principles of language learning and teaching by shintyadindan

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PRINCIPLES LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING

H. DOUGLAS BROWN

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Douglas Brown divides the book into 4 sections and 10 chapters. The first section

discusses he factors that influence learning and teaching language in the first part is the

age factor, further psychological factors, cultural and social factors and the latter factor

linguistics.

Chapter 1 Language, Learning, and Teaching

In chapter 1 deals with the language, learning and teaching. There are a few questions

about second language acquisition, among others, characteristics of learners, linguistic

factors, the learning process, age and acquisition, variable instructional, context, and goal.

In essence, these questions arise when first learning a second language, such as who the

learners, the learners what to learn, how learning takes place, when learning a second

language takes place, an influential variable in second language acquisition, context of the

mother tongue , and the latter is the goal of mastering a second language itself. A variety

of these questions as an overview of second language learning.

The definition of language is a statement that shows characteristics of a concept. However,

other languages have many different definitions. The definition of mastery learning or

gaining knowledge about a subject or a skill to learn, experience, and instruction. While

teaching is to show something or assist in the assessment, prepared knowledge, make out

or understand.

There are several schools of thought in acquiring a second language support. Among other

Structural Linguistics and psychology Behavioristic, the essence of language acquisition

without examining the mind only on things that looks. Generative linguistics and cognitive

psychology, research rationally by observing competence, constructivism is a new school

of thought that examines all aspects.



Teaching Language in Nineteen Century.

The method used in this century is the classic method, the method focuses on grammatical

rules, memorization of vocabulary, as well as a variety of declension and conjugation,

translation of text, and written exercises workmanship.

The classical method is also called the grammar translation method of language (Grammar

Translation Method). Teaching with classical methods has many shortcomings. Language

teaching in the twentieth century The method used in the twentieth century is the method

audio-lingual method and using the principle of the approach.

Part I Age Factor

Chapter 2 First Language Acquisition

In chapter 2 is discussed on the theories that aa in first language acquisition. There are two

groups clashing arguments about second language acquisition is the Behavioristic and

nativist.

Behaviorostik researchers assume that the language acquired in accordance with the

habit of learning by operant conditioning. Behavioristik got a lawsuit by Chomsky.

Another approach is the nativist approach which assumes that humans have a language

acquisition device, the child already has a natural-language provision in him since birth.

The researchers nativist continue their research about the universality of language

(universal grammar). This nativist researchers also got a lawsuit. That on initinnya

information will be processed simultaneously on several levels (parallel distributed

processing / PDP) branch of research that examines the PDP called konektionisme. The

theory of mediation at the center between the behaviorist and nativist. There is a functional

approach as the development of nativist theory.

Issues in First Language Acquisition

There are various problems in acquiring a first language, including competence and

performance, understanding and production, Congenital or parenting, Universal,

systematic and variability, Exercise and Frequency, Input, and Discourse. First language

acquisition insights are applied in language teaching.



Chapter 3 Age and Acquisition

In studying a second language, one must throw away the myths that exist in this second

language acquisition because these things are wrong. Second language acquisition by

children and adults are also different, can not be equated. There are several considerations

that must be considered in language acquisition, There is a critical period hypothesis (The

Critical Period Hypothesis) which states that there is a biological timetable in language

acquisition. In addition to this theory there is also a neurobiologist balance of influence,

affect brain development also with language acquisition. Consideration of regional accents

of origin, consideration of cognitive, affective considerations, and linguistic considerations

should also be considered. The problems that arise in a second language with language

problems at first.

Part II Psychological Factor

Chapter 4 Human Learning

Human cognitive areas is essential for human language acquisition. Therefore it isnecessary to understand the general nature of human learning such as learning and

training. The theory in this study there were 3 among others Behavioristic (classical and

operant), cognitive theory, and constructivist theory. Language learning involves all kinds

of learning, according to Gagne (1965) there are eight types of learning: learning cues,

stimulus-response learning, coupling, verbal association, discrimination, double, learning

concepts, learning principles, and the last is problem solving. Such learning will be

applied according to the method Behavioristic and cognitive methods.

Another problem that occurs in language learning is the transfer, interference and

excessive generalization. Transfer is the transfer of knowledge prior to the next lesson.

There are two types of transfer ie positive and negative transfer, positive transfer occurs

when previous knowledge to support future learning, while negative transfer (interference)

is when the previous learning interfere with future learning. generalization is important in

learning but if too much will cause interference. In the process of generalization there are

two processes namely inductive and deductive reasoning. Moreover intelligence is also



influential in language learning. Language teaching methods in practice there are two

contrasting the methods and language learning community audio-lingual.

Chapter 5 Styles and Strategies

Processes, styles and strategies

The process is characteristic of all human beings. The style is a term that refers to the

biases or preferences that are consistent and somewhat durable in within one. The force on

each person is different, there are more oriented to visual, audio, etc. The strategy is a

special method to solve a problem or to convey something.

Learning style

Cognitive style is the relationship between personality and cognition. While the style of

learning is when cognitive styles are specifically linked to the educational context.

Learning styles are divided into two styles of reflective and impulsive style. whereas

according to various studies, there are many styles of learning.

Independence of Field

The independence of the field is when the can see the relevant factors in a field among the

factors that disrupt. While the field dependence is tendency on something so relevant

factor is not easily recognizable. Dependencies field is also called the sensitivity of thefield. The literature on dependency-independency field called field independence-

dependence (FID). people with FI tend to be more independent, competitive, and

confident. FD people more inclined to socialize and to better understand people's feelings.

Various researchers argue that the argument about which is more successful in learning a

second language used FD / FI. In essence this is important both styles are used in learning

a second language.

Left-right brain dominance.

Although the left and right brains work differently but the left and right brain operate as a

team. There are differences in second language learners are predominantly right brain or

left brain.

FI and FD function is associated with left and right brain.

Tolerance of ambiguity



Someone who has a tolerance of ambiguity can absorb and consider the arguments even

though it was contrary to our thinking while intolerance of ambiguity when one is closed

and isolated would not accept entries that do not correspond to the incomprehensible.

Excessive tolerance can inhibit meaningful ideas and too intolerant are also not good, it

would become too rigid, dogmatic, harsh and too narrow. In essence, tolerance of

ambiguity will be slightly better if applied in learning a second language.

Reflectivity and Impulsivity

Impulsiveness is when guessing something quickly just by luck with a hunch based

reflective whereas more careful and full consideration. Errors occur in children more

impulsive. However, impulsive child also has the advantage.

Visual style, and KINESTHETIC Auditory

Every child has a different style in accepting input. Some children with such visual images

he would more easy to understand, there is a sound, and there is more to understand if

using motion / demonstration. Everything has advantages and disadvantages.

Autonomy, Awareness and Actions

(Autonomy, awareness, and action) at this point becomes important in education. Pupils

were given the autonomy to get what they need in class, not just accept what the teacher

alone. Of understanding also becomes important in the autonomy. After understand there

must be action. Action is required as the selection of appropriate learning strategies for

themselves.

Strategy

Learning strategies in each individual is different from one person to another person.

learning strategy is divided into 3 categories: meta-cognitive, cognitive, and socio-

affective, meta-cognitive strategies in learning plan, is learning the cognitive tasks

associated with learning, socio-affective mediation with regard to social activity and

interaction with others. There is also a communications strategy, the strategy of avoidance

and compensatory strategies.

Strategy-Based Instruction

There are two categories directly and indirectly. The strategy is divided into 3 namely

direct memory strategies, cognitive strategies and compensation strategies. Indirect



strategy is divided into 3 namely meta-cognitive strategies, affective and social. For

recognize and identify the styles and strategies learners used a questionnaire.

Chapter 6 Personality Factors

In addition to cognitive factors, personality or affective factors also affect second language

acquisition.

There are areas in the affective life, the first is to accept the environment, and then

respond, judge things, organizing values, then get the appropriate value system.

Affective factors in second language acquisition include dignity (global, situational, tasks),

attribution theory (how people explain the causes of their success) and the feasibility of

self (when learners capable of performing a task), willingness to communicate in second

language learning, overcome the barriers that exist when studying the language, taking

risks, anxiety (innate and situational), Empathy, and extroversion.

Motivation is also included in the influential personality factor in second language

acquisition. Theories of motivation, among others, in terms of behavioutistik theory,

cognitive and constructivist.

According to Gardner and Lambert dividing the two basic types of motivation that is

instrumental and integrative orientation. in orientation, one can have a motivational

intensity high and low.

Another motivation is the concept of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic

motivation is motivation from yourself and there is no apparent reward except the activity

itself rather than as a directive from the outside. Extrinsic motivation is the expectation of

reward and motivation come from outside us.

Personality and language learning is also influenced by factors neurobiology. There are

parts of the brain that play a role in affective relationship with language. Positive

assessments of the situation improving language learning language learning and

assessment inhibit negative second language acquisition.

Influential personality types in language acquisition. Myers dichotomous divide it into

four styles: vs. introversion. understanding, sensing vs.. intuition, thinking vs.. feelings,

judgments vs. understanding. This is developed further so it will show a variety of

combinations.

Affective factor measurement requires skilled and expensive. Therefore, the test methods

used with paper and stationery.



There are various types of tests, among others Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale

(FLCAS), Attitude / Motivation Test Battery (AMTB), and Myers-Briggs test (MBTI)

Motivation Study abroad can also be performed both in the classroom. Teachers can teach,

after considering personality variables in the class. A teacher must consider the intrinsic

and extrinsic factors. In addition, teachers also need to think about teaching techniques

that can increase the motivation of the students.

PART III Social and Cultural Factors

Chapter 7 Social and Cultural factors

The definition of culture is a way of life, can also be interpreted as the ideas, habits and

skills, arts and devices that characterize a group of people within a specific time period.

Each group of people certainly has a different culture. Culture confirmed a cognitive

behavioral and affective context of personal and social. There are people who think that

the culture that we follow is the most correct; such a view is wrong because it is only seen

from the side of our personal

Culture is very influential in language acquisition. It will therefore be discussed in depth

the relationship of language and culture.

Stereotype is when we have the views on the culture of a people by just looking at the

habits of a group. It could also be called simplification of views. The concept of this

oversimplification should be avoided enumerated by the teacher and the learner's second

language. Second language teachers and learners need to understand cultural differences in

order to change the perception becomes appreciation.

Stereotype may imply an attitude toward culture or language spoken. An attitude, show up

and make up most of one's perception of him, others, and the culture in which he lived. In

conjunction with the acquisition of language, has conducted research that attitudes form a

motivation.

In order to acquire a second language well we also have to learn a second culture. Because

this is tantamount to obtaining a second identity, it's called acculturation. Sometimes

people experience a disruption in the process of acculturation, which is called culture

shock.

Social distance, or far away close influential cultural differences in second language

acquisition. John Schumann described the social distance consists of the following

parameters: dominance, Integration, cohesive, Harmony and permanence. The greater the



social distance the more the greater difficulty encountered when learning a second

language learners. To measure the social distance William Acton makes Professed

Difference in Attitude Questionnaire. Teachers are also required to teach intercultural

competence in order to further facilitate in obtaining a second language.

Language Policy and Politics

When the English international language made up a lot of responses including who should

be a teacher of English, whether native English speaking teachers or teachers not native

English speakers. It is actually no need to debate because in essence all teachers can teach

English if the teacher covers four skills, language is one of the four skills.

English is also divided into two language English as a Second Language (ESL) and

English as a foreign language (EFL). ESL and EFL acquisition is different. ESL learners

tend to be more easily acquired than in the EFL learners.

Linguistic imperialism is when the English used as a global language would preclude the

use of mother tongue and when someone who does not learn the Classic International

Language will prevent social and economic progress in the future. EIL provides positive

and negative impacts therefore we must be able to react properly.

Debate in Western countries, the United States never declared English as their ceremonial

International. Held a major campaign in California to ban bilingual education programs.

This is only harmful because of waste of money and time.

Benjamin Whorf advises on the mid-1950s that language has a strong influence on the

thinking and one's outlook. But the emerging debate between the pros and cons of this

statement premises. Foreign language courses considered essential connection between

language and culture. Cultural aspects that need to be modified in order to correspond with

classroom teaching.

Chapter 8

Communicative Competence

There are various definitions of communicative communications from various experts.

Among other definition of Michael Canale and Merrill Swain CC concept divides into

four components / subcategories. Which defines as the use of linguistic and defining the

functional aspects of communication: grammatical competence, discourse competence,

sociolinguistic competence and strategic competence. Bachman added organizational

competence, sociolinguistic competence as well as breaking into ilukosionaire competence

and sociolinguistic aspects.

Language functions



The function is basically a goal we accomplish with the language. As requested, stating,

responding to, and so on. Communication is a functional, purposeful, designed to bring the

effect of a change. Communication is the act of speech.

Halliday divides functions into seven languages namely:

1. Instrumental function

2. Regulatory functions

3. Representational function

4. Interactional functions

5. Function of personal

6. Heuristic function

7. The function of imaginative

A sentence can have many different functions simultaneously. Understanding the function

of this language is the most important in learning a second language.

Functional approach to language teaching

Functional explanation of language contained in the national-functional syllabus. This

syllabus is used to organize a curriculum of primary foreign structural. Syllabus language

relegated to a secondary focus. Now this has become an inside functional syllabus has

been modified.

Discourse analysis

The researchers conducted an analysis of the discourse on the relationship between form

and function. Discourse is the language beyond the sentence. Production and

comprehension of language is a factor in our ability to observe and process the barrage of

discourse, to bring meaning not only of one sentence but the sentence of a referral before

or since. One sentence can have many different responses. Without this pragmatic context

would lead to ambiguous. Therefore need an increased emphasis on the communicative

discourse level of language in the classroom.

The conversation also becomes important to note because is included in the social

character. Communication and interaction. How good conversation, how to start a topic

and avoid the topic is the question How did they say someone will be researched and

analyzed by researchers. According to studies conducted Hey, the stages in this

conversation started from seeking attention. last topic nominations, followed by the

development of topic. Retention of conversation also requires clarification, shift, evasion

and interruptions. Termination also Need to be a good topic studied. According H.P.



Grice, a topic in a conversation will be effective when the conversation has, quantity,

quality, relevance, a good way.

Along with the development of technology, there is a branch of discourse analysis of the

linguistic corpus. The corpus is a set of text / writing, speech transcription, or both are

stored in electronic form and analyzed with the aid of computer software programs. There

are two forms of the corpus of writing and speech.

pragmatics

Pragmatics is important in conveying and interpreting meaning. Pragmatics include

contextual skills such as the use of greetings, polite requests, persuade, and disagree

according to Kasper and Roever research. A sentence can have different meaning and

purpose in responding to it.

Second language acquisition will become more complicated if socio- pragmatic and

pragma-linguistics involved in it.

Another pragmatic factor affecting the acquisition of CC is the gender factor of production

and reception of language. Normally speaking women better than men.

Another part of discourse analysis is contrastive rhetoric, this arises from the assumption

that language emerged not in structure syntaxes alone but rather in the discourses of

nature, whether oral or written.

Discourse style

Style rather than social or regional dialect, but rather a set of conventions to select words,

phrases, discourse, and non-verbal language in certain contexts. Martin Joos described the

five levels of formality in speech style:

1. Oratorical style

2. Deliberative style

3. Consultative style

4. Relaxed style

5. Familiar style

This category can also be applied in written discourse. Style components manifested

through verbal and non-verbal. Register often mischaracterized as a style. registers

identified as a specific phonological variants, vocabulary, idioms and other expressions

which are connected with the work groups and socioeconomically different.

Nonverbal communication

Nonverbal communication includes kinesics, eye contact, proksemic, artifacts, kinesthetic,

and olfactory dimensions. Kinesics is communication relating to the movement of bodies

in each State shall have the meanings that different. Eye contact also has a different

meaning for the United States and Japan. Proksemic is the distance in a conversation.



Artifacts or clothing and jewelry is also an important aspect of communication implies a

social level. Kinesthetic, how we touch other people is also an important aspect of

communicating. Olfactory dimension is related to smell, there is a group of people who do

not like the smell of this course will have an effect in communication.

CC in the classroom: CLT and task-based teaching

Emerged as the method of approach to language development of the era, there are

communicative language teaching (CLT) and there are task-based teaching. Task-based

instruction appears as the focus of language teaching around the world

Part IV Linguistic Factors

Cross-Linguistic Influence and Learner Language

Contrastive analysis hypothesis (CAH) states that the main obstacle second language

acquisition is the first language of the intervention system and the system a second

language. At this time considered that the structural linguistic devices such as slot fillers

grammar Frier will allow a linguist to accurately describe the observed two languages and

matching the second exposure to determine the differences that exist. Examples of this

contrast when native English speakers learn Spanish as a second language. Examples

include couples who contrasted.

0-transfer rate. There is no difference or contrast between the two languages.

Level 1 - A Fusion. Two items in the original language combined into one item in

the target language.

Level 2 – sub-differentiations. An item in the original language is not in the target

language.

Level 3 - a reinterpretation. An item in the original language was given a new

shape or distribution.

Level 4 – Over-differentiations. An entirely new item, even if only slightly with an

item similar to the language of origin, must be learned.

level 5 - Cleavage. One item in the original language into two or more in the target

language requires the learner to create a new differentiator.

From the CAH to CLI

Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis will have a weakness when predicting difficulties,

whether or not to be verified. Attempts to predict difficulties with contrastive analysis are

called the strong version of CAH. This analysis has intuitive appeal. While the weak

version of the CAH is called cross-linguistic Influence (CLI), which basically suggests



that we should not forget the past experience of action learning, and the influence of

language originated from previous experience. . Strong version of CAH criticized by

Whitman and Jackson who has done empirical tests CAH effectiveness analysis as a tool

to predict difficulties with the Japanese as the research sample. On the basis of these

studies CAH inadequate as a basis for determining the difficulty. There are other

researchers who criticize CAH with an empirical study. The conclusion is that large

differences do not always have a greater difficulty. Strong form of CAH is too weak while

the weak version is too weak then it is better to use CLI research.

Striking and Universal Grammar

Differential strinking hypothesis to explain the relative difficulty with universality as a

baseline. Ecman linguists claim that the items that stand out in a language will be more

difficult to obtain than that is not flashy, striking degree equal to the degree of difficulty.

and in harmony with the statement Echman, Rutherford also says so. By using UG hope is

that it can facilitate second language acquisition and make it easier to identify the

difficulties that exist. Also striking in theory there is a model of competition, ie when

second language learners have not had a way to interpret the word to the learner's first

language will seek other alternatives to find the meaning. These ways more modern than

the CAH.

Language Learners

In the SLA, learners are not considered as blank paper that has not been filled by any but

the learner is someone who is intelligent and able to develop ideas and be able to process

the acquired acquisition in accordance with the systematic stages. Language learner is a

unique language for each learner has different characteristics. Hypothesis between

languages provides the latest breakthrough from CAH environment. Language learners is

the approach used to analyze between languages. Production data can be understood in

general, while the understanding of second language is more difficult to assess because it

can be observed directly.

Error Analysis

Mistakes are made a reasonable start to begin a lesson. mistakes made when learning the

language will bring up a feedback for how it should be a benar.Tanpa processing there is

an error, the learner will understand the true difficulty. Teachers must understand the



mistakes made by learners because of mistakes made could have been the key to

understanding the second language acquisition.

Errors of different errors. Fallacy is when the learner knows how the system will correct

language but fail in use. While the error is when the learner is not appropriate to use the

system language. A mistake can not necessarily be corrected itself while the error can be

corrected itself. Mistakes can be observed this is called error analysis.

Analysis of excessive errors will cause a negative impact for learners. Although this

correction is important but the purpose of second language learners are achieving

communicative fluency. Error analysis can make us fixated on specific languages

regardless of the universality of language. After analyzing the errors continued with the

analysis of performance or analasis translingual.

Identify and describe the error is a sulit.Pengajar must collect data from learners and

identify it with logic. The first step is to identify analyze and explain the error. There are

two types of errors that is

open and closed.

There are several ways to identify the error.

Sources of error are determined after analyzing the error. By identifying the sources of

error we can understand cognitive and affective processes associated with system

linguistic learners.

Transfer interlangual is the error that occurs between two languages or more. This error

occurs occurs when the learner uses language rules first applied to the second language.

Such errors can be detected. Intralingual transfer is the interference that occurs in the

language itself.

Learning context should also be observed in the classroom by the teacher. materials

provided should be appropriate. Influence of errors / mistakes will make teaching learner

misunderstanding. Besides the communication strategy must also be chosen appropriately

in order to achieve the expected goals.

Stage of development of language learners.

According to research conducted by Corder stage there are four stages of language

development:

1. Random phase errors

2. Phase appears

3. Phase systematic

4. Phase stabilization



Variations in language learners

Variations exist in the language learner paradigm continuum model and competency

model variables. This model evolved into the other models on the research of linguists.

Fossilization or Stabilization.

Fossilization occurs when language users already attached to the initial accent or early

language rules that have been attached to a person but it is not impossible that this

thinking can be changed. To overcome the problem of fossilization can use feedback.

While stabilization is where learners are at a point is stable not.

Error class: A brief history

Mistakes are made from a process of trial and error is actually a good process for the

development of the learner. Unlike the theory of Skinner.

Instruction focuses forms

Form-based instruction (FFI) is important in a functional language in communicative

contexts. .

FFI is a strategy used for learners interested in studying English.FFI has a feedback type

and learner responses to feedback. The feedback also has several types, corrective

feedback and meta-linguistic feedback. The response to feedback any form of response,

repair, and repetition.

Chapter 10 Toward a Theory of Second Language Acquisition

To build SLA theory required a broad knowledge variables learners. Territory and SLA

generalization there are many factors. In addition there are any hypotheses and claims about

how people can acquire a second language well but the myth is not quasi-true. Criteria

practicality good theory is that is comprehensive.

Hot topic in SLA research

Some of the topics that appear on the SLA of much debate and controversy emerged among

many other explicit and implicit learning, problem understanding, inputs and outputs as well as

The frequency of learning.

Other hypotheses about SLA is from Stephen Krashen called input hypothesis. This hypothesis is

included in the hypothetical outward. There are five hypotheses in the input hypothesis.

1. Obtaining the learning hypothesis

2. Monitor model

3. Natural order hypothesis



4. Hypothesis input

5. Affective Filter Hypothesis

The core of the input hypothesis is that there is adequate input, speech skills learners will

come by itself without the demand of teachers. Usually an active learner and passionate

produce output in a foreign language is usually successful.

In addition there are external hypothesis of cognitive hypotheses about the SLA, according

to McLaughlin and Schmidt on this hypothesis learning needed awareness processing

model called attention, and not all children are always better in learning. Another

cognitive model is a model of implicit and explicit. by Ellen Bialystok and other

researchers have examined that attempt to obtain adults with implicit and explicit language

but was never an analysis. Social constructivist model, proposed by Long regarding the

interaction hypothesis that assumes that the input comes from social interaction. In

addition there is a theory of language acquisition are described by the growth process a

seed into a tree. All theories about the acquisition of this SLA shall be applied in practice

to consider it again, assume that the SLA is a combination of science and art, and also

takes the role of intuition.

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First language Acquisition, Chapter 2. H. douglas Brown

Summary.

Not until the second half of the twentieth century did researchers begin to analyze child

language systematically and to discover the nature of the psycholinguistic process that

enables every human being to gain fluent control of an exceedingly complex system of

communication.

Theories of first language acquisition.

During their first year, children make specific attempts to imitate words and speech sounds

they hear around them and about this time they utter their first “words”. By about 18

months of age, these words have multiplied considerably and are beginning to appear in

two-word and three-word “sentences”, referred to as “telegraphic” utterances.

By about age three, children can comprehend an incredible quantity of linguistic input;

their speech capacity mushrooms as they become the generators of nonstop chattering and

incessant conversation.

At school age, children not only learn what to say but what not to say as they learn thesocial functions of their language.

Using the schools of thought referred to the extreme behavioristic position would claim

that children come into the world with a tabula rasa. At the other constructivist extreme is

the position that makes not only the rationalist/cognitivist claim.

These positions represent opposites on a continuum, with many possible positions in

between.

Behavioristic Approaches. The behavioristic approaches focused on the immediately perceptible aspects of linguistic

behavior. A behaviorist might consider effective language behavior to be the production of



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correct responses to stimuli. If a particular response is reinforced, it then becomes

habitual, or conditioned.

The Skinner’s theory of verbal behavior was an extension of his general theory of learning

by operant conditioning. Operant conditioning refers to conditioning in which the

organism emits a response, or operant without necessarily observable stimuli; that operant

is maintained (learned) by reinforcement.In an attempt to broaden the base of behavioristic theory, some psychologists proposed

modified theoretical positions. One of these positions was mediation theory, in which

meaning was accounted for by the claim that the linguistic stimulus (a word or sentence)

elicits a “mediating” response that is self -stimulating. Charles Osgood called this self-

stimulation a “representational meditation process”. In fact, some ways meditation theory

was really a rational/cognitive theory masquerading as behavioristic.

Yet another attempt to account for first language acquisition within a behavioristic

framework was made by Jenkins and Palermo. While their admitting that their conjectures

were “speculative” and “premature”. They claim that imitation was an important, if not

essential, aspect of establishing stimulus-response associations.

The Nativist Approach.

The term nativist is derived from the fundamental assertion that language acquisition is

innately determined, that we are born with a genetic capacity that predisposes us to a

systematic perception of language around us.

Chomsky claimed the existence of innate properties of language to explain the child’s

mastery of a native language. This innate knowledge is embodied in a language

acquisition device (LAD). McNeill described LAD as consisting of four innate linguistic

properties.

1. The ability to distinguish speech sounds from other sounds in the environment.

2. The ability to organize linguistic data into various classes that can later be refined.

3. Knowledge that only a certain kind of linguistic system is possible and that other kinds

are not.

4. The ability to engage in constant evaluation of the developing linguistic system so as to

construct the simplest possible system out of the available linguistic input.

McNeill arguments for the appropriateness of the LAD proposition, especially in contrast

to behavioristic, stimulus-response (S-R) theory.

More recently, researchers focuses on what has come to be known as Universal Grammar.

Positing that all human beings are genetically equipped with abilities that enable them to

acquire language.

Rather, the child’s language at any stage is systematic in that the child is constantlyforming hypotheses on the basis of the input received and then testing those hypotheses in

speech.

Jean Berko demonstrated that children learn language not as a series of separate discrete

items, but as an integrated system.

Nativist studies of child language acquisition were free to construct hypothetical

grammars. The early grammars of child language were referred to as pivot grammars.

A new Spolsky was provided by what has came to be known as the parallel distributed

processing (PDP) model ( also called connectionism) in which neurons in the brain are

said to form multiple connections.

All of these approaches within the nativist framework have made at least three important

contributions to our understanding of the first language acquisition process:



1. Freedom from the restrictions of the so-called “scientific method”

2. Systematic description

3. Potential properties of Universal Grammar.

Functional Approaches.

It’s a move even more deeply into the essence of language. Two emphases have emerged:

a) researchers began to see that language was one manifestation of the cognitive and

affective ability to deal with the word, with others, and with the self. b) The generative

rules were abstract, formal, explicit, and quite logical, yet they dealt specifically with the

forms of language and not with the deeper functional levels of meaning constructured

from social interaction.

Cogni tion and Language Development. Lois Bloom pointed out that the relationships in which words occur in telegraphic

utterances are only superficially similar. By examining data in reference to contexts,

Bloom concluded that children learn underlying structures.Bloom’s research, along with that of Jean Piaget and other, paved (allanó) the way for a

new wave of child language study, this time centering on the relationship of cognitive

development to first language acquisition. What children learn about language is

determined by what they already know about the world.

Dean Slobin demonstrated that semantic learning depends on cognitive development

and that sequences of development are determined more by semantic complexity than by

structural complexity. Bloom noted that “an explanation of language development depends

upon an explanation of the cognitive underpinnings of language”

Social I nteraction and Language Development. In recent years it has become quite clear that language functioning extends well beyond

cognitive thought and memory structure. Here we see the second, social constructivist

emphasis of the functional perspective.

Issues in First Language Acquisition.

Competence and Performance.

Competence refers to one’s underlying knowledge of a system, event, or

fact. Performance is the overtly observable and concrete manifestation or realization of

competence.

Tarone calls heterogeneous competence – abilities that are in the processof being formed.

Comprehension and Production. Into some foreign language teaching materials is that comprehension can be equated with

competence, while production is performance. It is important to recognize that this is not

the case: production is more directly observable, but comprehension is as much

performance.

Nature or Nurture?

Nativists contend that a child is born with an innate knowledge of or predisposition toward

language, and that this innate property (the LAD or UG) is universal in all human beings.



Universals. Closely related to the innateness controversy is the claim that language is universally

acquired in the same manner, and moreover, that the deep structure of language at its

deepest level may be common to all languages.

Intereintig universlas of pivot grammar and other telepgraphese emerged. Maratsos

enumerated some of the universal linguistic categories. These categories are still thesubject of current inquiry:

wonder order

morphological marking tone

agreement (e.g., of subject and verb)

reduced reference nouns and noun classes

verbs and verb classes

predication

negation

question formulation

Much of current UG research is centered around what have come to be known as

principles and paraments, this mean that the child's task of language is manageable

because of certain naturally occuring constraints.

Systematicity and variability. One of the assumptions of a good deal of current research on child language is the

systematicity of the process of acquisition.

But in the midst of all this systematicity there is an equally remarkable amount of

variability in the process of learning. Researchers do not agree on how to define various

stages” of language acquisition, even in English.

Language and Thought For years researchers have probed the relationship between language and cognition. Piaget

who claimed that cognition development is at the very center of the human organism and

that language is dependent upon and springs from cognitive development.

Others emphasized the influence of language on cognitive development. Vigotsky through

language, is a prerequisite to cognitive development. Vigotsky’s zone of proximal

development is the distance between a child’s actual cognitive capacity and the level of

potential development.

Imitation It is common that informal observation said that children are good imitators; the imitation

is one of the important strategies a child uses in the global level. Indeed, researches have

shown that echoing is a particularly salient strategy in early language learning and an

important aspect of early phonological acquisition.

Practice Repetition and association is the key to the formation of habits by operant conditioning.

Practice is usually thought of as referring to speaking only. But one can also think in term

of comprehension practice, which is often considered under the rubric of the frequency of

linguistic input to the child.



Input The role of input in the child’s acquisition of language is underiably crucial. Whatever

one’s position is one the innateness of language, the speech that young children hear is

primarily the speech of older siblings.The importance of the issue lies in the fact that it is clear from more recent research that adult

and peer input to the child is far more important than Nativists earlier believed.

Discourse.

A subfield of research that is occupying the attention of an increasing number of child

language researchers, especially in an era of social constructivist research, is the area of

conversation or discourse analysis. It is only one aspect, as the child also interacts with

peers and, of course, with other adults.

Sinclair and Coulthard (1975) proposed that conversations be examined in terms of

initiations and responses.

As a conclusion we can admitted that a large number of theories and issues in child language

have been explored with the only purpose of briefly characterizing the current state of child

language research, and the other purpose is to highlighting a few of the key concepts that

emerge in the formation of an understanding of how babies learn to talk and eventually become

sophisticated linguistic beings.

In the classroom:

Gouin and Berlitz -- The First Reformers

Gouin and Berlitz they were the first two ref ormers in the history of “modern” language

teaching.

In The Art of Learning and Studying Foreign Languages (1880), François Gouin describes a

set of experiences that finally led to his insights about language teaching.

On the other hand we have Berlitz’s method; his method was that second language

learning should be more like first and second languages, and little or no analysis of

grammatical rules.

Adquisición del primer idioma, Capítulo 2. H. Douglas

Brown

Resumen.

No fue hasta la segunda mitad del siglo XX se empiezan a investigadores analizar sistemáticamente el lenguaje infantil y

descubrir la naturaleza del proceso psicolingüístico que permite a todo ser humano a hacerse con el control fluido de

un sistema extremadamente complejo de la comunicación.



Las teorías de la adquisición del primer idioma.

Durante su primer año, los niños hacen intentos específicos para imitar palabras y sonidos del habla que escuchan a su

alrededor y alrededor de esta época que pronunciar sus primeras "palabras". Alrededor de los 18 meses de edad, estas

palabras se han multiplicado considerablemente y están empezando a aparecer en dos palabras y tres palabras

"oraciones", conocido como "telegráficas" enunciados.

Por cerca de tres años de edad, los niños pueden comprender una cantidad increíble de entradas l ingüísticas, sus setascapacidad del habla a medida que estén los generadores de parloteo sin parar y la conversación incesante.

En la edad escolar, los niños no sólo aprenden qué decir, pero lo que no quiere decir que a medida que aprenden las

funciones sociales de la lengua.

Uso de las escuelas de pensamiento que se refiere a la posición conductista extrema afirmaría que los niños vienen al

mundo con una tabula rasa. En el extremo constructivista otra es la posición que permite no sólo la afirmación

racionalista / cognitivista.

Estas posiciones representan los opuestos de un continuo, con muchas posiciones posibles en el medio.

Los enfoques conductistas.

Los enfoques conductistas se centró en los aspectos perceptibles de inmediato de la conducta lingüística. Un

conductista podría considerar la conducta del lenguaje eficaz para la producción de respuestas correctas a los

estímulos. Si una respuesta en particular se ve reforzada, se convierte en habitual, o condicionado.

La teoría de Skinner de la conducta verbal era una extensión de su teoría general del aprendizaje por condicionamientooperante. El condicionamiento operante se refiere al condicionamiento en el que el organismo emite una respuesta, o

operante sin necesariamente estímulos observables, que se mantiene operante (aprendido) de refuerzo.

En un intento de ampliar la base de la teoría conductista, algunos psicólogos proponen modificar posiciones

teóricas. Una de estas posiciones fue la teoría de la mediación, en el cual el significado se explica por la afirmación de

que el estímulo lingüístico (palabra o frase) produce una "mediación" respuesta que se auto-estimulante. Charles

Osgood llamó a esto la autoestimulación un "proceso de meditación de representación». De hecho, algunas formas de

meditación teoría era realmente una teoría racional / cognitiva conductista disfrazado.

Sin embargo, otro intento de dar cuenta de la adquisición de la primera lengua dentro de un marco conductista fue

hecha por Jenkins y Palermo. Mientras que su admisión de que sus conjeturas eran "especulativo" y

"prematuro". Dicen que la imitación es un importante, si no esencial, aspecto de establecer asociaciones estímulo-

respuesta.

El enfoque nativista.

El nativista término se deriva de la afirmación fundamental de que la adquisición del lenguaje es innata determinado,

que nacemos con una capacidad genética que nos predispone a una percepción sistemática del lenguaje que nos

rodea.

Chomsky afirma la existencia de las propiedades innatas de lenguaje para explicar el dominio del niño de un idioma

nativo. Este conocimiento innato se manifiesta en un dispositivo de adquisición del lenguaje (LAD). McNeill describe

LAD como un conjunto de cuatro propiedades lingüísticas innatas.

1. La capacidad de distinguir los sonidos del habla de otros sonidos en el entorno.

2. La capacidad de organizar los datos lingüísticos en varias clases que más tarde puede ser refinado.

3. El conocimiento que sólo un cierto tipo de sistema lingüístico es posible y que otros tipos no lo son.

4. La posibilidad de participar en la evaluación constante del desarrollo del sistema lingüístico con el fin de construir el

sistema más simple posible de las entradas lingüísticas disponibles.

McNeill argumentos a favor de la adecuación de la proposición LAD, sobre todo en contraste con la conductista, de

estímulo-respuesta (SR) teoría.

Más recientemente, los investigadores se centra en lo que ha llegado a ser conocido como la Gramática Universal. La

postulación de que todos los seres humanos son genéticamente equipados con habilidades que les permitan adquirir el

lenguaje.

Más bien, el lenguaje del niño en cualquier etapa es sistemática en que el niño está en constante elaboración de

hipótesis sobre la base de la información recibida y luego probar estas hipótesis en el habla.

Jean Berko demostrado que los niños aprenden el lenguaje no como una serie de distintos elementos discretos, sino

como un sistema integrado.

Nativistas estudios de adquisición del lenguaje infantil son libres de construir gramáticas hipotéticas. Las gramáticas

tempranas del lenguaje infantil fueron referidos como gramáticas pivote.

Un nuevo Spolsky fue proporcionada por lo que ha llegó a ser conocido como elprocesamiento distribuido paralelo

(PDP) modelo (también llamadoconexionismo) en el que las neuronas en el cerebro se dice que forman conexiones

múltiples.

Todos estos enfoques en el marco nativista han realizado al menos tres contribuciones importantes a nuestracomprensión del proceso de adquisición del lenguaje en primer lugar:



1. La libertad de las restricciones del llamado "método científico"

2. Descripción sistemática

3. Propiedades potenciales de la gramática universal.

Enfoques funcionales.

Es un movimiento aún más profundamente en la esencia del lenguaje. Dos énfasis han surgido: a) los investigadorescomenzaron a ver que el lenguaje era una manifestación de la capacidad cognitiva y afectiva que lidiar con la palabra,

con los demás y con uno mismo. b) Las reglas generativas eran abstracto, formal, explícita y muy lógico, sin embargo,

trata específicamente de las formas del lenguaje y no con los niveles más profundos de significado funcional de la

interacción social estructurada de cara.

Cognición y Desarrollo del Lenguaje.

Lois Bloom señaló que las relaciones en las que las palabras se producen en los enunciados telegráficos sólo son

superficialmente similares. Al examinar los datos en referencia a los contextos, Bloom llegó a la conclusión de que los

niños aprendan las estructuras subyacentes.

Investigación de Bloom, junto con la de Jean Piaget y otros, allanó el camino para una nueva ola de estudio del

lenguaje infantil, esta vez centrado en la relación entre el desarrollo cognitivo a la adquisición de la primera lengua. Lo

que los niños aprenden acerca del lenguaje está determinada por lo que ya saben sobre el mundo.

Dean Slobin demostrado que el aprendizaje semántico depende del desarrollo cognitivo y las secuencias de desarrollo

que se determinan más por la complejidad semántica que por su complejidad estructural. Bloom señaló que "una

explicación del desarrollo del lenguaje depende de una explicación de los fundamentos cognitivos del lenguaje"

Interacción Social y Desarrollo del Lenguaje.

En los últimos años se ha puesto de manifiesto que el funcionamiento del lenguaje se extiende mucho más allá del

pensamiento cognitivo y la estructura de la memoria. Aquí vemos el segundo énfasis, social constructivista de la

perspectiva funcional.

Problemas de la adquisición del primer idioma.

La competencia y el rendimiento.

La competencia se refiere a su conocimiento subyacente de un sistema, un evento o hecho. El

rendimiento es la manifestación abiertamente observable y concreto o realización de competencias.

Tarone llama competencia heterogénea - habilidades que están en el proceso de formación.

Comprensión y Producción.

En algunos materiales de enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras es que la comprensión puede equipararse a la

competencia, mientras que la producción es el rendimiento. Es importante reconocer que este no es el caso: la

producción es más directamente observable, pero la comprensión es el rendimiento como mucho.

Naturaleza o la crianza?

Los nativistas sostienen que un niño nace con un conocimiento innato de o la predisposición a la lengua, y que esta

propiedad innata (la LAD o UG) es universal en todos los seres humanos.

Los universales.

En estrecha relación con la controversia innatismo es la afirmación de que el lenguaje es universalmente adquiridos de

la misma manera y, además, que la estructura profunda del lenguaje en su nivel más profundo puede ser común a

todos los idiomas.

Universlas Intereintig pivote de gramática y otro telepgraphese surgido.Maratsos enumeró algunas de las categorías

lingüísticas universales. Estas categorías son todavía objeto de investigación actual:

pregunto orden

tono de marcación morfológica

acuerdo (por ejemplo, el sujeto y el verbo)

reducción de los nombres de referencia y las clases nominales

verbos y clases de verbos

predicación

negación



pregunta formulación

Gran parte de la investigación actual UG se centra en lo que ha llegado a ser conocido como principios y paramentos,

esto significa que la tarea del niño de la lengua es manejable debido a ciertas limitaciones de origen natural.

Sistematicidad y la variabilidad.

Una de las premisas de una buena parte de la investigación actual sobre el lenguaje infantil es la sistematicidad del

proceso de adquisición.

Pero en medio de todo esto sistematicidad hay una cantidad igual de notable variabilidad en el proceso de

aprendizaje. Los investigadores no se ponen de acuerdo sobre cómo definir las diferentes etapas "de la adquisición del

lenguaje, aun en Inglés.

Lenguaje y Pensamiento

Durante años, los investigadores han investigado la relación entre el lenguaje y la cognición. Piaget quien afirmó que el

desarrollo cognitivo está en el centro mismo del organismo humano y que el lenguaje depende de resortes y de

desarrollo cognitivo.

Otros hicieron hincapié en la influencia del lenguaje en el desarrollo cognitivo.Vigotsky a través del lenguaje, es un

requisito previo para el desarrollo cognitivo. Vigotsky zona de desarrollo próximo es la distancia entre la capacidad real

cognitivo del niño y el nivel de desarrollo potencial.

Imitación

Es común que saids informales observación de que los niños son buenos imitadores; theimitation es una de las

estrategias importantes que un niño usa en el nivel global. De hecho, las investigaciones han demostrado que haciendo

eco es una estrategia particularmente relevante en el aprendizaje temprano de idiomas y un aspecto importante de la

adquisición fonológica temprano.

Práctica

La repetición y la asociación son la clave para la formación de hábitos de condicionamiento operante. La práctica se

suele considerar como una referencia al discurso único. Pero también se puede pensar en términos de la práctica de

comprensión, que sistema operativo considerado a menudo bajo la rúbrica de la entrada de frecuencia og lingüístico

del niño.

Entrada

El papel de la entrada en la adquisición del niño de la lengua es underiably crucial. Cualquiera que sea la posición de

uno es uno el carácter innato del lenguaje, el lenguaje que los niños pequeños se escucha es sobre todo el habla de los

hermanos mayores.

La importancia del tema radica en el hecho que se desprende de la investigación más reciente

que los adultos y pares de entrada para el niño es mucho más importante que antes creía

nativistas.

Discurso.

Un subcampo de la investigación que está ocupando la atención de un número creciente de investigadores del lenguajedel niño, especialmente en una época de investigación constructivista social, es el área de conversación o de análisis

del discurso. Es sólo un aspecto, ya que el niño también interactúa con sus compañeros y, por supuesto, con otros

adultos.

Sinclair y Coulthard (1975) propuso que las conversaciones sea examinada en función de las iniciaciones y las

respuestas.

« Como conclusión podemos admitir que un gran número de teorías y problemas en el lenguaje

infantil han explorado con el único propósito de caracterizar brevemente el estado actual de la

investigación del lenguaje infantil, y el otro propósito es poner de relieve algunos de los

conceptos clave que emergen en la formación de una comprensión de cómo los bebés aprenden

a hablar y eventualmente convertirse en sofisticados seres lingüísticos.

En el aula:



Gouin y Berlitz - Los primeros reformadores

Gouin y Berlitz se fueron los dos primeros reformadores en la historia de la enseñanza "moderna" del lenguaje.

En El arte de aprender y estudiar Lenguas Extranjeras (1880), François Gouin describe un conjunto de experiencias que

finalmente condujeron a sus ideas acerca de la enseñanza de idiomas.

Por otro lado tenemos método Berlitz, su método era que el aprendizaje de una segunda lengua debería ser más como

primeras y segundas lenguas, y poco o ningún análisis de las reglas gramaticales.

lunes, 4 de abril de 2011 http://jositaruiz.blogspot.com/2011/04/chapter-language-learning-and-teaching.html

Chapter: Language, Learning and Teaching. H.D. Brown

Learning a second language is long and complex undertaking process, many variables are involved in the acquisition

process, if we want to learn a second language we need to take present that this process involves acquire a new

culture, a new way of thinking, feeling and acting.

1.- What is a permanent struggle in teaching/learning?

The permanent that I'm going to struggle in teaching/learning process is to reach beyond the confines of my first

language and into a new language, a new culture, a new way of thinking, feeling and acting.

2.- Are we equipped with a do-it-yourself-kit?

Language learning is not a set of easy steps that can be programmed in a quik do-it-yourself-kit. Many variables are

involved in the acquisition process.

3.- Why do people learn or fail to learn a language?

Because it's necessary that the teacher needs to know something about the intricate web of variables that are spuntogether to affect how and why one learners fails when they learn a second language.

4.- Name the issues to consider in second language acquisition.

The current issues in second language acquisition (SLA) may be initially approached as a multitude of questions that are

being asked abour this complex process. Those of the questions are:

Who? -> These question focus attention on some of the crucial variables affecting both learners' successes in

acquiring a foreing language and teachers' capacities to enable learners to achieve that aquisition.

http://jositaruiz.blogspot.com/2011/04/chapter-language-learning-and-teaching.html





What? -> These profound questions are of course central to the discipline of linguistics.

How? -> Refers to where the learning take place, what is the optimal interrelationship of cognitive, affective, and

physical domains for successful language learning.

When -> One of the key issues in second language research and teaching is the differential success of children and

adults in learning a second language.

Where? -> Refers in whitch "foreign" language context the second language is heard and spoken

Why? -> These question have been posed to give you an inkling of the diversity of issues involved in the quest for

understanding the principles of language learning and teaching.

5.- What are the motivations to learn a language?

This question have been posed, in very global terms, to give us an inkling of the diversity of issues involved in the questfor understanding the principles of language learning and teaching.

6.- What is a PARADIGMA?

Paradigma it's an interlocking design, a theory of second language acquisition.

7.- Give 3 definitions of LANGUAGE.

"Language is a complex, specialized skill, which develops in the child spontaneously, without conscious effort or

formal instruction, is deployed without awareness of its underlying logic, is qualitatively the same in every individual,

and is distinct from more general abilities to process information or behave intelligently". ( Pinker).

"Language is a system of arbitrary conventionalized vocal, written, or gestural symbols that enable members of a

given community to communicate intelligibly with one anothe" (Introductory texbooks)

"Systematic communication by vocal symbols" ( Concise Columbia Encyclopedia).

8.- What is the relation between language and cognition?

A foreing language teacher effectively teach a language if they don't know, even in general, something about the

relationship between language and cognition.

9.- Which are some LEARNING definitions?

"Learning is a relatively permanent change in a behavioral tendency and is the result of reinforced practice" (Kimble

& Garmezy)



"Acquiring or getting of knowledge of a subject or a skill by study, experience, or instruction".

10.- Can we define TEACHING apart from LEARNING?

Teaching cannot be defined apart from learning. Teaching is guiding and facilitating learning, enabling the learner to

lear, setting the conditions for learning .

11.- What is the importance of our PEDAGOGICAL PHILOSOPHY?

Our understanding of how the learner, learns will determine our philosophy of education, our teaching style, our

approach, methods and classroom techniques.

12.- Refer to the 3 schools of thought is SLA?

a) Structuralism/Behaviorism

During the 40' and the 50' the structural, or descriptive, school of linguistics prided itself in a rigorous

application of the scientific principle of observation of human languages. The linguistic's task, according to the

structuralist, was to describe human languages and to identify the structural characteristics of those languages.

Among psychologists, a behavioristic paradigm also focused on publicity observable responses, those that can

be objectively perceived.

b) Rationalism and Cognitive Psychology

This school of linguistics emerged through the influence of Noam Chomsky; he was trying to show that human

language cannot be scrutinized simply in terms of observable stimuli and responses on the volumes of raw data

gathered by field linguists.

Cognitive phsychologists sought to discover underlying motivations and deep structures of human behavior by

using a rational approach.

c) Constructivism

Constructivism argue that all human beings construct their own version of reality, and

therefore multiple constrasting ways of knowing and describing are equally legitimate.

13.- Describe the GTM.

The grammar translation method of foreign language teaching is one of the miost traditional methods in the

classroom. It was originally used to teach "dead" languages (and literatures) such as latin and Greek, involving little orno spoken communication or listening comprehension.



This method it focuses on learning the rules of grammar and their application in translation passages from one

language into the other. The vocabulary in the target language is learned through direct translation from the native

language, it is taught in the form of isolated word list. e.g. with vocabulary test such as:

the house = la casa

the mouse = el ratón

Readings in the target language are translated directly and then discussed in the native language. Little or no attention

is given to pronunciation. The grammar is taught with extensive explanations in the native language, and only later

applied in the production of sentences through translation from one languege to the other.

Chapter 02. FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

http://www.tuninst.net/LAT/n-Brown3/n-ch02-3/n-ch02-3.htm#FIRST-LANG-ACQUISI

taken 21st october, 2012.

Chapter 3: Age and Acquisition

http://www.kau.edu.sa/Files/0008718/Files/86858_Chapter%203%20-%206%20Slides.pdf







principles of language learning and teaching by shintyadindan

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