presentation prepared by: robert n. meroney, professor ...meroney/paperspdf/cep02-03-6 ppt.pdf ·...
TRANSCRIPT
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Presentation prepared by:
Robert N. Meroney, Professor Wind Engineering and Fluids Laboratory, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523
Phone: (970) 491-6605 Fax: (970) 491-7727 Email: [email protected]
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Containment of Fire and Smoke in Building Atria:Examination of Virtual Hazards"
Robert N. Meroney, Hose Carrier
Wind Engineering and Fluid Mechanics
Civil Engineering Department
Colorado State University
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Costs of Fire to the USA
� America's fire death rate is one of the highest per capita in the industrialized world.
� Fire kills over 4,000 and injures more than 23,000 people each year.
� Firefighters pay a high price for this terrible fire record as well; approximately 100 firefighters die in the line of duty each year.
� Direct property losses due to fire exceed $8.5 billion a year.
� Most of these deaths and losses can be prevented!
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Special characteristics of Atria
� Atria, covered shopping malls, convention centers, airport terminals, sports arenas, and warehouses are examples of large spaces for which conventional fire-model approaches are not always effective.
� Challenges� No way to maintain blocking pressure differences
without barriers (doors, vents)
� Large communicating spaces present so smoke moves unimpeded
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Actual Atria Fires
� “ There are plenty of examples of fire tests in large spaces, but few actual events of note. Hotel fires occur all the time, but few are serious. Smoke management is the most important aspect of these fires.”
� Kevin McGrattan, NIST, noted in an email (24 September 2002)
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Market Square Arena 1974
� May 6, 1974: Fire in Market Square Arena, Indianapolis set during installation of gutters on the roof during construction.
� “Arriving fire companies were greeted by the sight of flames and smoke rolling from the roof of the still under construction arena.” Fire caused by construction workers.
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Market Square Arena 1991
� Market Square Burns Again!� “INDIANAPOLIS, Ind. (5-14-01) – A demolition crews’
cutting torch ignited a two-alarm fire at Market Square Arena in downtown Indianapolis today.”
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American Airlines Arena 1998
� November 13, 1998: The new downtown arena for the NBA’s Miami Heat caught fire at the $165 million American Airlines Arena.
� Fire caused by construction workers.
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Alamo Dome 2001
� December 25, 2001: San Antonio, TX...a three-alarm fire at the Alamo-Dome caused an estimated $100,000 damage.
� Fire was traced to a storage room where the oldHemisFair Arena basketball court floor was smoldering. Investigators believe a light bulb broke above the court and heated a plastic tarp covering the disassembled wooden floor. Most damage was attributed to smoke.
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Evolution of the Atria
� Roman house with central space open to sky
� Included grand entrance space, focal courtyard, and sheltered public area.
� Facade blank
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Early 19th Century Atria
� Roof over picture gallery at Attingham Park, Shropshire
� John Nash, 1806
� Use of iron and glass technology in houses
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Crystal Palace Exhibition Hall
� John Paxton (1850-51) in London
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John Paxton 1803-1865
Crystal Palace (contd)
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^
Crystal Palace Exhibition Hall Centre Transept
<
Crystal Palace Foreign Exhibition Hall
<
Crystal Palace Exhibition Hall Atrium
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Late 19th Century Atria
� Rookery Atrium, Chicago, 1886
� Burnham and Root Architects
� Became a lively interior street with shops at ground floor and mezzanine
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Early 20th
Century Atriums
� Larkin Building, Buffalo NY 1905
� Frank Lloyd Wright
� Four open sided levels around a sky lit court with filtered air.
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Larkin Atrium
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Johnson Wax Headquarters
� Racine, Wisconsin 1936 by Frank Lloyd Wright
� Top-lit space, with several levels of galleries above entrance lobby
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VC Morris Store
� Built in 1949 in San Francisco, CA
� Frank Lloyd Wright
� Top-lit building with focal central court
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Guggenheim Museum
� New York 1959 by Frank Lloyd Wright again.
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Views
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Late 20th Century Atriums
� Ford Foundation Headquarters (1967)
� Designed by Kevin Roche & John Dinkeloo and Associates
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Hyatt Regency, Atlanta
� Built in 1968 by John Portman. Its covered central court was first called an “atrium”
� Note balconies and outside elevators
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Modern Atriums
� Bank of China, Beijing, PRC
� E.M. Pei, 2001
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Skyscraper Atriums
� Hong Kong Shanghai Bank Tower
� Sir Norman Fosters & Partners, 1985
� 43 stories with 10 story atrium
� Hong Kong Bank
� E.M. Pei, 1989
� 70 stories with 17 story atrium from 3rd floor
� Very bad Fung Shui!
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Sports Domes
� Hubert Humphrey Dome, Minneapolis
� RCA Dome
� “Big Egg”, Tokyo
� Millennium Dome, London
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Arenas and Halls
� American Airlines
� Assembly Hall, U. of Illinois, Champaign
� Ice Palace, Edmonton
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Shopping Malls, Airports, Hangers, etc.
� Winter Garden, NY
� Chang Kai Chek Airport, Taiwan
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Variable cross-section
Atria Classification
Conservatory Two-sided atrium Three-sided atrium
Four-sided atrium Bridging atrium
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Atria Classification (contd.)
Linear atrium Side-by-side atria
Shopping mall atrium Multiple vertical atria
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Fire Management Methods
� Conventional wisdom uses sprinklers to suppress smoke and fire,
� Revised goal: maintain a lower “smoke free layer” for evacuation
� Smoke management used in atria
� Smoke filling…..let it burn and smoke rise
� Gravity venting…let buoyancy remove smoke through vents
� Smoke exhaust…use fans to exhaust smoke
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Fill, Natural Vent, Exhaust
No Smoke Control Smoke Filling
Natural Venting =Gravity Venting
Forced Venting = Smoke Exhaust
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Atrium Smoke Problems
GOOD
BAD
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Evolution of Virtual Fire Control Concepts
� Physical and full-scale models
� Node & network models
� Zone models
� Field or CFD models
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Physical Modeling
� Actual fires can be simulated at full or partial scales
� Full scale hot smoke test in the Chang Kai-Chek Air Terminal Departure Hall
Yang & Lee (2000)
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Small-scale Physical Models
� Simulated fires can be studied at small scales with fire, heat, inert gases, smoke, or salt-water
NIST 4-story stairway fire model
Before fire
During fire
NIST large fire calorimeter
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Smoke stack & cooling tower plumes Savanah River Laboratory Auto-tunnel Ventilator Exhaust Plumes Boston
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Node & Network Modeling
� Essentially an electric analog to flow, it uses pressure drop formulae through doors, vents, windows & cracks to provide resistance and room volumes for capacitance
Vents WindowsDoors Rooms
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Zone Models
� Zero, two & multiple zone fire models are idealizations that presume fire properties are constant over a specified region
� Mixing occurs across regions based on empirical algorithms
� Example models are ASET, ASME, BRI-model, and CFAST
� Output are temperatures, densities, concentrations, smoke visibility, and zone depths with time
� Does not handle unusual configurations or interior blockages well
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Basic Smoke Plume Behavior
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Field or CFD Modeling
� CFD often called “field modeling” in the fire community permits finer specification of geometry and fire physics.
FDS-BRFL-NIST
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Fluent 6.0
� An unstructured, finite volume based general solver which includes multiphase, combustion, heat transfer, phase change, radiation options, and a variety of RANS & LES turbulence models.
� CD-star, CFX, PHOENICS, and TASCflow offer similar options
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Fluent Mixing Examples
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FDS – Fire Dynamic Simulator
� CFD model of fire driven fluid flow that solves numerically the Navier-Stokes equations appropriate for low-speed, thermally-driven flow with emphasis on smoke and heat transport from fires.
� Includes simple combustion model, ray tracing radiation transport algorithm, and sprinklers.
� Turbulence modeled by Large Eddy Simulation (LES)
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FDS Simulation of World Trade Center Fire – 9-11
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CFD as an Art
� “Considering that application of CFD is an art and that the turbulence models are approximate, simulations need to (be) compared to experimental data. This is especially true of new applications, and it is why many of the projects above included such comparisons. If a simulation is similar in most respects to others that have been experimentally verified, further experimental verification is not necessary.”
� John H. Klote (1994) NISTIR 5516, p. 84.
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CFD Models Considered
� ASMET� Simple zonal model
� FLUENT� Differential volume model
� Structured or unstructured grids
� RANS or LES turbulence
� FDS� Differential volume model
� Structured grid only
� LES turbulenceModels of Yamana & Tanaka (1985) test fires at BRI Full Scale Test Laboratory, Tsukuba, Japan
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Building Case Study
� Size ~17 m cube
� Fire sources
� 5276 kw & 2100 kw
� Lobby, ground & 1st floor regions
� Mitigation concepts
� Gravity ceiling vents
� Mechanical exhausts
� Effect of exterior wind
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Looking North
Outlets
Inlets
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Looking East
Inlets
Outlets
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Fire H
eig
ht
Room
Heig
ht
Sm
oke L
ayer
Heig
ht
Floor Area
Fire Growth Rate
Zone Model Results: No mitigation
� ASMET/ASET-C NISTIR 5516 (1994)
� Fire height 0.2m
� Room height 21.9m
� Floor area 252 sq m
� Growth rate ultra-fast (0.187 kW/sec2) 0 50 100 150 200 250
Time (sec)
0
5
10
15
20
25
Sm
oke Z
one B
ase (
m)
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
Tem
pera
ture
(C
)
Temp (C)
Height (m)
Case Study Atrium: 5275 kW fire
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FLUENT: Differential Volume Model
� 36,817 unstructured tetrahedral cells
� K-E & LES turbulent models
� Ceiling & wall exhausts
� Inlets
� Fire locations
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Obscuration (S vs Tsmoke)
� Visibility is a function of smoke particle loading
� Particle density can be related to mass and type of fuel, HRR
� Typical criteria is visibility S > 25 ft (7.6 m)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
(Ts-Ta) Temperature Difference (C)
0
5
10
15
20
S, V
isib
ility
(m
)
Generic
Poly Foam
Silicone Rubber
Douglas Fir
Obscuration
7.6
9.4
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Fluent Results: Case 2: 200,000 cfm
out ceiling via mechanical exhaust; 5275 kw fire
Contours of Static Temperature (k)
FLUENT 5.4 (3d, segregated, ke)
Jan 04, 2001
4.00e+02
3.90e+02
3.80e+02
3.70e+02
3.60e+02
3.50e+02
3.40e+02
3.30e+02
3.20e+02
3.10e+02
3.00e+02
Temperature Contours, T oKContours of Velocity Magnitude (m/s)
FLUENT 5.4 (3d, segregated, ke)
Jan 04, 2001
2.50e+00
2.25e+00
2.00e+00
1.75e+00
1.50e+00
1.25e+00
1.00e+00
7.50e-01
5.00e-01
2.50e-01
0.00e+00
Velocity Magnitude (m/s)
Not acceptable
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Fluent Results: Case 2b: 320,000 cfm
out ceiling via mechanical exhaust; 5275 kW fire
Contours of Static Temperature (k) Jan 04, 2001
3.45e+02
3.40e+02
3.35e+02
3.30e+02
3.25e+02
3.20e+02
3.15e+02
3.10e+02
3.05e+02
3.00e+02
Temperature Contours, T oK
3.00e+01
2.70e+01
2.40e+01
2.10e+01
1.80e+01
1.50e+01
1.20e+01
9.00e+00
6.00e+00
3.00e+00
0.00e+00
Pathlines colored by time before exit, seconds
Not acceptable
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FDS (Fire Dynamics Simulator): LES model)
� 259,200 structured hexagonal cells on a rectangular grid
� Elliptic formulation of NS Equations which permits solution with a fast Poisson solver
� LES turbulence model
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FDS Results: Temperature
Not acceptable
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FDS Results: Speed Contours
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FDS Results: Case 5: 300,000 cfm
out north wall by mechanical exhaust & 1000 sq ft natural ventilation in ceiling; 5275 kW fire
Flow vectors, east wall: t= 40 sec.Flow vectors, east wall: t= 120 sec.
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FDS Results: Smoke Particles
Not acceptable
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Ceiling Curtains: Fluent
Curtains
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Ceiling Curtains: Fluent
Curtains
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Ceiling Curtains: FDS
t = 100 sec
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Cross Wind Effects: FDS
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Summary
� ASMET calculations suggest an exhaust rate of 200,000 cfm limits descent of smoke to regions 10 ft above any walking surface.
� But FLUENT steady state calculations suggest smoke plumes will descend below top walkway due to impingement of plume against ceiling and deflection downward by side walls.
� FDS unsteady calculations confirmed problem.
� Hanging porous curtains across the ceiling appears to mitigate the problem.
� Exterior winds which produce lateral jets through wall inlets can significantly alter the trajectory of plumes within the atrium itself and may complicate situation further.
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What we can’t do yet for fires.
� Modeling over scales from molecular to building size to include flame dynamics ~109
length scale ratio range
� DNS simulation of mixing at molecular scales - S. M. de BruynKops and J. J. Riley (2000).
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The End: Thank you for your attention
For good building health schedule an annual appointment with the
Wind Doctors