primary structures
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Primary Structures. The value of measuring section. - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
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Primary StructuresThe value of measuring sectionMeasuring section is the process of making detailed notes about each of the layers/intrusions found in an outcrop. The process really forces you to LOOK. We work up or down section as appropriate. Note rock/sediment type, primary and secondary structures, fossils, note color, orient surfaces and lineations with the brunton, etc.
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Munsell Rock Color Charts
To note colors, I use one of these, but they are expensive. In your notes, just use your own judgment. Also note whether the sample is wet or dry
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Graded Beds
Flysch: old [Alpine] name for thick sequences of turbidites “laid down in a deep trench marking an active plate boundary (like a subduction zone).” PM p17
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Graded Bedding (2)Discuss “Younging direction”.
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Cross BedsRipples, dunes and deltas in cross section, usually truncated tops (younging direction) and current direction indicated
Notice the lens in the photo to give scale. Use whatever is the right size and is a known size, coin, a pencil, a ruler, your notebook, etc.
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Surface Markings: Load Casts
Sand layer over mud, blobs of sand sink into mud.
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Flute CastsVortices dig into the unconsolidated sediment. Shallower and wider downstream.
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MudcracksThey curl up when they form, and give the younging direction
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Asymmetrical Ripples
Steep face on downstream side.
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Pillow Lavas
Lava erupted under water (MOR, rift valley lakes), or flowed into water (Hawaii)
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Unconformities
Angular Unconformity
Nonconformity
Disconformity
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Recognizing Unconformities and erosional surfaces: Channeling
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Recognizing Unconformities:Basal Conglomerate
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Recognizing Unconformities:Age discordance
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1631071308002800
Ludlow 423-419 Mya
Givetian392-385 Mya
Unc ~30My
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Recognizing Unconformities:Soil Horizons – Root Casts
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Halokinesis: Salt layer movementsBuoyancy
Salt density about 2200 kg/m3
Sedimentary Rock average density 2500 kg/m3
“When the positive buoyancy [dense sediment over light salt] is sufficient to upwarp” the sediment above, the salt will rise. PM p 26
http://search.datapages.com/data/open/offer.do?target=%2Fspecpubs%2Fmemoir65%2Fch20%2F0413.htm
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Halokinesis: Differential loading
“This may occur when the downward force on the salt layer varies laterally.” PM p.26
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Oil traps – Salt DiapirDiapir, pierces overlying strataDome, upward bulge
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Igneous Rocks3 ways of making primary magma, all basaltic
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Plutonic and Volcanic Igneous Structures
Laccolith like a sill , but bows up overlying strata to make a dome
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Bowen’s Reaction SeriesMolten- VERY HotNo solids
Molten- Not so hot
100% Solid
First mineral to crystallize out
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Fine crystalsNeed a microscope
Course crystalsEasily seen
Low silica, HOT, fluid High silica, warm, viscousIntermediate
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A size comparison of the three types of volcanoes
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A Pahoehoe lava flow
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Typical a’a’ flow
Broken, often further from vent
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Fluid basalt forms lava tubes
Checking Bowens Reaction Series
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Materials extruded from a volcano
• Pyroclastic materials – “Tephra”
Propelled through the AirTypes of pyroclastic debris
• Dust 0.001 mm and Ash < rice sized
• Cinders or Lapilli - pea to walnut-sized material
Particles larger than lapilli
• Bombs - > 64 mm ejected as hot lava
-Surtsey Is. Bombs the size of busses
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A nueé ardente on Mt. St. Helens
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A volcanic bomb
Bomb is approximately 10 cm long
Some the size of a Bus
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Tephra forms Tuff
Source: Gerald & Buff Corsi/Visuals Unlimited, Inc.
St. Lucia Anecdote
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Tephra layers fine away from source
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Pumice
• Felsic magmas with high water content may bubble out of a vent as a froth of lava.
• Quickly solidifies into the glassy volcanic rock known as Pumice.
http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Products/Pglossary/pumice.html
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Mt Mazama Eruption and Caldera Collapse4700 BC S Oregon
Ngorongoro Crater in Tanzania similar 2 mya
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Volcanism on a tectonic plate moving over a hot spot
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Hey, the plate changed direction !Hey, the plate changed direction !
Flood Basalts
Hot Spot currently forming Hawaii
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Flood Basalts
• Fluid basaltic lava extruded from crustal fractures called fissures
• e.g., Columbia River Plateau, • Deccan Traps in India
• Cover huge areas• Plumes from Mantle
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Flood Basalt erupted from fissures - Snake River Plain, southernIdaho
Plume Activity
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Lava Plateau Formation
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Formation of a volcanic neck
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Spanish Peaks and Radiating Dikes (southern CO)
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Plutonic igneous activity
• Types of intrusive igneous features
• Dike – a sheetlike injection into a fracture Discordant - cuts across pre-existing
• Sill – a sheetlike injection into a bedding
plane Concordant - lies parallel to bedding
• Laccolith – A mushroom-shaped concordant
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A sill in the Salt River Canyon, AZ
Sill: Sediments above and below sill are baked. Lava Flow, just baked below.
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WhyNoC-Ccollisions
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Plate tectonics and igneous activity
• Igneous activity along plate margins• Mid-Ocean Ridges – Basaltic Pillow Lavas• Great volumes of volcanic rock produced along
oceanic ridges – New ocean floor– Mechanism of spreading or “rifting”
» Lithosphere pulls apart and thins» Less pressure results in partial melting in mantle
http://www.archipelago.nu/SKARGARD/ENGELSKA/ICELAND/surtsey.htm
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http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Products/Pglossary/ancientseq.html
Basaltic Pillow LavasBasaltic Pillow Lavas
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Plate tectonics and igneous activity• Igneous activity along Subduction zones
–Descending plate partially melts–Magma slowly moves upward –Rising magma can form either
»A Volcanic Island Arc if ocean-ocean plate collision (Aleutians, Japan, etc.)
»A Continental Volcanic Arc if ocean-continent plate collision (Sierra Nevada)
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The Cascades, Washington State
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Plate tectonics and magmatism
• Intraplate volcanism• Associated with plumes of heat in mantle• Form localized volcanic regions in the
overriding plate called a hot spot–Produces basaltic magma sources in
oceanic crust (Hawaii)–Produces granitic magma sources in
continental crust (Yellowstone Park)–These differences are predicted by a
Crust-Melting model of Granite generation
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http://www.mt-fuji.co.jp/Photo/Photo.html
Notice the potential for a huge lahar during the eruption of this big composite volcano (stratovolcano), Mt. Fugiyama.