and HetZ.


EXPLORING MOLECULAR SIMULATIONS OF A PLAUSIBLE PREBIOTIC REDUCED

PHOSPHOLIPID USING HYPERCHEM SOFTWARE

L. J. Leinen1, N. W. Fitch2, K. L. Even3, P. Videau1, and M. O. Gaylor1*


Madison, SD 570422College of Medicine

Midwestern UniversityGlendale AZ 85308

3Children’s Hospital ColoradoUniversity of Colorado School of Medicine

Aurora, CO 80045*Corresponding author email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

How the first cells emerged from the primordial milieu is one of the great questions in science. Biomolecular emergence scenarios abound in the literature, but the lack of bioaccessible phosphate and molecular oxygen on the primor-dial Earth has posed formidable challenges for deducing emergence pathways. One idea gaining wide acceptance invokes delivery of the phosphide mineral schreibersite ((Fe,Ni)3P) to Earth via meteorite impacts ca. 4.2 billion years ago, whereupon they were corroded to reduced phosphorous oxyacids and phospho-nates in primordial aquatic environments. We previously proposed that these reduced phosphorus forms could readily combine with putative geochemical spe-cies in shallow mineral-rich alkaline hydrothermal systems to form reduced phos-pholipid analogs of contemporary phosphate-based phospholipids (Fitch, N.W., K.L. Even, L.J. Leinen and M.O. Gaylor. 2016. Plausible prebiotic assembly of a primitive reduced phospholipid from meteoritic phosphorus on the primordial earth. Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of. Science 95:176.). Lacking resources to empirically validate this idea, we explored “water box” simulations of the proposed phospholipid structure using the HyperChem software pack-age. Simulation results showed the hydrophobic tails migrating away from water molecules, while hydrophilic heads migrated towards them, resulting in quasi-stacking behaviors consistent with those of known amphiphiles in water. Inspired by these results, we are now investigating more complex primordial simulation scenarios.


CHARACTERIZING THE VOLATILOME OF LAND-DISPOSED SEWAGE SLUDGE UNDER

SEASONAL TEMPERATURE REGIMES

H. L. Juntunen1, L. J. Leinen1, V. A. Swenson1, R. Honour2, R. C. Hale3, P. Videau1, and M. O. Gaylor1*

1College of Arts and ScienceDakota State University

Madison, SD 507422The Precautionary Group LLC

Kenmore, WA 980283Virginia Institute of Marine Science

College of William and MaryGloucester Point, VA 23062


ABSTRACT

About eight million dry tons of sewage sludge waste is generated in the US annually, with more than half of that now land-disposed on agricultural and forested lands. Though containing essential plant nutrients, sludge also harbors complex mixtures of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that result in toxic emissions therefrom. While ecotoxic impacts to sludged ecosystems are a pri-mary concern, the stifling emissions are most obvious to and disconcerting for the public, which has led to increasing concerns for the safety of this practice. The large-scale disposal of sludge in the temperate rainforests of the Puget Sound Watershed has resulted in acute toxicity to macrobiota, and despite escalating concerns for detrimental impacts, little is known about the total VOC inven-tories, or “volatilomes,” of these complex wastes. To address this knowledge gap, we characterized VOC emissions from forest-disposed sewage sludge over a range of seasonal temperature regimes. We also incubated sludge samples at the more extreme 100 oC to assess the “complete volatilome.” After 1-hr incuba-tions in gastight vials, VOCs accumulated in the headspace were sampled with a gastight syringe and analyzed with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry to generate distinct chemical fingerprints of sludge sample volatilomes over the range of temperatures. Total integrated chromatographic peak areas increased with temperature, indicating increased VOC production. Sludge volatilomes were dominated by a multitude of aliphatics and aromatics, with comparatively lesser emissions of alcohols, esters, aldehydes, terpenes, and nitrogen-, sulfur-, and halogen-containing compounds.


ASSESSMENT OF FOUR SOLVENTS FOR EXTRACTION AND ANALYSIS OF THE

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SANSEVIERIA EXTRAFOLIAR NECTAR DROPS BY GAS

CHROMATOGRAPHY-MASS SPECTROMETRY

H. L. Juntunen, P. Videau, D. Hazelwood, and M. O. Gaylor*College of Arts and Sciences

Dakota State UniversityMadison, SD 50742


ABSTRACT

In the latter part of the 20th century, much effort was devoted to elucidating the chemical constituents of floral and extrafloral nectar secretions, with the pri-mary aim of understanding their ecological roles, especially in regards to attract-ing pollinators. But, nearly all these studies focused on determining sugar and amino acid constituents. Only a few studies have reported more comprehensive assessments of the organic chemical constituents of plants, with none of those reporting such efforts for Sansevieria taxa (common houseplants known to purify air by bioaccumulating pollutants). To address this knowledge gap, we evaluated the efficacy of four organic solvents with distinct polarities (dichloromethane (DCM), ethyl acetate, toluene and hexane) to extract the most diverse suite of organic compounds from extrafoliar nectar drops (n = 12) secreted by mother-in-law’s-tongue plant (Sansevieria spp.). Each solvent exhibited unique extraction efficiencies, with DCM extracting the greatest number of unique compounds (141), followed by hexane (113), ethyl acetate (58) and toluene (43). Compound class distributions varied with solvent type, with aliphatic hydrocarbons dominat-ing in all but the ethyl acetate extracts. We detected 105 unique aliphatic com-pounds in the DCM extracts, followed by 69, 28 and 9 in the hexane, toluene and ethyl acetate extracts, respectively. Alcohols predominated in the ethyl acetate extracts. We are aware of no published studies reporting such analytical determi-nations of the organic compound inventories of Sansevieria extrafoliar nectars. Validation of this methodology provides the impetus to study various other plant secretions of known and unknown utility.


IDENTIFICATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF FUNGAL ISOLATES FROM LAND-APPLIED

SEWAGE SLUDGE

V. A. Swenson1, H. L. Juntunen1, R. Honour2, R. C Hale3, M. O. Gaylor1, and P. Videau1*


Madison, SD 570422The Precautionary Group

Kenmore WA 980283Virginia Institute of Marine Science

College of William and MaryGloucester Point, VA 23062


ABSTRACT

Approximately eight million dry tons of sewage sludge is generated in the U.S. each year, with more than half of that now land-applied as the primary method of disposal. Despite the proliferation of this practice, little is known about the microbial constituents of these noxious materials. To address this knowledge gap, we isolated and characterized fungi present in archived samples of land-disposed sewage sludge collected from the Snoqualmie National Forest (Washington State). Sludge samples were resuspended in sterile water and 15 fungal isolates were selected and purified on sabouraud dextrose agar plates supplemented with 50 mg/L of chloramphenicol. Fungal morphology was assessed and photo-documented following growth on sabouraud dextrose agar, potato dextrose agar, yeast maltose agar, and malt extract agar. Additionally, pH and temperature tolerance was assessed by growth in liquid cultures of sabouraud dextrose broth from 0 ºC to 50 ºC and determined from pH 2 to 11 at 28 ºC. Carbon source utilization was assessed using Biolog Filamentous Fungi plates. Amplification and sequencing of the ITS region, commonly used in fungal phylogenetic analysis, is in progress to identify each isolate. Phenotypic assessments of growth, carbon utilization, and lactophenol cotton blue staining revealed that sludge-associated fungi are quite varied in size and appearance, but commonly grow in a meso-philic range (10-40 ºC and pH 4-10). Interspecies variation is further evident in the percentage of 31 carbon sources utilized (63-100%). To our knowledge, this work represents the first reported assessment of the fungal community in sewage sludge wastes disposed in the Snoqualmie National Forest.


COMPOUNDING THEORY AND PRACTICE IN HYDROLOGY:

A CASE OF THE MISSOURI RIVER IN 2011

B. A. Shmagin*Agriculture and Biosystems Engineering Department



ABSTRACT

“In theory, theory & practice are the same. In practice, they are not.” Anonymous

In his 1956 book, The Image; Knowledge in Life and Society, Kenneth Boulding examines the social function of knowledge, which is created, commu-nicated and accepted individually. In this, the Informational Age, it is a challenge to consider the state of knowledge and its practical applications (engineering) in the field of hydrology. So I rephrase the subtitle to: “Hydrological Knowledge from Nature and Society” and, in doing so, made the goal of this research to meld hydrological theory and practice in describing and explaining the 2011 flood of the Missouri River as a natural and man-made event. To do this I replaced the metaphysical concept of “an image” with a more formal concept of a model within the framework of General System Theory (GST).

I present a personal narrative of the analysis and then the philosophical rethink-ing of the results of modeling the hydrological regime for the Missouri River basin as a multi-scaled, fuzzy, natural process. The core of theoretical develop-ment is a logical model which describes the interaction of the researcher with a natural hydrological object, and a way to characterize the results with a quan-tification of uncertainty. The developed concept compounds theoretical devel-opments for modeling the hydrogeological regime of the Missouri River basin in GST framework with practical needs and then clarifies the task, tools and methods to communicate the results in a multi-model assembly for engineers, government agencies and nonprofessionals in communities. (Images illustrating the contents of this abstract may be founded at:https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Boris_Shmagin2/publications?sorting=newest.)


NSF REU SITE: BRINGING US TOGETHER, IMPROVING COMMUNICATIONS AND LIVES 2014-2016 SUMMARY

Thomas P. Montoya*Electrical & Computer Engineering Department

South Dakota School of Mines & TechnologyRapid City, SD 57701-3995

*Corresponding author e-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

This National Science Foundation (NSF) Research Experiences for Undergraduates (REU) Site was a summer program with the theme, Bringing Us Together, Improving Communications and Lives. This title alludes to the role that electrical and computer engineering (ECE) has played in developing tech-nologies that improve how people communicate and live. The research projects reflected the interests of the ECE faculty at the South Dakota School of Mines & Technology (SDSM&T); namely applied electromagnetics, autonomous/embed-ded systems, wireless communications, and power. REU Sites are meant to spur research interest in undergraduate students and equip them to pursue careers in engineering or science, and encourage the pursuit of graduate degrees. Two key student populations were targeted for recruitment by this site--women and veterans. While the primary focus was on research, weekly professional develop-ment activities were held. A key development activity was a strong technical com-munications training program; this provides the students with the tools to make them competitive in research environments and attractive to graduate programs and research faculty. To provide context and focus to this training, the students participated in a statewide professional conference which included poster ses-sions where they presented their research results. Other professional development activities included seminars on research and historical development. Quantitative assessments made of REU Site activities and students included assessment of communication skills and student motivation.


DUAL ELECTRODE DETECTION IN LC-EC ANALYSIS OF SANGER DERIVATIZED AMINO ACIDS

Dong Wang, Paulina Guerrero, John Becker, Haoran Sun, and Miles Koppang*

Department of ChemistryUniversity of South Dakota

Vermillion, SD 57069*Corresponding author email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

In 1958, Frederick Sanger won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for determin-ing the structure of insulin using 2,4-dinitroflourobenzene (DNFB) [Erk, A., J. Mottishaw, J. Kramer, H. Sun, and M. Koppang. 2015. Using ESP Maps to visualize chemical reactivity in Sanger’s reagent. Journal of Chemical Education 92(11):1846-1852. .http://pubs.acs.org/ doi/10.1021/ed5006344. Sanger, F. 1945. The free amino groups of insulin. Biochem Journal 39(5):507–515.] DNFB derivatized the N-terminus of peptides by adding a chromophoric “tag” which allowed for spectroscopic detection in liquid chromatography (LC) analy-sis of non-chromophoric peptides. We investigated the reductive electrochemistry of nitro-substituted aromatics to assess the feasibility of electrochemical detection in LC analysis of DNFB tagged amines, amino acids and peptides. Cyclic voltam-metry (CV, glassy carbon working electrode and Ag/AgCl reference) of nitroben-zene (1) produced an irreversible reduction wave for a variety of aqueous buffers. Following reduction, a new reversible redox couple appears. We concluded that 1 was reduced to the n-phenylhydroxylamine (2) in a four electron, four proton process. The product 2 can be reversibly oxidized to nitrosobenzene (3) in a two electron, two proton process. We also ran CV on 2,4-dinitroaniline (4) in the dif-ferent buffers and observed a similar irreversible reduction followed by formation of a new, reversible redox couple, similar to nitrobenzene reduction. Instead of one reduction peak, we observe two reduction peaks corresponding to reduction of each nitro group and formation of two adjacent new, reversible redox couples. We have begun investigations of dual electrode (in series) detection in LC-EC analysis of DNFB tagged analytes. Reductive detection at an upstream electrode is followed by oxidative detection at a downstream electrode. Reductive detection requires removal of oxygen from the mobile phase.


A PHYLOGENETIC ANALYSIS OF THE GENUS ERIGONE AUDOUIN, 1826 (ARANEAE,

LINYPHIIDAE)

K. Olson, L. B. Patrick*, and A. VanTassalDepartment of Biological Sciences

Dakota Wesleyan UniversityMitchell, SD 57301


ABSTRACT

The Cosmopolitan genus Erigone Audouin, 1826 currently contains 110 spe-cies, with 39 species included in the Nearctic fauna. The last revision of the Nearctic species was done by Crosby and Bishop (1928), and many species have since been added, while many others have been transferred to other genera. No revision of the entire genus has ever been done. The result is a genus in need of revision. Many of the species are found only in the Nearctic, leading us to ask whether these species form a monophyletic clade within the genus. To answer this question, we obtained 72 specimens of 11 species within the genus Erigone from the Nearctic as well as other countries outside the Nearctic (e.g., Ireland, Czech Republic). For this preliminary investigation, we used the DNA barcoding gene cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) to construct a phylogenetic tree. This initial tree did not show any distinct geographic patterns. Some of the species included have Holarctic or Cosmopolitan distributions (e.g., E. cristatopalpus, E. atra, E. aletris), potentially confounding the interpretation of the analysis for our question when we had so few species. Additional sampling and species are required to better resolve this question.


COMPARING SPIDER (ARANEAE) DIVERSITY IN REMNANT VS RESTORED TALLGRASS PRAIRIE

IN EASTERN SOUTH DAKOTA

A. VanTassel1, L. B. Patrick1*, L. Winkler2, and P. Johnson2

1Department of Biological SciencesDakota Wesleyan University

1200 W. University Ave.Mitchell, SD 57301

2Department of Plant ScienceSouth Dakota State University


ABSTRACT

Anthropogenic influences on habitats has led to habitat destruction and spe-cies declines. The success of efforts to restore lost habitat has often been difficult to evaluate because of lost species, though groups of species (e.g., ants, spiders) have been used as bioindicators to gauge restoration success. Here we compare spider (Araneae) assemblages in remnant vs. restored tallgrass prairie in eastern South Dakota. Spiders were collected from June through August during 2012 and 2013, and each year from nine restored sites, ranging from 1 to 4 yrs after planting, and three remnant sites. Using single-factor ANOVA, we compared species richness of the varying-aged restoration sites with the remnant sites. For 2012, we found no significance between the restored sites and the remnant sites of any age. For 2013, we did find significance between the restoration sites and the remnant sites: 2 yr restored sites P = 0.004 (F₁,₃₈ = 9.366), 3 yr restored sites P = 0.023 (F₁,₄₀ = 5.574), and 4 yr restored sites P = 0.005 (F₁,₃₄ = 8.631). Thus, during the second year of our study we detected significant differences in species richness when comparing remnant vs. restored sites. These results indicate that that there is significant flux in the spider community soon after restoration, and longer-term studies are needed to assess restoration success.


A NEW SPECIES IN THE GENUS WALCKENAERIA BLACKWALL 1833 (ARANEAE, LINYPHIIDAE), WITH A REDESCRIPTION OF W. OREGONA

MILLIDGE, 1983

N. Woslum and L. B. Patrick*Department of Biological Sciences

Dakota Wesleyan UniversityMitchell, SD 57301


ABSTRACT

The genus Walckenaeria Blackwall, 1833 is a widespread genus that currently contains 198 species. The male and female of a new species is described for the first time, and is in the acuminata species group described by Millidge (1983) based on characters of the embolic division. We also re-describe and illustrate the male of W. oregona Millidge, 1983, including the first detailed images and illustrations of the embolic division.


NUTRITIONAL COMPETITIVE ABILITY IN BROMUS INERMIS AND PASCOPYRUM SMITHII

Mallory A. Malecek and Lan Xu*Department of Natural Resource Management



ABSTRACT

Understanding the mechanisms of exotic species invasion or resistance to inva-sion provides the basis for long-term effective land management. Studies have shown that plant invasions often occur in disturbed, high-resource habitats. The objective of this study was to determine if either native or non-native species would have a competitive advantage at different nutrient levels. The experiment is an intraspecific and interspecific pair-wise seedling competition design between non-native smooth bromegrass (Bromus inermis) and native western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii) under 4 nitrogen levels. Seeds of each species were germi-nated in potting soil-filled trays. Two seedlings at the one-leaf stage were trans-planted simultaneously into individual pure sand-filled pots in a combination of monoculture or mixture of two species and 4 nutrient levels with 6 replications. Nutrient treatments comprised 1, 5, 10, and 15% nitrogen levels. Transplants were watered with 50 milliliters of a designated nutrient level solution every other day. Plants were harvested 50 days after the transplants had been initiated and were separated into leaves, stems, and belowground structures. Leaf areas were measured using the ImageJ technique. Biomass was determined after oven drying at 60 ºC for 72 hours. We found no plants survived under 10 and 15% N treatments. Smooth bromegrass outperformed western wheatgrass in leaf area, leave biomass, above- and below-ground biomass, and total biomass under 1 and 5% N levels. Low N level (1%) resulted in intense intraspecific competition for smooth bromegrass but not for western wheatgrass, indicating the potential limi-tation for smooth bromegrass to thrive. Increased N availability (5%) resulted in intense interspecific competition and reduced native western wheatgrass biomass, suggesting that non-native smooth bromegrass has a competitive advantage to suppress western wheatgrass under N-rich conditions. These results will assist us to predict the conditions under which smooth bromegrass invasion would more likely occur.


A TARGETED APPROACH FOR ANALYZING LARGE LIPIDOMIC DATA SETS

D. Paulson and P. Mazzer*Dakota Wesleyan University

Mitchell, SD 57301*Corresponding author email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Lipidomic technology provides several advantages over various other “-omic’ technologies in holistically investigating the effect of toxic insult on cells and tis-sues. Using lipidomics requires a smaller sample size in a shorter time frame, and gene and protein expression can be observed as they are amplified as metabolism changes. We isolated lipids of rat lung macrophages that have undergone stauro-sporine-induced apoptosis and collected mass spectrum data. By connecting our mass spectrum data with the pathways producing these lipids, we gain a better understanding of the changing lipids. Using MATLAB software, we have built a lipid library with masses and their corresponding names that we expected to find in these macrophage cells. We also built an analysis program, which will search the library for matches in our data. This program allows us to use a targeted approach for better analysis of large lipidomic data sets and understand pathways producing these lipids.


EFFECTS OF ALTERED PRECIPITATION INTERVALS AND SIMULATED GRAZING ON VEGETATIVE

PROPAGULES AND TILLER RECRUITMENT OF TWO PERENNIAL GRASSES

Surendra Bam1, Jacqueline P. Ott2, Jack L. Butler2, and Lan Xu1*

1Department of Natural Resource ManagementSouth Dakota State University

Brookings, SD 57005Rocky Mountain Research Station,

Forest & Grassland Research LaboratoryRapid City, SD 57702


ABSTRACT

Increased climate variability is likely to interact with grazing which may pro-foundly impact grassland vegetative propagules and tiller recruitment by affecting competitive ability between native and non-native perennial grasses. In this study, we compared vegetative propagule production and tiller recruitment of native western wheatgrass and non-native smooth bromegrass to main and interacting effects of precipitation intervals and simulated grazing under controlled temperature condi-tion. A greenhouse experiment consisted of the combination of three precipitation intervals (every 2 days, 8 days, and 16 days) and two clipping treatments (clipping vs. no-clipping) with 40 replications for each species and each treatment. One single-leaf seedling of each species was transplanted into the same pot (16.5 cm dia. by 19 cm deep) containing potting soil. Both precipitation interval treatment and clipping treatment (at stubble height = 4-cm; 2-leaf stage) were applied in the first week of June 2016. Emerged daughter tillers were marked and recorded daily. Plants were harvested 20 weeks after the treatments had been initiated, and underground structures were washed free of soil to record total number of daughter tillers, total number of rhizomes, and total rhizome length (cm) for each parent til-ler, and number of vegetative propagules (all live buds, rhizomes, and tillers) from each daughter tiller. We found significant effects of precipitation intervals, species, and clipping (P < 0.05), but no interactions. Smooth bromegrass had ~46% more vegetative propagules than western wheatgrass at 2 days (P < 0.0001), but decreased when precipitation intervals were increased (8 days & 16 days). Similarly, the total number of daughter tillers was significantly higher for smooth bromegrass at all precipitation intervals (P = 0.0001) and clipping treatments (P < 0.0001). However, western wheatgrass had a greater number of rhizomes (P = 0.0299) and greater rhi-zome length (cm) (P = 0.039) at 8 days compared to smooth bromegrass at 2 days. Our results indicated that altered environmental conditions may trigger a differential resource allocation strategy in native and non-native perennial grasses in terms of vegetative propagules, tiller recruitment, and rhizome production.


THE REJUVENATION OF ANTIMICROBIALS THROUGH COMPETITIVE SELECTION

Chris W. Brooks and Andrew R. Russell*Northern State University

Aberdeen, SD 57401*Corresponding author email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Antibiotic resistance is a global crisis that creates a major obstacle for the health care system. To date, dozens of bacterial pathogens have acquired resistance to all clinically-available drugs. This is especially alarming considering the woe-fully low number of new antibiotics that have been discovered/created over the last half-century. Most of the original antibiotic compounds used for microbial chemotherapy were isolated from bacterial and fungal species that use them as chemical weapons to help them defend their space in a crowded environment. This inter-microbial warfare is a highly-evolving arms race that provides constant selection of ever-more-potent chemicals. Perhaps it is possible to tap into this natural competition to select more effective antibiotic derivatives that are affec-tive against resistant bacterial strains. To investigate this, I am studying natural competitions between two antibiotic-producing microbes (Bacillus licheniformis and Penicillium chrysogenum) and Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). These “fight clubs” were created using three unique inoculation tech-niques following irradiation of B. licheniformis and P. chrysogenum with ultraviolet (UV) light. The zone of inhibition between each competition was then evaluated. Initial results have shown that the best selective competition is created by encir-cling the antibiotic-producing strains with a ring of MRSA, so that it is forced to inhibit MRSA growth in order to have space to expand. Furthermore, expos-ing the antibiotic producers to UV light greatly speeds up the creation of more competitive strains. Notably, at least one B. licheniformis mutant which shows improved inhibition of MRSA on agar plates has been produced thus far. Future experiments will focus on evaluation of this strain for potential mutations, as well as possible purification of antibiotic compounds. This research may prove to be a faster method for the production of useful antibiotic derivatives. Moreover, it may provide an additional strategy to circumvent antibiotic resistance.


GENETICS AND SELECTION FOR SIMPLY INHERITED TRAITS IN RED CLOVER

Arvid Boe and Robin BortnemDepartment of Agronomy, Horticulture, and Plant Science


ABSTRACT

Red clover (Trifolium pratense L.) is widely grown for pasture and hay in humid temperate areas throughout North America and worldwide. Red clover popula-tions are grouped into three types, but the most common type grown in North America is the diploid, early-flowering, medium red type, which is characterized by a biennial to short-lived perennial growth habit providing 2 or 3 hay crops per year. In the northern Great Plains, red clover is naturalized in mesic road ditches and pastures and is useful for over-sowing declining alfalfa haylands. Two morphological traits, leaf mark and seed color, of red clover have been of interest to forage producers, agronomists, and breeders for their potential in improving stand establishment and forage production and quality. For about 10 years we conducted genetic studies of these two traits, determining progress from selection and developing novel, new, selected populations with different combinations of the extremes of the aforementioned traits. Those populations were also evaluated in agronomic trials. The no-leaf-mark phenotypic, which requires a homozygous recessive genotype, was fixed in a population with one cycle of phenotypic selec-tion and controlled pollination. The two extreme seed-color types were achieved after several cycles of selection. Narrow-sense and realized heritabilities indicated predominantly additive gene action.


ANALYSIS OF ALGAL COMPOSITION AND NUTRIENT REMOVAL IN THE NUTRIENT

REMOVAL FACILITY AND LAKE KAMPESKA

Taylor S. Clemmons1*, Jaime Z. Haueter2, Lisa A. Kunza1,2, and Roger Foote3

1Chemistry and Applied Biological Sciences Department2Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences Program

South Dakota School of Mines and TechnologyRapid City, SD 57701

3Upper Big Sioux River Watershed ProjectWatertown, SD 57201


ABSTRACT

Nutrient loading has been a problem in Lake Kampeska near Watertown, SD for more than a decade. Lake Kampeska receives nutrients and sediment from the Big Sioux River watershed, and the elevated nutrient loads have altered the ecosystem of the lake. Increased nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) loading leads to eutrophic and anoxic conditions which may lead to fish kills. To manage the nutrient input into Lake Kampeska, we used a retired water treatment facility in Watertown, SD, with an algal growth chamber as a nutrient removal facility (NRF). The goal of the NRF was to remove P by stimulating growth of algae from the lake, and then filtering the algae from the water before returning it to the lake. The proportion of blue green algae (cyanobacteria), green algae, and diatoms in both the lake and the growth chamber within the NRF was examined over nine months to assess the efficiency of the NRF. In both locations, diatoms and green algae dominated the phytoplankton year-round, while blue green algae were present in late summer and early fall. The average rate of nutrient removal during March-November 2015 was 3.32% for P and 8.08% for N, but peaked at 20.6% N removal and 7.77% P removal in October. The addition of N to the NRF in late August-November 2015 increased the algal abundance and nutrient removal. Nitrogen may have been limiting algal growth prior to the N addition, thus increasing the duration of the N addition to the NRF may increase the effi-ciency of nutrient removal.


GENES AND THEIR LINKAGE TO DENTAL AND CARDIOVASCULAR HEALTH

J. Keryakos, A. van Oosbree, and A.M. Kiesow*Department of Biology

Northern State UniversityAberdeen SD 57401


ABSTRACT

Despite brushing and/or flossing their teeth twice daily, many people are still susceptible to dental cavities and tooth decay. This research is aimed at investi-gating the genetics behind this phenomenon. Two gene variants, taste 1 receptor member 2 (TAS1R2) and taste 2 receptor member 38 (TAS2R38) related to den-tal cavities were tested on the DNA of 20 students at Northern State University (10 males and 10 females). Tooth impressions were taken of the participants’ upper and lower jaws. Additionally, salivary pH, heart rates, and blood pres-sures were taken. Participants’ cavities and fillings were counted and their gums examined for inflammation. Results showed that 7 out of the 10 tested males had the variant associated with tooth decay (TAS1R2), and 2 out of the 10 tested females had this gene variant as well. The students with that gene variant had an average salivary pH of 5.22, which is significantly lower than the salivary pH for the other non-carrier students (P < 0.05). Those participants had smaller-sized tooth enamel, and none showed a size greater than one millimeter (X = 1.17 millimeters). Students not expressing the gene variant responsible for the forma-tion of cavities had fewer cavities than those expressing the TAS1R2 gene variant (i.e., one of the regions amplified). Blood pressures and heart rates for some of the carriers were statistically significant (P < 0.05), showing poorer pressures and rates compared to non-carriers; all non-carriers had normal pressures and rates. Four of the males and both females that carry the gene variant for tooth decay also showed signs of swollen gums, with the possibility of contributing to heart disease in the future. The results may have identified that the TAS1R2 gene plays a role in cavity development, and they highlight the importance of understanding the role of genes in raising the risk of tooth decay, gum and heart disease.