PrimatesApes, gibbons, monkeys, tarsiers,

lemurs, and lorises make up the

diverse and beautiful world of

primates. We humans are primates,

and in order to know ourselves, we

need to know about our biological

cousins. What do they look like? How

do they move? Where do they live?

What do they eat? How do they relate

to each other?

Contents:• Primates

• Why primates..?

• Evolutionary tree

• Characteristics

• Classification

• Primates of the world and their distribution

• Social organization

• Feeding

• Movements

• Vocalization and communication

• Intelligence

• Primates-research point of view

• Threats and conservation

• Primates of India and their distribution

• Primates survey methods

• References

Primates• Primates are most evolved group of mammals.

• Primates mostly inhibit rainforests, and their prehensile (grasping)

hands and feet are an adaptation to a largely arboreal lifestyle

(some species also have a prehensile tail.).

• Primate authorities have presently recognize 496 species of

primates, and a total of 695 species and subspecies overall.

• New species and subspecies are continually being described: 103

since 1990, 74 of them since 2000..(IUCN-PSG).

Why Primates..?• Highly evolved-adapted group of

animal.

• 70% of them are threatened still no extinction from long years that shows their highly evolved adaptation to changing environment.

• Has prime importance in behavior, ecology and scientific research from last 50 years.

• As being a primate; I think I will be comfortable with them and can understand their behavior which will help me to study their ecology.

• I will be happy to work on their ecology with other primatologist for their conservation and they will get better future within my efforts.

Evolutionary Tree

Primate fossils: Plesiadapis (North America) and Archicebus (China)

Characteristics of Primates

• All primates have forward-facing eyes surrounded by a bony orbitum.

• An opposable thumb or big toe, nails instead of claws on digits.

• The ability to stand upright to varying degrees.

• All the primates have placenta and give birth to young ones.

• Mammae on the chest, and in males –a pendulous penis and scrotum.

• Almost all living primates have prehensile hands and feet, and most have five digits on these appendages.

• The brains of primates often is one of the most distinguishable characteristics from other types of mammals. The areas of the brain that correlate with eye-hand coordination and stereoscopic vision are particularly large compared to other mammals.

Primates Classification Chart

Source:http://anthro.palomar.edu/primate/table

Classification of PrimatesProsimii (Prosimians) Anthropoidea (Simians)

Lorises Lemurs Tarsiers

Platyrrhinii(New World Monkey)

Catarrhinii(Old World Monkey)

Ceboidea(marmosets, tamarins, howler,

spider monkey, capuchins)

Cercopithecoidea(macaques, langurs, baboons)

Hominoidea(apes and humans)

Lesser Apes(gibbons)

Greater Apes (gorrila, chimps,

orangutan)

Humans(Homo sapiens)

Primates Distribution

Primate Diversity by Region

Region Families Genera SpeciesTotal Taxa

(Species/Subspp.)Percent

Threatened

Africa 4 25 111 197 31.5%

Asia 5 19 119 183 63.8%

Madagascar 5 15 101 105 88.5%

Neotropics 5 19 165 211 37.4%

Total 17 76 496 695 50.4%

Source: IUCN- PSG

Prosimians

• Well developed sense of smell.

• Prominent snout.

• Partial binocular vision.

• Often nocturnal vision.

• Developed nocturnal dexterity.

• Immobilised upper lips.

• Prosimians only live in the ‘Old

World’.

Prosimians

• More primitive than monkeys and apes, prosimians comprise the lemurs of Madagascar, the galagos and pottosof Africa, and the lorises of Asia.

• Lemurs (which include sifakas, the indri, and the aye-aye) have large ears, an elongated body, long limbs and most have a long, bushy tail.

• Lorises, pottos and galagos are generally smaller than lemurs and tend to have larger eyes. Prosimians mostly inhabit forest and are usually nocturnal (some lemurs are diurnal).

Tarsiers

• Tarsiers are the only entirely carnivorous primates, preying on insects, lizards, and snakes. Clinging upright to trees. The most striking feature of tarsiers is their enormous eyes.

• A large head and ears, long digits with disc-like pads at the tips, very long legs with elongated ankles, and a long tail.

• The eight species of tarsiers are found in the forest of southeast Asia, where they spend much of their time clinging to upright tree stems, scanning the forest floor for prey.

Distribution of Prosimians

Monkeys

• OLD WORLD:

• Narrow, downward pointing nostrils.

• Longer hind legs than forearms.

• Flattened nails on fingers and toes.

• Prominent buttock pads.

• Tails but not prehensile.

• Medium large size.

• NEW WORLD:

• Wide, spaced apart circular nostrils.

• Small to medium sized.

• long tails, sometimes prehensile.

• No buttock pads.

• No cheek pouches.

Monkeys

• Monkey are normally found in forests throughout the Tropics. Most have short, flat, humanlike faces. Although baboons and mandrills have doglike snout.

• Many species are endangered by loss of habitat, and many of them used widely in laboratory research.

Distribution of Monkeys

Apes

• Large and heavy.

• No tails.

• Upright body posture.

• Able to walk on two legs.

• Broad chest.

• Rely on vision than smell.

• Short noses.

• Large brain to body size ratio.

• Live in Africa and Asia.

Apes

• Apes are the closest relatives to humans. They are similar to people not only in appearance but also in that they are highly intelligent and form complex social groups.

• Apes are divided into the lesser apes (the gibbons) and the larger, more humanlike great apes –Apes are essentially vegetarian and mostly eat fruits, although some are omnivorous.

• Some great apes make nests.

Worlds Largest and Smallest Primate

Fact Species Name

Worlds largest/heaviest ape

Eastern lowland gorilla140-200 kg

Worlds largest/heaviestmonkey

Mandrill50 kg

Worlds largest/heaviest Prosimians

Indri 12 kg

Worlds smallest primatePygmy marmosets

100 g

HumanWeigh up to 636 kg

High up to 8.9 ft

Social Organisation• Multi male systems – while the

females remain in their natal groups, the males will emigrate as adolescents. Polygynous and multi-male societies are classed in this category.

• Monogamous species – a male–female bond, sometimes accompanied by a juvenile offspring. There is shared responsibility of parental care and territorial defence.

• Solitary species – often males who defend territories that include the home ranges of several females.

Feeding• Small primates tends to eat insects,

whereas larger species mostly eat leaves and fruits (a large primate cannot sustain itself on insects alone).

• Monkeys like Bonnet/Rhesus macaque are well adapted for urban life feed on fast-food too.

• A few species, including chimpanzees and baboons, hunt vertebrate prey as well as eating vegetable matter. Only tarsiers are entirely carnivorous.

Movements

• Most primates spend at least part of their life in trees and have adapted accordingly. To provide a strong hold on branches. Some species have a long, prehensile tail, used as a “fifth limb”.

• Swinging: spider monkeys and gibbons use their long arms to swing from branch to branch; this is called brachiation.

• Standing: chimpanzees that are capable of sanding and walking on 2 legs tends to have long legs.

• Climbing: most common way of moving on all fours. Most of the monkeys use this type of locomotion.

• Clinging: vertical clingers and leapers, such as lemurs move with the back held vertically. They have well developed back limbs for long leaps between trees.

Vocalisation and Communication• Many primates use rich

vocalization with touch and array of facial expressions to communicate.

• Lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, and New World monkeys rely on olfactory signals for many aspects of social and reproductive behaviour.

• Gibbon vocalizations are amongst the most complex and loud.

• Most primate species, use threatening gestures, stares, and poses to intimidate others.

Intelligence• Monkeys are quick to learn and have

an excellent memory. These abilities have helped monkeys succeed in a range of habitats, where they must learn what they can eat and then remember when and where to find the food again.

• Apes are extremely intelligent –even more so than monkeys. They appear to work through problems in the same way that humans do. Chimpanzees, for example, use and sometimes make simple tools.

• The orang-utan is one example of an ape that has performed several complex tasks such as solving puzzles, using sign language and learning to recognize symbols in research centres.

Primates- Research point of view

• Thousands of non-human primates are used around the world in research because of their psychological and physiological similarity to humans.

• Primates are used as model organisms in laboratories and have been used in space missions; their intelligence, memory, and manual dexterity make them ideal helpers.

• Seed dispersal in tropical forest by primates is well known ecological service by primates.

Threats and Conservation• Over 70% of Asian primates are threatened

with extinction, and at least two dozen taxa are Critically Endangered. Virtually all gibbons are threatened.

• All great apes— are either Endangered or Critically Endangered.

• Threats include deforestation, forest fragmentation, monkey drivers, hunting for use in traditional medicines, for the pet trade or for food.

• The greater threats to primates is large scale forest clearing for agriculture, commercial logging, mining and dam construction.

Threats and Conservation• Primates that eat a diet that consist of

high proportion of fruits play an important role in the forest as a seed dispersers.

• They also have a role as predator, prey, competitors for resources. They are the part of forest and are important for forest regeneration. And forest are source of recreation as well as subsistence.

• IUCN- Primate Specialist Group, Neotropical Primate Conservation, West African Conservation action, WWF, WCS and Aaranyak in India.

• GRASP is comprised of nearly 100 national governments and conservation organizations, all committed long time survival of apes and their habitats in Africa and Asia.

Primates of India

Indian Primates divided into four groups:

1 small round-eyed Lorises

2 tailless Gibbons

3 short to medium tailed Macaques

4 long-tailed Langurs

Indian Primates at a glanceNumber of Species 22

Biggest Primate Himalayan Grey Langur

Smallest Primate Grey Slender Loris

Most Common Primate Rhesus/Bonnet Macaque

Most Endangered Primate

Western Hoolock Gibbon

Activity

Lorises, Macaques Nocturnal

Langurs, Gibbons Diurnal

1. Lorises• Two species of lorises found in

India.

1. Bengal slow loris (nycticebusbengalensis): A small furry nocturnal Primate with large eyes that dominate its face. Its fur can vary from ash-grey to buff-yellow, no tail. Males are bigger than females. IUCN Status: VU

2. Grey slender loris (lorislydekkerianus): It shows indistinct spinal stripe. The more reddish brown, circular eye patches opposed to the oval. IUCN Status: NT

2. Gibbons• Two species of gibbons found in

india.

1. Western hoolock gibbon (Hoolock hoolock): This tailless gibbon known more by its calls than by sight. Second largest gibbon in the world after Siamang. New born are milky white or yellowish. Males black and females golden with white brows and white frame to the face. IUCN Status: EN

2. Eastern hoolock gibbon (Hoolock leuconedys): Very similar to Western in size and look except that the adult female is paler, with more distinctly paler arms compared to its body. its white eyebrows have as distinct gap. IUCN Status: VU

3. Macaques• Eight species of macaques found

in india.

1. Rhesus macaque (Macacamulatta): Most widespread of all indian primate, living in close association with humans. Brown in color with fur varying from very thick and dark in Kashmir to sparse sand brown in Rajasthan. IUCN Status: LC

2. Bonnet macaque (Macacaradiate): Common commensal monkey of south india. It has cap or bonnet of long hair, arranged in a whorl and parted clearly and very long tail that is longer than its body. Dark greyish in color which changes from to brown in winter. IUCN Status: LC

Macaques3. Assames macaque (Macacaassamensis): It is heavy, thickest forest macaque with a brownish grey coat and pale venter. Has different tail carriage. Adults have pronounced beard, long cheek hairs and white eyelids. IUCN Status: NT4. Aruanachal macaque (Macacamunzala): This monkey was discovered in 2004 and lives only in Arunachal Pradesh. It is large brown with a relatively short tail. The monkey’s species name, munzala, means ‘deep-forest monkey’. It is one of the most highest dwelling primate in the world. IUCN Status: EN

Macaques

5. Long tailed macaque (Macacafascicularis): Also called as Crab-eating macaque. This is the common macaque of south-east Asia. It is found on the Nicobar Islands is monkey that grizzled olive-brown in color and has a long tail, short stout legs. Cheek whiskers are long and prominent. An adept swimmer. IUCN Status: VU

Macaques6. Northern pig-tailed macaque (Macaca leonina): A large forest monkey can be distinguished by its deeply parted, dark cap of short hair and a short naked, erect tail, slightly curled. It has olive-brown golden grizzled fur and a white venter. IUCN Status: VU

7. Stump-tailed macaque (Macacaarctoides): Also known as a Bear macaque, this stocky monkey is heaviest macaque species in India. It has a unique crown of hair that radiates from central whorl. The face is reddish pink with prominent cheek pouches. This macaque is fearless. IUCN Status: VU

Macaques

8. Lion-tailed macaque (Macacasilenus): Dark glossy coat. It is recognizable from the other black monkey of southern India; by its long, grey facial mane and a medium tail with prominent tuft of longer hair. Females are smaller and have a pink swelling in the perineal area. The call of this monkey is uncannily human and sounds like ‘coo’. IUCN Status: EN

4. Langurs• Ten species of langurs found in india.

1. Northern plains langur (Semnopithecus entellus): The most widely spread langur in India. It is crestless, overall yellowish brown or pale orange, ventrally suffused with buff on the chest. It is black-pawed up to the wrist and has a forward-looped tail. IUCN Status: LC

2. South-Western langur (Semnopithecushypoleucos): An average size crestless langur with backward-looped tail. It has brownish streak between the eye and ear. Coloration brownish orange. IUCN Status: VU

3. South-Eastern langur (Semnopithecuspriam): Average-sized pale grey langur with a backward-looped tail. In some population; it has crest and some are crestless. Darker grey on the chest. IUCN Status: NT

Langurs4. Terai langur (Semnopithecus hector):Medium-sized, crestless race greyish brown on the back, buff-white or pale grey venter. Forward looped tail. Distinctive blunt hairstyle and grey moustache on a black face and pale grey hand. IUCN Status: NT

5. Himalayan langur (Semnopithecusschistaceus): The Himalayan langur is a maned, pale-pawed race similar in most respects to the Terai langur. Large body size and heavier than both hector and ajax and has a darkerm mauvish brown back. IUCN Status: LC

6. Kashmir or Chamba langur (Semnopithecus ajax): A large hill langur, similar to Himalayan in being blunt headed, maned, with a whitish venter and a forward-looping tail, but with dark hands and dark silver dorsal fur. IUCN Status: EN

Langurs

7. Nilgiri langur (Semnopithecusjohnii): Slim and black, this langur is the common rainforest monkey of the Western Ghats. It has a yellow-tinted coiffure and a long, glossy black coat. The most vocal of southern forest monkey, its characteristic ‘hoo-hoo’ call can be heard mostly at dawn. IUCN Status: VU

Langurs8. Golden langur (Trachypithecus geei):The most beautiful Indian monkey, has deep cream to off-white fur in the non-breeding season and golden orange or deep golden fur in the breeding season. Its face, palms and soles are black and long, golden cheek whiskers and a golden cap. Infants are orange brown with pink faces, palm and soles. IUCN Status: EN

9. Phayre’s leaf monkey or langur (Trachypithecus phayrei): It is also called Spectacled monkey because of the white eye patches that stand out in its black face, white lip, body is slate grey tending black toward the limbs. Both sexes have peaked crest. It leaps onto branches rather than jumping. IUCN Status: EN

Langurs

10. Capped langur (Trachypithecus pileatus): The common forest langur of North-East India, the Capped langur is believed to have four subspecies. This is based on varying belly coloration. A cap of different colored hair is a good identification for the species. Greyish dorsal side and a long tail. Light cobalt color inside thigh is deeper in males. All four subspecies have new born that are creamy orange at birth. IUCN Status: VU

Primate Survey Methods• Primates have been counted for more than 50 years as part of scientific

research into their ecology, behavior and conservation.

• Total count method: Total count methods are used in very specific situations. These are 1) when the area to be surveyed is relatively small so that the whole area can be searched, 2)the species can be easily found and identified, 3)number of animals to be counted is not more than about 500, and 4)individuals or groups can be recognized and separated from others.

• Line transect method: Line transect have been the main method used to survey diurnal primates. This is because they can be used to cover long distances relatively quickly. Long thin plots of fixed width are searched during survey. By measuring perpendicular distance of animal from the transect lines.

• Nocturnal primates: Line transect method can be used. Most often used with lorises. For nocturnal line transect survey it is best to set and flag the transect during the day; it helps the observer to stay on transect in the dark.

Primate Survey Methods• Survey using group calls: 1)some primates species call at particular time

of the day; eg. gibbons. The call can be used to map the territories of each pair and thereby estimate the number of pairs. While point count method could also be used to census primates. 2) Lure counts: where observer moved along the transect playing lure calls. The parallel transects were close enough to be sure that all groups located between transects would respond and observer can determine the species.

• Feeding ecology survey by direct observation of feeding plant and insects and indirect evidences like collection of their regurgitated food samples.

• Indirect sign surveys-nest counts and dung: mainly used for great ape species.

• Tools that can help with primate surveys are GPS unit, Rangefinders , Compass and camera traps.

References:

• Indian Mammals : A field guide by Vivek Menon.

• Ecological Census Techniques by William Sutherland.

• Animal: definitive visual guide to the world’s wildlife by DK Publication.

• Primate Ecology and Conservation: a handbook of techniques by Oxford University Press

• Google

• Pinterest (https://in.pinterest.com)

• IUCN website. (https://www.iucn.org)

• Primate Specialist Group website. (www.primate-sg.org)

• My MSc. Wildlife Sciences notes.