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Full-length paper Asian Agri-History Vol. 15, No. 3, 2011 (179–197) 179

Probable Agricultural Biodiversity Heritage Sites inIndia: X. The Bundelkhand Region

Anurudh K Singh

Department of Genetics, MD University, Rohtak 124001, Haryana, India(email: [email protected])

AbstractThe Bundelkhand region of central India, lying south of the Yamuna river, between thefertile Gangetic plains and the highlands of central Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh,has a unique terrain that has undergone an ecological succession from predominantforestland to grassland, because of acute ecological degradation (deforestation anderosion of top soil). Most people of the region are involved in agriculture or relatedactivities from ancient times. The flora of the region is rich in grasses as well as valuableherbs. To overcome the problems of short rainfall period, and the difficult terrain thatlimits rainwater harvest, the local people and the successive dynasties of rulers hadthe foresight of developing suitable structures for rainwater harvesting, includingin-situ and ex-situ strategies. In the alleviation of poverty, tackling the problems of lowproductivity, and in responding to the changing climate and the edaphic scenario, theregion can be credited for the successful integration of pastoral economy with traditionalagriculture. The region has judiciously exploited the changing climatic patterns toevolve genetic diversity in crop species, suited to the changing scenario. Culturally,the region has a rich heritage and is known for its numerous forts, palaces, and temples.Khajuraho, with a large group of medieval temples exhibiting exquisite and intricatestone sculptures, has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. For these reasons,the region is being proposed as another National Agricultural Biodiversity HeritageSite, and the present article discusses the supporting features in brief.

Geographically, Bundelkhand lies betweenthe Indo-Gangetic Plain to the north and theVindhya Range to the south. This complex,diverse, and vulnerable agrarian region issocioeconomically heterogenous andethnically unique. Over 90% of the

population is dependent on agriculture,livestock, usufructs from forest andoutsourcing income by seasonal migrationafter rabi sowing. The flora of the region isrich in grasses with declared pasture lands,a reason for the dominant pastoral economy.

180 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

The region can be credited with traditionalagriculture, where field agriculture has aneffective integration with pastoralagriculture, which plays a major role inagricultural activities, starting from the useof draft in sowing, irrigation, transport ofgoods and passengers and even the use ofdung as fuel and manure, and for generatingadditional income from selling of milk, toimprove the rural economy. Consequently,until recently, Bundelkhand had morelivestock than humans. Recognizing that themonsoon is the only source of water [themajority of which falls in about 40 daysspread over four months (June–September),with 50% in just 20 hours, limiting the timefor penetration into the soil and rechargingthe groundwater (Prakash et al., 1998)], andthe prevalence of severe runoff problems,because of depression of water channelsand height of their banks, the local peoplehad developed a unique science-based pondsystem for water harvesting centuries ago.Some of the ponds are still functional. Theregion can also be credited for thedevelopment of the third crop season ‘zaid’,taken in the river beds on residual moisture,in addition to kharif and rabi. The diverseecology has supported the evolution of aunique genetic diversity in crop speciesresponding to changing climate (drought andheat). Culturally, the region has been partof the Indian ethos from ancient times andhas played a significant historical role,therefore quite rich, as reflected by the worldheritage site of Khajuraho, identified in theregion. For these reasons, it is being proposedas another national Agricultural BiodiversityHeritage Site based on the indices illustratedby Singh and Varaprasad (2008).

Location and extentThe Bundelkhand region is located between23°20' and 26°20' N latitude, and 78°20' and81°40' E longitude. Gegraphically, it falls incentral India and is a semi-arid plateau thatincludes the Bhamder plateau and theKaimur hills. It is physically located in thecentral Hindi belt south of the Yamuna River,between the fertile Gangetic plain stretchingacross northern Uttar Pradesh (UP) and thesouthern highlands of central MadhyaPradesh (MP). Geographically, it also worksas a gateway between North and SouthIndia. Administratively, the region comprisesthirteen districts – seven districts of UP(Jhansi, Jalaun, Lalitpur, Hamirpur, Mahoba,Banda, and Chitrakoot) and six districts ofMP (Datia, Tikamgarh, Chattarpur, Damoh,Sagar, and Panna). However, traditionally,some other districts of MP (Satna, Morena,Sheopur, Bhind, Shivpuri, Guna, andAshoknagar) are also considered as part oflarger Bundelkhand. Gwalior, Jabalpur, andeven Bhopal have the cultural influence ofBundelkhand (Fig. 1).

LandscapeBundelkhand is an old landmass composedof horizontal rock beds resting on a stablefoundation. The landscape is rugged,

Geographically, Bundelkhand liesbetween the Indo-Gangetic Plain tothe north and the Vindhya Range to

the south. This complex, diverse, andvulnerable agrarian region is

socioeconomically heterogenous andethnically unique.

Asian Agri-History Vol. 15, No. 3, 2011 181

featuring undulating terrain with low rockyoutcrops, narrow valleys, and plains. Surfacerocks are predominantly granite of the lowerPre Cambrian/Archaen period. SomeDharwarian and Vindhyan rocks present inthe region contain minerals of economicvalue. Sandstone, shale, and limestone ofhigh quality, along with dyhes, sills, and thefamous pink Archaean gneiss rocks, are alsofound in places. The Bundelkhand gneissrocks are one of the oldest rocks in India.

The landscape is a gently sloping upland,distinguished by barren hilly terrain withsparse vegetation, although historically it wasthickly forested. The plains of Bundelkhandare intersected by three mountain ranges,

the Vindhya, the Fauna, and the Banderchains, the highest elevation not exceeding600 m above sea level. Beyond these rangesthe region is further diversified by isolatedhills rising abruptly from a common level,and presenting from their steep and nearlyinaccessible scarps, eligible sites for fortsand strongholds of local kings. The generalslope of the country is towards the northeast,as indicated by the course of the riverswhich traverse or border the territory, andfinally discharge themselves into the YamunaRiver.

Bundelkhand has a number of northboundperennial rivers (such as Sindh, Pahuj,Betwa, Dhasan, Ken, Baghein, Paisuni, and

Figure 1. Map of Bundelkhand during the rule of the Chandels (16th century CE).


Tons) with numerous tributaries (such asChandrawal, Bardaha, Banganga, Jamuni,Urmil, Sonar), which drain water from theconstituent districts into the flowing Yamunariver. The Kali Sindh, rising in Malwa, marksthe western frontier of Bundelkhand. Parallelto this river, but further east, is the courseof the Betwa. Still farther to the east, flowsthe Ken, followed in succession by theBagahin and Tons. The Yamuna and theKen are the only two navigable rivers.Notwithstanding the large number ofstreams, the depression of their channels andheight of their banks render them for themost part unsuitable for the purposes ofirrigation, which is conducted by means ofponds and tanks. These artificial lakes areusually formed by throwing embankmentsacross the lower extremities of valleys, andthus arresting and impounding the watersflowing through them.

The dominant soilscapes of the region arerepresented by gentle to very gentle slopeswith moderately deep Ustochrepts andnearly level deep Chromusters black soils.Chromusters are typified by the soils of thekheri series, which are clayey, calcareousand slightly alkaline in reaction. They showdistinct shrink-swell properties. Thepresence of ferruginous red soil, mixed redand black soil, and medium black soil

indicates that the soil profiles of the regionhave the footprints of its geological historydue to continental drift and the seduction ofthe peninsular Indian plate. Prevailing soiltypes are a mix of black and red; the latterbeing relatively recently formed is gravelyand shallow in depth, and thus unable toretain moisture well. For this reason, muchof the region suffers from acute ecologicaldegradation due to top soil erosion anddeforestation, leading to low productivity ofthe land. Soil erosion is a persistent problem,and it is aggravated by the hilly landscape,high winds and the poor holding capacity ofthe soils, leading to the widespread growthof gullies.

AgroclimateIt is a semi-arid to hot subhumid ecoregion.The climate of the region is characterizedby hot summers and mild winters (Sehgal etal., 1992). The Bundelkhand region ismarked by extremes of temperature,reaching the mid to upper 40°C during thesummer months (up to 48°C), and droppingto as low as 1°C in winter. During thesummer season, high temperatures in theplains cause low-pressure areas that inducemovement of the monsoon. The temperaturebegins to rise in February and peaks in May–June. Hot breezes known locally as loo arecommon during this period. The rainfalldistribution pattern is irregular.Approximately 90% of the rainfall is causedby the monsoon, falling between June andSeptember in the region. The annual rainfallranges between 838 and 1,251 mm over theregion, though there has been a gradualdecline in the rainfall. The rainfall increasesfrom north to south, which also reflects on

Culturally, the region has been part ofthe Indian ethos from ancient times

and has played a significant historicalrole, therefore quite rich, as reflected

by the world heritage site ofKhajuraho, identified in the region.


the vegetation. Datia in the north receivesthe lowest (dry) and Sagar in south highest(wet) rainfall. Lalitpur district exhibits thehighest degree of variability in the rainfall.However, most rainfall is lost to runoff, dueto the typical terrain and the fact that it islimited to about 40 effective rainy days, andthat 50% of this may fall in just 20 hoursproviding little time to percolate into the soil,recharging the groundwater. The annualrainfall covers about 80% of the annualpotential evapotranspirative demand, leavinglong periods under dry spell, with the growingperiod extending from 90 to 150 days. Julyand August are the months of maximumrainfall, while November to April are thedriest months of the year. The scanty winterrainfall is useful for the cultivation of rabicrops, but it is usually inadequate withoutaccess to supplementary irrigation sources.

Historically, the Bundelkhand region used tohave one drought in 16 years in the 18th and19th centuries. This has trebled during theperiod 1968 to 1992 due to climatic changescaused by degradation of forests, soil,groundwater, etc., and the past four yearshave witnessed continuous drought.

Floristic diversity

The Bundelkhand region at one time wasvery rich in floristic diversity as mentionedin the ancient Indian literatures and epicssuch as the Ramayana. Even during themedieval period, the region might havebeen heavily forested, as there are storiesthat it was the safest hideout for thefugitive and defeated armies of warringkings and feudatories. But the forests ofBundelkhand have been dwindling

continuously, and have been the cause ofconcern, because they represent a majorsource of livelihood for poor people.People living in and around the forestshave been using them for shelter, fuel,food, medicinal plants, crafts, and cottageindustries. In recent times, the control offorests by the government through itsforest department, and the nexus betweenfeudals and officials has further causedmiseries, depriving the local poor of thebenefits of the forests.

Bundelkhand districts have much lowerforest cover than the notified forest areas.Now, only the district of Panna has over 50%forest cover. Satna and Chhatarpur haveabout 20–30% forest cover, while Datia andTikamgarh have less than 20%. The forestsof Datia and Tikamgarh are northern sub-type thorn-forests, while those ofChhatarpur, Panna, and Satna are of easternsal type, a sub-type of tropical moistdeciduous forests. Therefore, Panna is theonly district in Bundelkhand that is self-sufficient in forest resources. Chhatarpurand Satna are having deficit in fuel-woodbut surplus in timber. Datia and Tikamgarhare among those districts showing deficit inboth timber and fuel-wood. This might bedue to the excessive cutting of forests inthese districts.

The landscape is a gently slopingupland, distinguished by barren hilly

terrain with sparse vegetation,although historically it was thickly

forested.


The forest vegetation has elements of boththe tropical northern and southern drydeciduous type (Champion and Seth, 1968).Therefore, original vegetation of the regionconsisted of tropical dry deciduous forest,dominated by teak (Tectona grandis L.f.)associated with tendu or ebony (Diospyrosmelanoxylon Blume), dhaora [Anogeissuslatifolia (Roxb.) Bedd.], lendia(Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb.), saja(Terminalia tomentosa Wight & Arn.),dhanoda or monyen [Lanneacoromandelica (Houtt.) Merr.; syn. L.grandis Engl.], Hardwickia binata Roxb.,and salai (Boswellia serrata Roxb.)(Source: www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bundelkhand). The tropical dry deciduousforest basically has the following treerepresentations: Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr.,Anogeissus latifolia, Boswellia serrata,Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub., Cordiaobliqua Willd., Cochlospermum religiosum(L.) Alston, Diospyros melanoxylon,Hardwickia binata, bija or Indian kino(Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb.),Lagerstroemia parviflora, aonla (Emblicaofficinalis Gaertn.), Soymida febrifugaRoxb., and teak (Tectona grandis). Someof the common shrubs are ankol [Alangiumsalvifolium (L.f.) Wang.], Caseariaelliptica Willd., Capparis zeylanica L.,Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) Merr.,Holarrhena antidysenterica (Roxb. exFleming) Wall., Kirganelia reticulata (Poir.)Baill., and dhawari (Woodfordia floribundaSalisb.). Some of the herbaceous species,which are important genetic resources, arekundru (Coccinia indica Wight & Arn.),kakrol or kankro or teasle gourd(Momordica dioica Roxb. ex Willd.),

vidharikand [Pueraria tuberosa (Willd.)DC.], and karkandhauh [Ziziphusoenoplia (L.) Mill.].

In the early 1900s, the rising demand forwood and agricultural expansion further ledto increasing levels of deforestation. Post-independence population growth and theemergence of the Green Revolution broughteven larger tracts of land under the plow andfurther increased the demand for wood-based energy. These factors, combined withpoor land management and recklessgovernment approval for commercial loggingdrastically reduced forested area in the region(Fig. 2). Today, only small patches remain, ofdry miscellaneous and thorny forestscomprising dhak (Butea monosperma; syn.B. frondosa), teak (Tectona grandis),mahua [Madhuca indica J. F. Gmel.; syn.M. longifolia Macbride], chirongi(Buchanania lanzan Spreng.; syn. B.latifolia Roxb.), kardhai (Anogeissuspendula Edgew.), dhau (Anogeissuslatifolia), khair [Acacia catechu (L.f.)Willd.], and thuhar trees (Euphorbianivulia Buch.-Ham., E. tirucalli L.).

Figure 2. Much of ‘notified’ forestland hasceased to be a forest due to deforestration, soildegradation, and overexploitation (courtesyB Prakash).


Presently, sub-region wise flora in the plainof Banda, Hamirpur, and Datia, along thebanks of rivers Pahuj, Betwa, and Yamuna,is represented by acacias such as babul[Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile] and khair(Acacia catechu), palas (Buteamonosperma), ber (Zizyphus spp.), tendu(Diospyros melanoxylon), mahua(Mahuca indica), semal (Salmaliamalabarica Schott. & Endl.), and kardhai(Anogeissus pendula), in the intermediatesub-region, by salai (Boswellia serrata),seesham (Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.), dhau(Anogeissus latifolia), jamun [Syzygiumjambos (L.) Alston, S. heyneanum Wall.],seja or karaundha (Carissa spinarumL.) shrub, and occasional teak trees. In thesouthern uplands (Panna, Chhatarpur,Tikamgarh) there is teak, besides theabove-mentioned species. In the Damohand Sagar plateaus, trees known locally asdhau or dhawda (Anogeissus latifolia),tinsa (Augenia delbergiodes Benth.), andbija (Pterocarpus marsupium) can alsobe seen. Bamboo [Dendrocalamusstrictus (Roxb.) Nees] is found in smallpatches across the region.

In the plateau and hilly areas of central andsouthern Bundelkhand are found largestretches of grasslands, officially classified as‘permanent pastures and other grazing land’.However, the area under permanent pastureshas been reducing rapidly, due to lack ofmoisture consequent to reduction andunpredictable rain pattern, high livestockpopulation and pressure to bring more areaunder cultivation. The greatest reductionappears to have taken place in Tikamgarh,where area under permanent pastures wasreported to have been over 66,000 ha in 1984–85, and only 14,900 ha in 2004–05 (Source:www.bundelkhandinfo.org). The mostcommon grasses of Bundelkhand are doob[(Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.], mushial(Iseilema laxum Hack.), sain [Sehimanervosum (Rottler) Stapf], kail [Dichanthiumannulatum (Forssk.) Stapf], lumpa(Heteropogon contortus Beauv. ex Roem.& Schult.), guneria [Themeda quadrivalvis(L.) Kuntze.], and the kans (Saccharumspontaneum L.), an aggressive weed.

Today, the dominant vegetation in the regionprimarily consists of scrub forest siris[Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth., A. procera(Roxb.) Benth.], katai (Flacourtia indica),gunj (Abrus precatorius L.), bel (Aeglemarmelos), ghout trees [Ziziphusxylopyrus (Retz.) Willd.], etc., and scrubbrush. Much of the forests have an opencanopy with large tracts of land classifiedas “wastelands”. Soil erosion is the mostcommon phenomenon of the area along withwater stagnation in some places during therainy season. Therefore, the major portionof the region further faces ecologicaldegradation, loss of biodiversity due to soilerosion and deforestation (Fig. 2).

People living in and around theforests have been using them for

shelter, fuel, food, medicinal plants,crafts, and cottage industries. In

recent times, the control of forests bythe government through its forest

department, and the nexus betweenfeudals and officials has further

caused miseries, depriving the localpoor of the benefits of the forests.


Agriculture andagrobiodiversityCrop cultivation and animal rearing aloneconstitutes more than 90% of the overallBundelkhand economy. However in recenttimes, the reducing levels of land fertility andthe low productivity, lack of irrigation facilities,improper land distribution, poor managementof crops (because the majority is of resource-poor farmers), and cultivation without theintegration of modern methods in agriculture,have kept the agriculture-based economy atthe subsistence level (Fig. 3).

Local inhabitants primarily rely onsubsistence rainfed single-crop agricultureand small-scale livestock production for theirlivelihood, with sorghum (jawar), wheat,grams, and oilseeds as the predominantcrops. Apart from wheat, the other majorcrops grown in the area are rice (in someareas), maize, pearl millet, kodo, kutki,chickpea, pigeonpea, green gram (moong),black gram (urd), soybean, linseed, sesame,groundnut, jute, and vegetables. Cultivatorsgrow pigeonpea, groundnut, sugarcane, andsoybean (recent introduction) during kharif,

and wheat, mustard, lentil, green gram, andblack gram during rabi. Traditionally, thecrops grown among cereals are coarsecereals and dual-purpose varieties for grainand fodder. As per some observations,soybean has adversely affected the geneticdiversity of traditional rainy season crops,such as millets, pulses, and oilseeds and alsothe traditional practices of waterconservation in the fields.

As traditionally the farming is rainfed, usuallykharif crops are grown on red soils and rabicrops are taken on black soils. Usually,monocropping is practiced, while double-cropping is feasible in black soil with irrigationfacility. The crops grown are sorghum,pigeonpea, groundnut during kharif season;green gram during the normal monsoonperiod and early-maturing varieties ofsorghum, pearl millet, and soybean duringthe delayed monsoon season. Barley,chickpea, rapeseed mustard, and safflowerare the suitable crops for the rabi season.In black soil, the crops cultivated are

Figure 3. A traditional farmer toiling in his field(courtesy B Prakash).

In the early 1900s, the rising demandfor wood and agricultural expansion

further led to increasing levels ofdeforestation. Post-independence

population growth and the emergenceof the Green Revolution brought evenlarger tracts of land under the plow

and further increased the demand forwood-based energy. These factors,

combined with poor land managementand reckless government approval for

commercial logging drasticallyreduced forested area in the region.


sorghum, cowpea, black gram, and greengram or fodder sorghum. The dominantcropping systems are pulses (black gram,green gram), sesame, or fodder sorghumduring kharif, followed by mustard orlinseed during rabi, in combination, such asgreen gram–linseed/safflower, sesame–mustard/lentil/peas. Watermelon, muskmelon, and vegetables are raised along thedried river beds, a practice known as ‘zaid’developed as a third cropping season. Dueto lack of resources in some areas singlecrop in a year is taken with kharif and rabialternating. Other common practices areintercropping (wheat–chickpea; wheat–barley; barley–chickpea; chickpea–linseed;pigeonpea–black gram; sorghum–pigeonpea), staggered sowing over time, useof short-duration varieties, mixed farming,share cropping, agroforestry and enterprises,etc. Sorghum is generally intercropped withpulses.

A recent survey of districts falling in UPshowed that the normal kharif cultivationis around 25% of the total sown area, whilerabi is around 74%. During kharif, rice istraditionally grown in Banda, where assuredirrigation from the Bariyarpur project on KenRiver is available since about a century, andChitrakoot, where irrigation is madeavailable through ponds, wells, etc. Sorghumand pearl millet are more popular inHamirpur, Banda, and Chitrakoot. InLalitpur, maize is the preferred cereal amongfarmers. Among kharif pulses, black gramis preferred to green gram and pigeonpea inall districts, except in the case of Hamirpur,Banda, and Chitrakoot, where pigeonpea ispreferred. Among kharif oilseeds,groundnut is preferred in Jhansi. Among

rabi cereals, wheat is mainly grown in allseven districts and the area varies from 20%of the annual area sown in Mahoba to 33%in Banda. Among rabi pulses, lentil,chickpea, and pea are preferred in alldistricts, except Chitrakoot, where onlyckickpea is sown. Rabi oilseeds are alsogrown in all districts but the quantum is small.Sugarcane is grown in a very small area.

Although the economy of the region ispredominantly based on agriculture, theprogress of agriculture in the region has beenseverely restricted because of the climaticchanges caused by deforestation after the18th century (predominantly during the latterhalf of the 20th century), soil erosion andrise in human population causing severeinfertility of land, low productivity, andimproper land distribution (a few mediumand large farmers have the major share inlandholdings). However, in the subsistencetraditional agriculture economy, to providegreater security, bovine and small ruminantrearing has been integrated as part of theagrarian economy, and it contributessignificantly to the livelihood of farmers,especially the women-headed, landless, andsmall farmers. The diverse livestock providedraft animals for sowing, drawing waterfrom wells, and to transport people andgoods. Also, they provide dung, used as fueland manure, and milk, for supplementaryincome. This has led to the development ofa pastoral economy in the region, whichfurther evolved into an agropastoral andagro-silvo-pastoral economy, and use of cropresidues, which contributed 67% of theanimal fodder. For these reasons, and alsopossibly due to dominant Hindu traditions,the local people have great reverence for


the cow. Bundelkhand has had a highlivestock population for ages. It is often saidthat there are more livestock than humansin Bundelkhand. However, this was only truetill the 1980s – the total livestock populationof the region in 1982 was 8.96 million (Tyagi,1997), close to the human population figure,but since the 1980s the livestock populationgrowth rate has declined in comparison tothe human population growth (Source:www.bundelkhandinfo.org/economy/.../livestock_bundelkhand.html).

Fishing is another agriculture related activity,done mainly by scheduled caste groups suchas the dhimar, in the numerous tanks andponds of the region, especially in MPBundelkhand. For instance, the districtstatistical handbook data of Chhatarpurindicates that in 2004, the district had 761ponds, covering in all an area of around 1,600ha, where fishing was done. The annual fishproduction was 2,500 tons (Source:www.bundelkhandinfo.org/economy/.../fisheries_bundelkhand.html).

As the region at one time was very rich inforest resources, the poor farmers and ruralmasses traditionally harvest or collectvarious non-timber forest products, whichare economically beneficial. Some of thecommon products are tendu leaves, palashleaves, aonla, harra, gond (gum), imli,trifala, khair, chironji, babul, anjan, salseed and many medicinal plants. Mahua hasbeen one of the major sources of food forpoor communities. If one passes acrossBundelkhand district during March–April,one can observe the importance of mahuain the life of the people. One can smell themahua all around during these two months.

The flower, fruit, and seed of mahua areused by poor people for their livelihood. Themahua flower provides almost ready food.It has been recorded that it fulfils at leastthree months’ food requirements of the poorcommunity. It is considered to be the poorman’s food, and fodder for the animals ofthe rich. Such is the importance of mahuain this region that there is a saying, whichtranslates as “if one does not like the smellof Mahuwa, he should not send hisdaughters in marriage to Bundelkhand”(Source: www.planningcommission.nic.in/reports/sereport/ser/bndel/stdy_bndel.pdf).

Representative crop species invarious crop groups

Cereals, pseudocereals, andmillets. Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.),barnyardgrass [Echinochloa crus-galli(L.) P.B.], finger millet (Eleusinecoracana Gaertn., E. indica Steud.),foxtail millet (Setaria italica L.), kodomillet (Paspalum scrobiculatum L.), maize(Zea mays L.), pearl millet [Pennisetumglaucum (L.) R.Br.], proso millet or littlemillet (Panicum miliare Lam.), rice(Oryza sativa L.), sanwa [Echinochloa

For these reasons, and also possiblydue to dominant Hindu traditions, thelocal people have great reverence forthe cow. Bundelkhand has had a high

livestock population for ages. It isoften said that there are more

livestock than humans inBundelkhand. However, this was only

true till the 1980s.


frumentacea (Roxb.) Link], sorghum[Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench], andwheat (Triticum aestivum L.).

Grain legumes and oilseeds. Blackgram [Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper], castor(Ricinus communis L.), chickpea (Cicerarietinum L.), cowpea [Vigna unguiculata(L.) Walp.], green gram [Vigna radiata (L.)Wilczek, V. radiata var. sublobata (Roxb.)Verdc.], groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.),Indian mustard [Brassica juncea (L.)Czern.], masur or lentil (Lens culinarisMedik.), alsi or linseed (Linumusitatissimum L.), moth bean [Vignaaconitifolia (Jacq.) Maréchal.], mustard(Brassica campestris), ramtil or niger[Guizotia abyssinica (L.f.) Cass.], pea(Pisum sativum L.; batla), pigeonpea[Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.], bold-seededcultivars; safflower (Carthamus tinctoriusL.), til or sesame (Sesamum indicum L.),soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.], andsweet pea (Lathyrus odoratus L.).

Fodder and fiber crops. The figures onland use in Bundelkhand show the largestarea of land under grasslands (a reason fordominant pastoral agriculture) is found in theSagar district, followed byChhatarpur. Considerable stretches ofgrassland are also found in Damoh andTikamgarh. Significant area of permanentpastures is not found in the UP districts ofthe region, except in the southern portion ofLalitpur district. The region is very rich ingrasses, as the family Poaceae isrepresented by 172 species under 84 genera,with Brachiaria brizantha (A. Rich.) Stapf,reported new to the flora (Shukla and Sinha,2004). The other grasses cultivated and usedfor fodder are doob (Cynodon dactylon),guneria (Themeda quadrivalvis), kail(Dichanthium annulatum), lumpa(Heteropogon contortus), mushial(Iseilema laxum), and sain (Sehimanervosum). In addition, multicrop Avenasativa L. and Sorghum spp., fodder typebajari or bajra (Pennisetum glaucum) andCenchrus ciliaris L. [syn. Pennisetumciliare (L.) Link] are cultivated for animalfodder. In fiber, jute (Corchorus olitoriusL.), alsi or flax/linseed (Linumusitatissimum), and sanai or hemp(Cannabis sativa L. subsp. indica Lam.)are grown to obtain fiber from the bark.

Vegetables. Bitter gourd (Momordicacharantia L.), bottle gourd [Lagenariasiceraria (Molina) Standl.], brinjal oreggplant (Solanum melongena L.),cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.), sahijanor drumstick (Moringa oleifera Lam.),phut (Cucumis melo L. var. culta Royle),kakri (Cucumis melo var. utilissimusDuthie & Fuller), kakrol or kankro

As the region at one time was veryrich in forest resources, the poor

farmers and rural massestraditionally harvest or collect variousnon-timber forest products, which areeconomically beneficial. Some of thecommon products are tendu leaves,

palash leaves, aonla, harra, gond(gum), imli, trifala, khair, chironji,

babul, anjan, sal seed and manymedicinal plants. Mahua has beenone of the major sources of food for

poor communities.


(Momordica dioica), kundru (Cocciniaindica), balsam apple (Momordicabalsamina L.), muskmelon (Cucumis meloL.), okra [Abelmoschus esculentus (L.)Moench], pea (Pisum sativum), petha orash gourd [Benincasa hispida (Thunb)Cong.], sponge gourd (Luffa cylindrica M.Roem.; syn. L. aegyptiaca Mill.), andtomato (Lycopersicon esculentum L.).

Leafy vegetables. Bathua(Chenopodium album L.), chauli(Amaranthus viridis L.), false amaranth[Digera muricata (L.) Mart.] (pot herb),green amaranths (Amaranthus hybridus L.,A. viridis L.), methi or fenugreek(Trigonella foenum-graecum L.), and salad(Amaranthus tricolor L.).

Rhizomes, tubers, and bulbs. Arbi(Colocasia antiquorum Schott.), sweetpotato [Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lamb.], andvidharikand (Pueraria tuberosa).

Fruits. Anjir (Ficus caricoides Roxb.), aonla(Emblica officinalis), bel (Aegle marmelos),ber [Ziziphus nummularia (Burm.f.) Wight& Arn.; Z. mauritiana Lam.; syn. Z. jujubaMill.; Z. vulgaris Lam.], chironji (Buchananialanzan Spreng.), ghout (Ziziphus xylopyrus),gular (Ficus glomerata Roxb.), jamun(Syzygium jambos), karaundha (Carissaspinarum L.; C. carandas Lour.), karkandhu(Ziziphus oenoplia), katai (Flacourtiaindica), khirni (Mimusops kauki L.), labhera(Cordia myxa Roxb.; syn. C. dichotomaForst.), phalsa (Grewia asiatica L.), andwatermelon [Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.)Matsum & Nakai].

Spices. Dhaniya (Coriandrum sativumL.), pudina (Mentha arvensis L.) in Jalon,

Jhansi district is known for the quality of itsturmeric (Curcuma longa L.) and ginger(Zingiber officinale Rosc.); turmeric is alsocultivated in Orchha, Niwari, and Tikamgarh;parts of Mahoba district are known for paanor betel leaf (Piper betle L.).

Other crop species. Indigo (Indigoferatinctoria L. Deutsch) and sugarcane(Saccharum officinarum L.).

Agroforestry, gum, and resin species.Acacia senegal (L.) Willd. (syn. A. verekGuill. et Perr.), alai (Boswellia serrata),babul (Acacia nilotica), khejri (Prosopiscineraria Druce), and vilayti kiker[Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC.].

Timber. Bija or Indian kino (Pterocarpusmarsupium), dhaora (Anogeissuslatifolia), kardhai or dhok (Anogeissuspendula), sal (Shorea robusta C.F.Gaertn.), shisham (Dalbergia sissoo), teak(Tectona grandis), and tendu (Diospyrosmelanoxylon).

Multipurpose species. Arjun(Terminalia arjuna), chironji (Buchananialanzan), dhak (Butea monosperma), kush[Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv.], mahua(Madhuca indica), neem (Azadirachtaindica A.Juss.), siris (Albizia lebbeck, A.procera), tendu (Diospyrosmelanoxylon), and ritha (Sapindustrifoliatus L.; syn. S. laurifolius Vahl.).

Forest species providing non-timberproducts. Aonla (Emblica officinalis) –fruit, chironji (Buchanania lanzan) – seed,khair (Acacia catechu) – bark, mahua(Madhuca indica) – flower and seed, andtendu (Diospyros melanoxylon) – leaf, and


seasonal fruits and vegetables, like kundari(Coccinia indica), Momordica spp.,medicinal herbs, gum, and honey.

Medicinal plants. The region is very richin knowledge regarding the medicinalproperties of plants. Lalitpur forest divisionis the richest. A recent survey listed 66medicinal plants from Lalitpur, which arecommonly used in Ayurveda/drug industriesand used by the local inhabitants (Dixit andMishra, 1999). Some of the plants harvestedfrom the wild or cultivated for medicinalproperties are Alstonia scholaris (L.) R.Br.,arjun [Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.)Wight & Arn.], bahera [Terminaliabellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb.], bhang or ganja(Cannabis sativa), Balanites aegyptiaca(L.) Delile, Baliospermum montanum(Willd.) Müll. Arg., Celastrus paniculatusWilld., Embelia tsjeriam-cottam (Roem. &Schult.) A.DC., harda (Terminalia chebulaWilld. ex Flem.), Helicteres isora L.,Holarrhena antidysenterica (Roxb. exFleming) Wall. ex DC., kalama (Acoruscalamus L.), Plumbago zeylanica L.,babchi (Psoralea corylifolia L.), nux-vomica (Strychnos nux-vomica L.), Vitexnegundo L., and Woodfordia fruticosa (L.)Kurz.. In addition, gugul [Commiphorawightii (Am.) Bhandari] andashwagandha [Withania somnifera (L.)Dunal] have been found growing in Jhansi,and safed musali (Chlorophytumborivilianum Santapu & Fernandes) andkalmegh [Andrographis peniculata(Burm.f.) Wall. ex Nees] in Lalitpur forests.Martynia annua L., an exotic medicinalplant now naturalized is well known to thevillagers of the region by the names of kaua,baghnakha, and hathajoru. Seeds and

fruits of this plant are being used for thetreatment of asthma, and itch and eczema,respectively (Saxena and Vyas, 1981), andpanjhuli (Kirganelia reticulata Baill.) astoothbrush.

Wild relatives of crop species.Abelmoschus pungens (Roxb.) J. Voigt[syn. A. manihot (L.) Medik. var. pungens(Roxb.) Hochr., A. tetraphyllus Wall.,Hibiscus pungens Roxb.], A. tuberculatusPal & Singh, Alysicarpus monilifer (L.)DC. (syn. Hedysarum moniliferum L.),Amaranthus spinosus L., A. viridis,Cajanus scarabaeoides (L.) Thouars, C.sericeus (Benth. ex Baker) Maesen,Cucumis callosus (Rottb.) Cogn., C.setosus Cogn., Indigofera deccanensisSanjappa, Momordica balsamina, M.dioica, Saccharum spontaneum L. (aninvasive species, which has become aconcern in the region), Sesamum laciniatumWilld., Sorghum cernuum (Ard.) Host var.yemense (Körn.) Snowden, S.controversum (Steud.) Snowden., S.halepense (L.) Pers., S. miliaceum (Roxb.)Snowden, S. nitidum (Vahl) Pers.,Trigonella occulta Delile, and Vignatrilobata (L.) Verdc..

Endemic species. As the region liesbetween the fertile Gangetic plains andhighlands of central MP in a continuum fromthe Gangetic plains to the highlands ofcentral MP and Chhattisgarh, it lags speciesendemism; nevertheless there are ecotypesof various species endemic to these regions.

Threatened species. Recently, theMinistry of Environment and Forests hasnotified Alectra chitrakutensis from the


region as Critically Endangered. A largenumber of species with medicinal properties,native to the region, and many commonlyknown naturalized medicinal plant species,have been reported to be under threat or onthe verge of extinction, because ofoverexploitation and degradingenvironmental conditions (Source:www.aseanbiodiversity.info/scripts/count_article.asp; Datt et al., 2001).

Associated culture andtribes

The region has been part of Indian ethosfrom ancient times. During the ancientperiod, Lord Rama stayed for a long time inthe forests of Chitrakoot (Ramayana).Similarly, in the Mahabharata, there is themention of the Chedi state, whoseboundaries touched the river Betwa in thewest and the river Yamuna in the north. Thedescription of this state resembles present-day Bundelkhand. Shishupala was the rulerof this kingdom with its capital at Chanderi.

During the first half of the 14th century CE,when the Chandelas were on the decline,the Bundelas took over Bundelkhand. TheBundelas claimed to be the descendants ofKing Pancham of Kashi. Sahanpal Bundelacaptured Garhkundar from Khangar kingand his successors ruled the areas around ittill 1531 CE. Chhatrashal Bundela, the fourthson of Champat Ray, was one of the greatestBundelas who fought for the freedom anddevelopment of the region after whom theregion was named Bundelkhand.

Bundelkhand has a rich cultural background.The Chandela and Bundela rulers of

Bundelkhand were great builders andconstructed numerous forts, palaces, andtemples. The region is full of temples,particularly those of Lord Shiva. Khajuraho,the famous attraction in India, is situated inthe district of Chhatarpur. Khajuraho has arange of temples with exquisitely carvedstone sculptures and depictions on the outerwalls. They were created by the Chandelakings who ruled Bundelkhand, before the riseof the Bundelas in the region.

The major tribes in Bundelkhand are Biar,Biyar (Tikamgarh), Saur, Sawur, Sonta(Tikamgarh/Chhatarpur), Soner(Tikamgarh), Kol, Manjhasi (Panna/Satna),Mawasi, Agaria (Panna), Bhaini (Satna),Dhanuk (Datia/Satna), Saharia (Datia), andBedia (Panna/Chhatarpur).

Technology and productsFor the conservation of biodiversity, theregion has established traditional gardens,called baughs, in the districts of Panna,Chhatarpur, Sagar, Damoh, Satna, Rewa,Sidhi, and Shahdol of MP, and Jhansi in UP.They are the equivalent of sacred grovesestablished for the conservation ofeconomically important plant species.

Because of the absence of perennialsources of water, the entire Bundelkhandregion is dependent on rainwater forirrigation. However, the unique structure ofnatural water channels, permitting very highrunoff of the monsoon water, and short spellsof heavy rainfall causing high levels of soilerosion, have made water harvesting a majorconcern for development of irrigatedagriculture and livestock farming. Water isconserved in wells, the traditional source of


irrigation in the region. To facilitate pastoraleconomy, the farmers also conserverainwater in tanks and in-situ in the field,which increases the fodder availability foranimals while recharging the aquifers.Several centuries ago, with the support ofrulers like the Chandela and the Bundela,the local people tapped many streams andexploited the sloping topography, by buildingembankment and water harvestingstructures such as lakes and surface-reservoirs in the region (Fig. 4). Thisextremely scientific tradition continues to thisday. Consequently, each village in the regionhas ponds/tanks to meet the water needs ofthe inhabitants. Some of the old structurescreated during the time of the Chandelasand Bundelas are still in use. The Chandelascreated a large number of ponds now knownas Chandeli-ponds for irrigation and drinkingwater supply (Fig. 4). For example, inTikamgarh, the Chandeli-ponds are wellscattered in the district. Thus, the area hasevolved three traditional irrigation systems:(i) reservoirs, primary surface tanks, andponds; (ii) inundation irrigation systems; and(iii) in-situ storage facilities. The people ofBundelkand continue to innovate. For

example, Mangal Singh, a farmer of Bhailoni,Lalitpur, succeeded in inventing an efficient,simple, and low-cost turbine (water wheel)that requires a very low water head. Hecoupled it with a pumping and sugarcane-crushing system, and used this energy forother operations (Prakash et al., 1998).

The Bundelkhand region experiencesregular drought today, which has hinderedthe development and growth of the region,and has increased its vulnerability andmarginalization, thereby unbalancing thevillage economy. For this reason, there is agradual decrease in the cultivated areaduring the kharif season. However,historically, the region had good rainfall (800to 1,250 mm) and was known for lakes,ponds, tanks, bavdis, wells, etc., andtherefore, in the olden times the region hasevolved significant genetic diversity in allmajor crops and even later responded to thechanging scenario. For example, in wheat,varieties such as Kathia grown in someparts, command a premium. Other wheatvarieties grown are Halna, Kudrat, andSharbati. Similarly, in the case of rice,scented varieties, such as Tulsi bhog, Kalasudanas, and Ram bhog have a premium.The farmer’s variety Kalimuchh of Gwalior,an export-quality material, is losing its qualityand identity and needs research andattention. Also, from wild weedy types,hardy varieties such as the Pasahi paddyor wild paddy, Savan, and Kakun have beenselected for early maturity to be ready forharvest within 60 days, to provide foodsecurity to poor families in difficult times.Some of the traditional rice varietiescultivated in Banda and Chitrakoot areChinnawar, Maha-chinnawar, Muskan,

Figure 4. A traditional multipurpose tank(courtesy B Prakash).


Badshah pasand, Luchai, Kalasudas,Lakda, Ram karoni, Saathi, Dubraj, andBhainslot (B Prakash, personalcommunication). In sorghum, the region isknown for scented landraces (Singh andBorkar, 2005), which are still being collected(Source: http://www.sorghum.res.in/ann-report.pdf).

The region is rich in genetic diversity of grainlegumes. Variability for foliage, seed size,shape, and color, and maturity time in lentilhas been recorded in areas along Yamunariver, leading to the development of varietiessuch as K 75 (Malika), which in turn hasbeen derived from local landraces (Singh etal., 2006b). Variability in seed size with bold-seeded type in green gram, and goodmorphotype in black gram are known fromthe region. In pigeonpea, the Banda districthas small-seeded delicious deshi arahar,which tastes best among all, though bold-

seeded pigeonpea landraces are also knownfrom the region (Singh et al., 2006a).

Among oilseeds, variation has been recordedin sesame for plant type (erect bunch), seedsize, color (white), and percentage oil,tolerance to drought, and resistance to gallfly and capsule borer. This has resulted inthe development of varieties such as Type 3(50% oil, drought tolerance, white seed) fromHamirpur local; N 32 (53% oil, resistance togall fly and capsule borer, white bold seed)from Chattarpur local; and G-35 (erect bunchtype with white bold seed) from a Gwaliorlandrace, through selection (Duhoon et al.,2004). Variability has also been collectedfrom the region in the case of rapeseedmustard (Kumar et al., 2004). The region isalso known for significant variability in castorwith dark red, white rose mahogany andsulfur-white colored capsule, and also forwide variation in seed color and shape. Theplants grow tall up to 3 m with large leaveshaving more than 50 cm diameter. Such typeshave been successfully used in rearingsilkworms (Anjani and Jain, 2004).

In vegetables, the region is known forvariability in solanaceous crops such asSolanum melongena, and landraces such asBundelkhand Desi with tolerance to droughtare known nationally (Rai et al., 1993). Richgenetic diversity has been recorded amongthe minor arid fruits. For example, in bel(Aegle marmelos) traditional varieties suchas Kagzi Etawah are known, whereas in the

Several centuries ago, with thesupport of rulers like the Chandelaand the Bundela, the local people

tapped many streams and exploitedthe sloping topography, by buildingembankment and water harvesting

structures such as lakes and surface-reservoirs in the region. Thisextremely scientific tradition

continues to this day. Consequently,each village in the region has ponds/tanks to meet the water needs of the

inhabitants. Some of the old structurescreated during the time of the

Chandelas and Bundelas are still inuse.

The region is rich in genetic diversityof grain legumes.


case of chironji (Buchanania lanzan),diversity has been recorded for panicle, fruitsize, and quality kernels. Diversity has alsobeen recorded in aonla (Emblicaofficinalis), ber (Ziziphus mauritiana), andkaronda (Carissa carandas) (Vashishthaet al., 2005).

Due to its pastoral, agropastoral, andagro-silvo-pastoral economy, the regionhas introduced several fodder species.During the British period, Cenchrusciliaris (grass) and Leucaena glaucaBenth. [L. leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit]were introduced around the forts toprovide rich fodder for horses. In recenttimes, the Indian Grassland and FodderResearch Institute, Jhansi has furtherenriched the fodder germplasm with theintroduction of Brachiaria ruziziensisR.Germ. & C.M.Evrard, B. brizantha,species of Paspalum L., StylosanthesSw. and many other legumes (PS Pathak,personal communication).

As the livestock are an integral componentof agriculture, the local people havedeveloped a notable feeding practice calledgwari. Cattle from black soil areas of theplains are sent to particular pasturelands inplateau and hilly areas (known as gwaris)during the monsoon, under the supervisionof charwahas who build temporary sheltersfor themselves and the animals. Animals fromseveral neighboring villages are reared in thismanner for a period of three to four months(Source: www.bundelkhandinfo.org). Inaddition, open grazing is the norm, includingstray grazing, a practice known asannapratha – animals are left to roamaround and find food for themselves.

However, annapratha has been blamed forpoor agriculture and livestock economy.

Recognizing the importance of livestock intraditional agriculture, the local people havedeveloped indigenous traditional knowledgeabout the use of various plants that facilitatethe healthcare of livestock: lampa(Heteropogon contortis), phalkara(Bothriochola sp.), gunaria (Iceilemalaxum), kail (Dichanthium annulatum),sain (Sehima nervosum) among grasses,and jharber (Ziziphus nummularia), neem(Azadirachta indica), peepal (Ficusreligiosa), dhak (Butea monosperma), anddesi babool (Acacia nilotica) (Mishra etal., 2010). Use of fodder trees for feedingthe livestock has been a popular and uniquepractice of the region.

The region had also developed thetechnology for harvesting, baling, andexporting grasses from the region for horsesin the armies of different countries. Grasstrade had been a feature of this regionorganized at Jhansi (by Mr Abbot), and grasswas collected from Panna, Chhatarpur,Sagar, etc. (PS Pathak, personalcommunication).

A wide range of genetic diversity infreshwater fish has also been conserved inBundelkhand’s rivers, including speciesknown locally as rahu, bhadur, mrigal,tingar, singahi, mangur, awda, baam,sooja, sinni, and mahasir (Source:www.bundelkhandinfo.org).

Future perspectivesToday, the Bundelkhand region ischaracterized by some of the lowest levels


of per capita income and humandevelopment. The mismanagement ofenvironmental issues and land use in the pasthas led to the rapid decline of forest cover,reducing the traditional sources of fuel,fodder, and food. These factors, combinedwith limited rainfall and lack of waterresources, have resulted in low agriculturalproductivity. Therefore, appropriateafforestation with native trees along thebunds and ravines, management ofrainwater harvesting with the developmentof channels as per contours and topography,storage facilities, prevention of logging forfuel, weather forecasting, and developmentof new combinations of early-maturing anddrought-resistant crops as per the changingweather scenario can help transform thevast land and help it regain its fertility. Thisneeds to be initiated on priority.

Poor crop yields have been one of the majorproblems, because of erosion of the topsoilleading to poor soil fertility and water runoff.Therefore, with improved watermanagement, revival of traditional croprotations, which can help maintain the fertilityof the land and the introduction of new crops/crop rotation systems suited to the localenvironment should be promoted after properevaluation. In this endeavor, the potential ofhorticultural crops, such as vegetables andminor fruit, needs to be tapped. It may needpromotion of special crops for specific areasas per climatic conditions.

The region has rich knowledge about themedicinal properties of herbs. These canprovide an important source of livelihoodapart from playing a role in improvingmedicare at low cost. The temporary and

long-term out-migration of males from ruralvillages in search of alternative sources oflivelihood has become increasingly common,therefore rural employment based onindigenous resources revolving around field-agriculture, horticulture (vegetables andminor fruits), and livestock rearing has tobe created and encouraged.

In the past, the forests provided various non-timber forest products, which areeconomically beneficial for the poor. Theyhave become depleted today, and access isdenied to the remaining products in the nameof conservation. There is an urgent need forintegrated planning of natural resources tosupport livelihoods, by bringing more landunder forest cover and integrating theobjectives of conservation and increasingforest cover with the livelihoods of the tribaland rural poor.

Acknowledgment

The author is thankful to Dr BharatenduPrakash, Bundelkhand Resources’ StudyCentre, Chattarpur, MP, and Dr PSPathak, former Director, IndianGrassland and Fodder Research Institute,Jhansi, UP for perusing the manuscriptand sharing information and pictures.

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