principle of cooking
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PRINCIPLES OFCOOKING
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Principles of Cooking
Cooking can be defined as the transfer ofenergy from a heat source to a food
Energy alters the foods molecularstructure, changes its texture, flavor, aroma,and appearance
When food is cooked, the process destroysmicroorganisms and makes food easier toingest and digest
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Cooking Methods
Broiling
Poaching
Grilling
Simmering
Roasting
Boiling Baking
Steaming
Sauting
Braising
Pan-frying
Stewing
Deep-frying
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Heat Transfer
Conduction
Convection
Natural
Mechanical
Radiation
Infrared cooking
Microwave cooking
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Heat Patterns
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Effects of Heat
Proteins coagulate
Starches gelatinize
Sugars caramelize
Water evaporates
Fats melt
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Cooking Methods
Dry-heat
Moist-heat
Combination
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Dry-Heat Cooking Methods
Broiling
Grilling
Roasting
Baking
Sauting
Stir-frying
Pan-frying
Deep-frying
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Dry Heat Cooking Methods
DefinitionAny cooking method that does
not use moisture as a cooking medium
Methods:
Roasting
Sauteing
Grilling
Deep-frying
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Deep Frying
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Oils for Deep-frying
In the past, chefs used rendered beef suet
for deep fat frying. Today, commercially
manufactured shortenings specifically fordeep-frying are recommended.
Most of these shortenings are vegetable
based , the most popular types are madefrom soy bean oil and canola oil.
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Smoke point
Smoke Point - the temperature at which an oil orfat visibly begins to smoke and chemically beginsto break down
Canola Oil - smoke point - 425 F
Many commercial fryer shortenings are fully orpartially hydrogenated. Hydrogenation is the
process of adding hydrogen to oil, which makes itsolid (fully hydrogenated) or creamy (partiallyhydrogenated) and resistant to oxidation andchemical breakdown.
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Enemies of Fat
Fat can be damaged by:
Salt (oxidation)
Corrosive metals (oxidation)
Water (hydrolysis)
Heat (polymerization) Burnt Food Particles
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Maintaining Fat
1. Store in tightly sealed containers away fromlight. Cover fryer when not in use.
2. Skim food particles during frying.
3. Dont salt food over the fryer.
4. Food to be fried should be free of excessmoisture.
5. Dont pre-heat fryer too soon before frying. Turnoff when done frying. The longer fat is exposed
to heat the shorter its life.
6. Dont mix fats, saturated fats break down morequickly.
( dont fry bacon in the deep fryer)
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Deep fryers
Fuel can be gas or electric
Fryers are classified by the amount of shorteningthey can hold.
Capacities range between 15 - 82 # Temperature Range : 200 - 400 F
Most deep- frying is done between 325 and 375F
Most fryers are designed to maintain a ratio of 8#
fat to 1# food product being fried.This ratio is keyto a quick recovery time
Recovery time is the length of time it takes for fat toreturn to desired cooking temperature after food is
submerged in it.
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Coating Methods
la Francaise - dredged in flour
lAnglaiseStandard Breading Procedure:
Flour Egg Wash Bread Crumbs lOrly - battered (beer batter, tempura, egg batter)
The purpose of coating or breading food to be deep
fried is twofold:
1. To keep the moisture in the product.
2. To keep the fat out of the product.
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Frying Methods
1. Basket method - Product is placed in the basket
and lowered into the fat in the basket.
2. Double basket method- Same as 1., but asecond basket is placed over the the product to
keep it from floating.
3. Swimmingmethod- product is dropped directly
into the fat and allowed to float freely; usually
done with with battered foods that might stick to
the basket
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Grilling and
Broiling
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Grilling and Broiling
Grill - to cook with heat from below
Broil - to cook with heat from above
Both utilize very hot - radiant heat,
therefore only tender cuts should
be used.
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Grilling and Broiling
Fuels used: Broilers and Salamanders - Gas and
Electric
Grills - Electric (closed)
- Gas with metal; heat deflectors
- Gas with lava rock- Charcoal-compressed and natural
- Wood-hard woods
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Grilling Procedures
1. Preheat the grill.2. Clean the grill with a wire brush.
3. Brush item to be grilled with oil or clarified
butter. Season product.
4. Place the item on a hot area of the grill.Allow grill marks to form.
5. Turn the product 90 and allow cross marksto form.
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Grilling Procedures
6. Flip the product* and finish cooking over
moderate heat. After searing the secondside larger or pieces to be more well done
may be finished in the oven.
* Some fish and other delicate products may
be seared on only one side and thenfinished in the oven.
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Grilling Fish- The most important consideration in factor in
grilling fish is the texture of the product to begrilled.
- Firm fleshed fish with an adequate oil contentare best:
Salmon Swordfish Tuna
Sturgeon Mahi MahiRedfish
Shark Halibut Wahoo
Grouper Catfish
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Grilling Fish
- Fish filets or steaks are most commonlygrilled
- Smaller whole dressed fish may also be
grilledMackerel Sardines Sole
Snapper Sea bass
- Shellfish and crustaceans can also be grilledLobster Shrimp Sea Scallops
Abalone Octopus
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Broiling Fish
Any fish regardless of texture can be broiled
1. Place fish filet on a buttered sizzle plate
2. Season and brush with butter3. Cook under broiler until filet is flaky.
- Generally oilier fish hold up best in the dryheat of the broiling process.
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Roasting
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Roasting
- Dry heat method of cooking -use tender cuts
- Method of heat transfer -
convection
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Roasting
Two Methods:A. Searing method - Red meats are seared first to
seal in the juices and give color by means of:
1. Browning in a small amount of fat on top of the
stove
2. Starting the roast at a high temp. (450-500) inthe oven then finished at lower temperature.
Advantage - meat is well caramelized - goodappearance
Disadvantage - higher shrinkage - less yield
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Roasting
B. Low temperature or constant heatmethod
- Meat is cooked at a moderate temperature
throughout
Advantage - Better yield - less shrinkage
Disadvantage - Longer cooking time;caramelization may not be as pronounced
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RoastingDetermining Doneness:
A. Touch - experience needed
B. Time / Weight / Temperature
C. Insert a metal skewer
1. Temperature of skewer (vs. bodytemperature)
2. Observing the color of juice that flowsout
D. Thermometer
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RoastingCarry-over Cooking - the cooking that
occurs after a food has been removedfrom the heat source. It isaccomplished by the residual heat
remaining in the food.
In roasting, the larger the piece of meat,the more heat energy it holds. Thereforethe larger the piece of meat the morecarry-over cooking will take place.Carry-over cooking can account for as
much as 20F.
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RoastingResting - after removing them from the oven,
roasted meats should be allowed to rest 20min. before carving to:
1. Finish carry-over cooking
2. Allow meat fibers to relax. Juice will flowback to outer tissue from the center of theroast.
Meat carved too soon will lose its color,
moisture and flavor; and will appear to beovercooked.
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RoastingPan Gravies
Principle - to dissolve drippings left in roasting pan(fond) to make a sauce
A. Apply low heat to roasting pan to clarify fat. Meatdrippings that are suspended in the fat will cling to thebottom of the pan.
B. Fat is removed from the pan or degreased
C. Deglaze roasting pan with stock to prepare:
1. Jus clair (natural juice, au jus)2. Jus li - jus clair thickened with cornstarch or arrowroot
3. Gravy - jus clair thickened with roux (degreased fat
from the roast is sometimes used to make the roux)
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SautingSaut (Fr. ) - to jump
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Sauting Proteins
The key to sauting proteins is to sear themeat to create color and preserve
moisture. Procedure:
Hot pan, small amount of fat (just enough tocoat the bottom of the pan.
White meats are dredged in flour, dark meatsare not.
Only use tender cuts of meat
Cooked to order, not held
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Sauting Proteins
Deglazing
Excess fat is removed from the pan
Liquid is added to the pan The liquid washes the deglazed
drippings (fonds) which are then used
to make a sauce.
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The #1 problem in sauting ismoisture.
If moisture is allowed to accumulate,meat will boil and toughen.
Remedies to avoid excess moisture:
Heat pan and fat before adding meat.
Make sure meat is dry.
Dont overload the pan.
Once meat is added to a hot pan, do not stir or shake until
heat is recovered. If sauce is made from the deglazing, the meat may be added
back to the pan to mix it, but do not return it to a boil or themeat will toughen and lose moisture.
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Stir-frying
Always high heat
Use a wok or sauteuse
Product is always cut in small pieces
Used for either cooking or finishing
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Stir-frying
Some products in the stir-fry may be
pre-cooked partially or fully as the
situation requires.
Most of the concerns that apply to
saut also apply to stir fry.
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Pan-Frying
Larger or portion size pieces are
used in pan frying (chops,
steaks, filets etc.)
Use enough fat to cover the
product by half.
Food does not jump.
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Pan-Frying
Items are cooked for a longer timethan sauted items, in some cases they
arefinished in the oven. Usually there are no drippings in the
pan to make a sauce.
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Fat Considerations when
Sauting
The fat used in frying and sauting playsa large part in determining the quality ofthe finished product.
Smoke point:The temperature at which a fat breaksdown and begins to smoke. Smoke pointis mainly determined by the amount of
free fatty acids in the fat. As a rule, Animal fats are high in F.F.A.
and vegetable fats are low in F.F.A.s.
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Smoking Point of FatsSource: Escoffier-Le Guide
Culinaire
Whole butter 250
F Clarified butter
270-280 F
Animal fats 290 -320F
Lard 400F
Goose Fat - 430F
Coconut oil - 480F
Vegetable oil -520F
Olive oil - 550F
ea s
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ea s
Term Appearance
TemperatureBlue-Center is red and cool Less than140
(extra rare)Rare-Center is red and warm
140FMedium rare-Center is red-pink & hot 150F
Medium-Center is pink & hot 155-160 FMedium well-Center is slightly pink 165 F
Well done- Center is brown 170
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Determining Doneness for RedMeats
When cooking red meats using dry heatcooking methods, they should never bepoked or broken to check doneness. This
will cause a considerable amount of colorand moisture to be lost.
With practice, touch is used to determine
doneness of protein. The firmer the proteinis to the touch, the more well done it is.
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Moist Heat Methods of Cooking
Poaching Simmering
Boiling/Blanching Steaming
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Moist Heat Methods of
Cooking Used for a wide range of products
(vegetables, meats, eggs, fish)
Used to both tenderize tough pieces of meatand gently cook delicate fish and
vegetables.
P hi 160 185F (71
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Poaching 160 - 185F (71 -82C)
to gently cook in a flavored liquid
relatively low temperature applied totender or delicate products:
Eggs
Fish
Young Poultry
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Poaching Shallow poaching - small pieces of meat fish
or poultry cooked in very little liquid. Thepoaching liquid is usually used to make asauce for the finished product.
Deep poaching - for large pieces, liquid tocover. A court bouillon is commonly used fordeep poaching.
Court Bouillon Water & Acid (to coagulateproteins) & Aromats
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96C)
Often mistakenly called boiling
As water is a much better conductor ofheat than air, moist heat cooking isgenerally applied to tougher cuts of meat.
Moist heat is very effective in breakingdown connective tissue
Used for meats that require wet methods
Broth is sometimes used for soups or saucesExamples: Pot au Feu or Chicken &
Dumplings
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Steaming above 212F (100 C)
The act of using steam, not water vapor, asa heat transfer agent.
Three types:
High pressureLow pressure
No Pressure
Adding pressure accelerates the cookingprocess
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Steaming
Due to the fact that high heat toughensproteins, this method is rarely usedwithmeats.
Steam is best for:
Shellfish
Starches (rice and potatoes)
Vegetables (except fresh green)Certain reheating operations
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Steaming High pressureusually 1015#
Good for cooking vegetables fast esp.frozen
Good for fast cooking of meats that requirewet methods
Low pressureusually about 5#
For every 1# of pressure you gain about 3F
No Pressure steaming does not work well forgreen vegetables.
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Combination Cooking Methods
Stewing
Braising
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Marinades
Two types of marinades:
A. Oil based - used for tender cuts and dry cooking
methods.
B. Acid based - used for tough cuts. Acid helps to break
down collagen.
Vacuum tumbling marinading - meat products and
marinade ingredients are tumbled in a vacuum drum.
Absence of air means greater penetration of themarinade and less time marinating.
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Ideal Items to be Braised
Typically tough pieces of meat that require
long, slow cooking.
Collagen-rich meats contribute gelatin.
Examples: shoulder, leg, breast, and shank
cuts.
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Larding
To insert strips of fat into a piece of meat with a
special needle. These strips of fat, called
lardons, are usually salt pork, slab bacon,
pancetta or fat back. The lardons may be
marinated before larding and are inserted with the
grain of the meat.
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Combination Cooking
Braising and some stewing of meats are
considered combination cooking methods
because they employ both dry and moist heat:
1. Dry heat to sear the meat (sealing in the juices)
2. The addition of liquid to continue the cooking
process (simmering) and break down connective
tissue.
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Braising
Braising can be done with:
large pieces (Pot Roast
portion size pieces (Swiss Steak)
small pieces (stews)
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Procedure for Braising
Meat must be seared by browning it athigh heat in a small amount of fat.
After searing mirepoix is added and
placed on the bottom of the pan meat is placed on top.
Red meats - mirepoix is browned
White meat - mirepoix is sweated
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Procedure for Braising
Tomato product is added (red meats only)Usually meat is seared in the pan it is to bebraised in, if not the pan should bedeglazed.
Liquid is added - stock, wine, marinade,beer, light sauce , or water. The amount ofliquid added is in direct relation to the
amount of sauce needed for the finishedproduct. Recommended ratio is to coverthe meat by 1/3 to 2/3.
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Procedure for Braising
Herbs and spices are added. Pan is brought to a simmer. A lid is
placed on it and it is placed in the oven.
Meat should be turned or bastedoccasionally during the braising processto produce a nice glaze.
Test for doneness: fork tender insert ameat fork, if it pulls off easily the meat isdone.
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Procedure for Braising
After the meat is done, a sauce can bemade from the degreased cooking liquid(cuisson).
- Served as is- Reduced to thicken and/or intensify
flavor
-Thickened with corn starch orwith rouxto make a sauce (jus li)
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White Braising
Different from standard braising in that the
items are either lightly colored (seared) or
not colored at all. Done with some poultry items and
occasionally with large pieces of fish.
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Stewing
Stew - a liquid food containing meat,poultry, fish or vegetables; or anycombination.
Stewing is a moist cooking method
carried out with smaller cuts of meat by:
- Braising
- Simmering
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Stewing
Stews can be divided into twoclassifications
Brown stews (red meats)
White stews (white meats)
Blanquettes
Fricassees
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Stews Ragout- a general term referring to
white or brown stews. Fricassee - a white ragout usually made
from white meat or small game, seared
without browning and garnished withsmall onions and mushrooms.
Chili (con carne) - a ragout of diced orground meat, cooked with chilies,onions and spices. Served with beansin the stew or on the side.
St
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Stews Navarin - a brown ragout generally
made with lamb, turnips, peas, onionsand other root vegetables
Blanquette - a white stew in which the
meat is first blanched, then added to astock or sauce to complete cooking.Blanquettes are finished with an egg
and cream liaison. Goulash/paprikash - a Hungarian stew
made with red meat, onions and
paprika.
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Principles of Vegetable
CookeryWhy are vegetables cooked?
1. To break down cellular structure or make
them more digestible2. To make them more palatable
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Cellulose
Microscopic fibrils of cellulose form the cell
walls of plants and make plant tissue rigid.
They are invulnerable to human digestiveenzymes. The amount of cellulose in
vegetables helps determine the cooking time
and method.
For example: spinach cooks much faster than
carrots.
Chemistry of Cooking
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Chemistry of Cooking
Vegetables
Colors change by cooking method and chemicalreactions. Since most vegetables are cooked inwater, the condition of the water or pH (Acidity /Alkalinity) is responsible for these changes.
Alkali medium for cooking vegetables shouldbe salted water. Stronger alkali such as bakingsoda break down the vegetables texture tooquickly. Never use ammonia.
Acid media include water with the addition oflemon juice, vinegar, wine, or milk
Chemistry of Cooking
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Chemistry of Cooking
Vegetables
Covered or Uncovered ?
Vegetables are naturally acidic and their
acids are released during cooking.
These volatile acids evaporate in the steam
of the boiling water. Therefore, if an acid
medium is required cook covered. If an
alkali medium is required, cook uncovered.
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Cooking Vegetables by Color
Green vegetables get their pigment from
chlorophyll. Acid and heat will destroychlorophyll rapidly, making it yellow or
brown. They should be cooked in large
amounts of salted water uncovered, asquickly as possible .
Green Vegetables
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Cooking Vegetables by Color
Whitevegetables get their pigment from
flavones that are water soluble. Whencooked in highly alkaline water they turn
yellow. To prevent this add acid and cook
covered.
White Vegetables
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Cooking Vegetables by Color
Redvegetablesowe their pigment to
anthocyanins. Red color is enhanced withthe addition of an acid. If cooked in a
highly alkali medium they can turn blue!
Red Vegetables
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Cooking Vegetables by Color
Orange / Yellow vegetables get their color
from carotenes. The condition of the waterhas little effect on these pigments which
are not water soluble, but can be released by
sweating or sauteeing.
Orange / Yellow Vegetables
Procedure for Blanching
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Procedure for Blanching
Vegetables
1. Wash, peel, trim and cut the vegetables into
uniform shapes and sizes.
2. Bring an adequate amount of liquid to a boil.The liquid should cover the vegetables and they
should be able to move freely.
3. Add vegetables to the boiling liquid. Vegetableswith different cooking times or colors should be
cooked separately.
Procedure for Blanching
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Procedure for Blanching
Vegetables
4. Cook vegetables to desired doneness.
5. Drain vegetables from boiling water.
6. Refresh or shock vegetables in ice waterto stop the cooking process. Drain and
reserve until needed.
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Finishing Vegetables
Blanched vegetables may be finished (note:not all
vegetables need be blanched):
Sauted in butter In a sauce
Au gratin
Mashed or pureed
Served cold
Deep fried
O h h d f C ki
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Other Methods of Cooking
Vegetables
Braising
Glazing Steaming
Stewing
Sauting / Stir-frying
Pan Frying / DeepFrying
Baking / Roasting
Grilling / Broiling
D i i D
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Determining Doneness
Avoid over cooking vegetables. The term al
dente or firm to the bite is often used to
describe proper doneness. Generallyvegetables are done when they are tender
when pierced with a fork or the tip of a
paring knife. Properly cooked vegetables
are not crunchy.
P i N i i
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Preserving Nutrients in
Vegetables1. Use vegetables that are as fresh as possible.
2. Store in a cool place with minimum exposure to
light.3. Wash vegetables whole, before cutting, as near to
cooking time as possible.
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Preserving Nutrients in
Vegetables4. Peel and cut as near to cooking time as
possible. Some nutrients are destroyed byoxygen and light.
5. Cook as quickly as possible.
6. Drain vegetables when cooked. Avoidstoring them in liquid. Water soluble B
and C vitamins are especially vulnerable.
7. Serve as soon as possible
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Starches andGrains
P
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Potatoes
OriginsPotatoes are native to the Andes
Mountains of Peru. They were first
brought to Spain in the early 1500s.Its use spread throughout Europe,but wasnt a common food source in
Europe until the 1700s.
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Potatoes
Origins
Antoine Parmentier (1737-1817)
wrote numerous works proving thepotato was a safe and nutritious foodsource to the French who scorned itbefore his time. Therefore, the
classic name for an item garnishedwith potatoes is Parmentier.
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Potatoes
Composition
80% Water
18% Starch & Sugar (Carbohydrates)
2 % Protein
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Potatoes
Categories Mealy (starchy ) - high starch content and
thick skin. Best for baking and often
referred to as bakers. Low sugarcontent makes them good for deep frying,giving a crisp texture and even color.
Waxy - low starch content, usually withmore sugar and a thin skin. Best forboiling. They do not become fluffy whenbaked, and tend to become streaky
(caramelized sugar ) when deep fried.
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PotatoesCategories
Mealy
Russet
IdahoWhite rose
Burbank
Waxy
Cobbler
RedMaine
Yellow Fin
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PotatoesCooking Methods
Boiling
in the skin - jacket potatoes
peeled
in stock or bouillon - pommes fondant
Pureed
boiled first, drain completely, puree while still
hot Mashed or whipped - addition of milk, cream
or butter
Duchess(doo SHEHS) - add yolks and pipe
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PotatoesCooking Methods
Deep fried
From a pureed appariel(ah pahr AY)
Croquette(kroh KEHT)-shaped, breaded , deep-fried
Dauphine(doe FEEN)-apparielwith pate au choux
Lorette(lohr EHT)- dauphine with grated cheese)
From raw
Pommes frits(pohm FREET) - French fries Pont neuf(pohnt NOOF) - Steak fries
Pomme paille(pohm PIE) - Shoe string
Cottage fries -rondelle cut
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PotatoesCooking Methods
Pan - fried
Hash browns cooked or raw, chopped or shredded
Home fried -par-cooked rondelles
Lyonnaise -home fried with onions
Potato pancakes (shredded raw)
Rissol } --- tourned, various sizes
Parisienne }
Chteau }
Cocotte }
Ri
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RiceCategories
Categorized by seed size
long grain
medium grain short grain
Ri Categorized by processing
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RiceCategories
Categorized by seedsize
long grain
6 mm. long
medium grain
5-6 mm. long
short grain 2.5 mm. long
Categorized by processing
Brown rice
Bran intact White rice
endosperm pearled or
polished
Converted rice
par-boiled to remove surfacestarch (most popular in
foodservice)
Instant
fully cooked and freeze dried
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RiceVarieties
Arborio - medium grain starchy rice forrisotto
Basmati - rich flavorful long grain rice used in
East Indian Cuisine Pecan rice - nutty flavored rice from South
Louisiana
Wild rice - Actually an aquatic grassoriginally harvest by Native Americans inMinnesota and Wisconsin
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Grains
Corn Cornmeal, hominy, grits, masa harina
Wheat Wheat berries, bulgar, semolina, cous cous
Barley
Buckwheat / Kasha / Groats
Oats
Exotic Grains Quinoa
Millet
Amaranth
Kamut
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Cooking Rice & GrainsI. SIMMERING METHOD
(3 parts liquid to 1 part rice by volume)
1. Bring liquid to a boil.
2. Stir in grains and seasoning.3. Return to a boil. reduce to a simmer and
cover.
4. Simmer until grains are tender and liquid is
absorbed.5. Remove from heat
6. Drain if necessary. Keep covered and allowexcess liquid to absorb. Fluff.
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Cooking Rice & GrainsII. PILAF METHOD
(2 parts liquid to 1 part rice by volume)
1. Heat fat in sauce pan, sweat aromats (onion,
garlic, mirepoix etc.)2. Add rice and stir to coat grains with fat.
3. Add liquid (usually seasoned stock).
4. Bring to a simmer.
5. Cover and place in oven (350 for 2030min.).
6. When liquid is absorbed and grains aretender, uncover and fluff.
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Cooking Rice & Grains
III. RISOTTO METHOD
( 3 parts liquid [or more] to 1 part rice by volume)
1. Bring cooking liquid to a simmer.
2. Heat fat in sauce pan, sweat aromats (onion,garlic, other ingredients).
3. Add rice and stir to coat grains with fat.
4. Add a small amount of hot liquid , stirring
continually until absorbed.5. Repeat step 4 until all liquid is absorbed and
grains are tender.
6. Finish with whole butter and parmesan cheese.
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Cooking Pasta
PROPER RATIO 1 gal. rapidly boiling water to 1 # pasta
DRY PASTA
Requires a longer cooking time as cooking isalso rehydration.
1# dried pasta = 2-3# cooked
2 oz. dry pasta is an average entree portion
FRESH PASTA Delicate, requires a very short cooking time
no re-hydration required
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Cooking Pasta
1. Bring salted water to a boil (1 gallon per 1#pasta)
2. Add pasta and stir to separate pieces
3. Cook pasta uncovered at a rolling boil untilal dente
4. Drain pasta immediately and serve at once
or shock in ice water to stop the cooking.
5. To hold cooked pasta, toss with oil.