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Volgsten, U. (2019)A technology and its vicissitudes: playing the gramophone in Sweden 1903–1945Popular Music, 38(2): 219-236

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Atechnologyanditsvicissitudes:playingthegramophoneinSweden1903-1945.1UlrikVolgstenPreprintversion,pleaserefertothepublishedversioninPopularMusic,vol.38/2-2019.IthasalmostbecomeacommonplaceintheliteraturetodescribetheentryofthephonographintoWesternmusichistoryastakingplaceintheparlour,or(dependingonthedecadeoffocus)thelivingroom.”Americans”,wearetold,”increasinglywelcomedthephonographintotheirparlors”(Katz2010,62).Peoplewere”[a]thomewiththephonograph”(Gelatt1977,69)alreadyattheturnofthe20thcentury,sincetherewas”[a]phonographineveryhome”(Millard1995,37).WithclassicalmusicianssuchasCaruso,Toscanini,andHeifetzonrecord,onecanevenspeakofa“[d]omesticationoftheconcerthall”(Symes2004,60).Butalthoughthewritersquotedaremuchmorenuancedthanthebriefphrasesandheadlinesmayindicate,onecanneverthelessquestiontheoverallpicture.Wasthereaphonograph(orgramophone;thetermsareinterchangeableinmanycontexts)ineveryhome,evenintheaffluentparloursoftheupperstrataofsociety?Andwhentherewas,howcommonwastheclassicalcanonincomparisontopopularsonganddancemusic?Areasonfordoubtisthestrongfocuson,andratherlimitedsourcesin,commercialadvertisingofmuchrecentresearch;thenewphonographandrecordindustryworkedhardtoestablishthenewtechnologyasa“natural”partoftheprestigiousmilieusoftheculturalelite,wherebyanidealisedpictureofphonogramlisteningintheparlourwaspartandparcelofthemarketingstrategy(Frith1987/2007;Gauß2009,148ff.;Siefert1995).Thuswhatthecommercialspicturecannotbetakenatfacevalue.Asecondreasonisthedifferentresearchoncecarriedoutinpraesentia.Attheendofthe1920sandthebeginningofthe1930s,StuartChapinandcolleaguesresearchedthe“socio-economicstatus”ofmiddleclasshomesintheU.S.A.Inquiring“livingroomequipment”asanindicatorofstatus,itistellingthatwhereasapianoathomeacquiredthehighscoreof5points,agramophoneonlyscored2points,recordsofclassicalmusicscore0,1each,whereasajazzrecordonlyscored0,01.Incomparison,anelectricalsewingmachinescored3pointsonChapin’sscale,andbooks0,2each(Chapin1932,581ff.).

AlthoughChapin’sresearchhardlymeetsthestandardsoftoday’ssocialsciences,ifittellsusanythingatallitisthat“phonographs”(listedbyChapinunder“mechanicalinstruments”)and“phonographrecords”seemstohavehadarathermediocresocialstatusintheU.S.A.Agramophonewasnotthekindofequipmentyouboastedorshowedoffwithtoyourfriendsandneighbours.Tobalancewhatcanthusbedescribedasalop-sidedpicture,thisinquirydealswiththeroleofwhatIchoosetocallphonography,i.e.thetechnologyandtheuseofphonographs/gramophones(whatGaußcalls“phonoobjekte”,Gaußopcit.14)fromadifferentperspective.RatherthanlookingattheeconomicallyprosperouseastcoastoftheUSA(whichmuchpreviousresearchhasdone),thefocusisonSweden,acountrywithoneoftheloweststandardsoflivinginEuropeduringthefirstdecadesofthe20thcentury(aconditionwhichaccordingtoLifeMagazinechangedtoitsobverseinlessthanfourdecades).2Thequestionaskedishowphonographyturnedfrombeinga1ResearchfinancedbyVR2AccordingtoLifeMagazine(June1938),Swedenhad”thehigheststandardoflivingintheworld”.

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scientificinventionintobecominganeverydaymediatechnology,andhowittherebyinfluencedcultureandeverydaymusicalcommunication(cf.Gaußopcit.15ff.).Theinquirytakesitsstartingpointintheyear1903,whenthephonographwasalreadywellestablishedandthegramophonemadeitsfirstentryinthecountry.Itthencontinuesthrough1945,whichmarkstheendofWorldWarIIandaGerman-dominatedeconomicandculturalerainSweden,infavourofaradicallynewAnglo-Americanditothatisbeyondthescopeofasinglearticle.3Sourcematerialconsistsofnewspapers,popularandsemi-scholarlyjournals,togetherwithcataloguesofearlyhousing-andhomeexhibitions,andanethnographicquestionnairefrom1962,withnationalscope,askingforpersonalmemoriesofthegramophoneattheturnofthecentury.Commercialadvertisingisthussupplementedandcomparedwithotherkindsofjournalisticandsemi-scholarlycontent,fromnewstoshortnovels,frompublicpolicyplanstopersonalmemoryaccounts.Byexaminingmediathataddressesthenon-specialistandnon-connoisseurofrecordedmusic(andasitturnsout,eventhenon-listener),focussingonthedomesticlifeandspaceofthehome,Ihopetostrikeabalancebetweenontheonehandtheordinaryandprosaic,andontheotherhandthedesirableandprestigious–abroadspectrumoverwhichtheeverydayislikelytobedistributedforalargeamountofthepopulation.4ThisperspectivalwideningalsohastheadvantageofaddingaEuropeancomponent(beyondGreatBritainandcentralEurope),whichatthesametimeasithighlightsaspecificnationalcase(peripheralSweden),reflectsonaspectsofthemediatizationofmusicwithrelevancebeyondthemerelylocal.5Thefindingsaresortedaccordingtofivelooselyknitthemes,whicharechronologicallyordered,althoughwithlargetemporaloverlaps(approximatetimeframesareheadlinedwithinbrackets).Thefirst,introducedwithahistoricalbackdrop,showstheambivalencetowardsthephonographandthegramophoneduringthefirstdecade.Thesecondlooksfortracesofthegramophoneintheupperclasssalong,andendsupinthetediouscomplaintsofthedailypress.Thethirdtakesrecordingratesandadvertisementsasindicatorsofgramophoneoccurrenceinthelesscultivatedcornersofsociety,anddiscoversanon-representationalaestheticsinfavourofdanceanddivertedmusicconsumption.Thefourththemedetectsachangeinattitudetowardsthegramophoneanditsrecordings,aselectronictechnologybecomesthenormandinfluencesbothperformanceandlisteningpractices.Throughthefifththemeweencountertheidealsbehindthemodernlivingroom,astheywerearticulatedanddepictedfromthemid1920son.Thelivingroomeventuallybecomestheplaceforrecreationandsolitarylistening(emulatingtheacousticconditionsoftherecordstores’listeningrooms).However,simplehousingandaccommodationstatisticsshowsthat,stillattheendoftheperiodexamined,thislivingroomwasbutapipedreamforthe

3InthemostcomprehensivestudytodateofthehistoryofthephonographinSweden,thefinalchapterclaimstocoverthe1890sandthephonograph’smove”frommarketfairstohomeentertainment”(Franzénetal.2008,84).Butalthoughthechapterendswithasectiononthegramophone,nothingsubstantialissaidabouteitherthephonographorthegramophoneenteringdomesticspace.4Announcementsforradio-programmesinthedailypressarenotcovered,northeentryofradiobroadcasting(onthelatter,seeBjörnberg1998).5IncontrasttoPekkaGronowandIlpoSaunio,whointheirseminalbookontheinternationalhistoryoftherecordingindustryapologize“forchoosingFinlandasanexampleofdevelopmentsinthesmallerEuropeancountries”(1998,viii),Iregardtheperipheralperspectiveasapotentialasset.

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majorityofthepopulation.Totheextentthatthegramophonehadafixedplaceatallathome–asinventorythatis,notstashedawayinaboxinaclosetorunderabed–itwasplayed,listenedanddancedtomostlyincompanywithothers.Theconcludingdiscussionsuggeststhattheprocessuncoveredbeunderstoodnotsimplyintermsofamediatizationofmusic–i.e.howtheturningofsoundrecordingtechniqueintoaneverydaymediatechnologyinfluencedcultureandeverydaymusicalcommunication(cf.Krotz2009,24)–butalsomoreprofoundlyasaparticularinstanceofthemusicalizationofcultureandeverydaylife(cf.Pontara&Volgsten2017).1)Earlyreception:thefirstdecade(1903-1913)ThephonographhadbeenintroducedinSwedishnewspapersalreadyinearly1878(shortlybeforeitwaspatentedintheU.S.).LaterthesameyearitwasexhibitedtothepublicattheAcademyofScienceinStockholm.Whereasthephonographinitiallytriggeredscientificinterest,bytheturnofthecenturyithadbecomeamoreorlesscommonattractionatmarketsandfairsaroundthecountry(Franzénetal.2008,8ff.,Boström2006).Thecylindersonwhichthesoundswererecordedusuallycontainedlocalornationalproductions.Forinstance,onhisfirstacquaintancewiththephonograph,theSwedishkingOscarIIhadrecordedhimselfsinging,acylinderhoweverdestroyeduponfirsthearing(theking,keenlyinterestedinindustrialinnovations,alsorecordedhisownorganplayingonthenewTonfonografinventedbythepianomanufacturerCarlWilhelmNyströmin1891[anon.1925,18]).Ontheotherhand,theopeningspeechbythekingattheStockholminternationalindustryfairof1897,wasrecordedinmultiplecopies(bythekinghimselfaswellasbyothers)thatcirculatedinthecountryformanyyears(Boström2006,198).AcuriousandearlyexampleofNewWorldmusiconcylinderisthelocalmilitarymarchingbandKronobergsRegementesMusikcorpsperformanceofthecake-walkAtaGeorgiaCampMeeting,recordedin1899(Bruér&Westin2006,26).Twentyyearsafteritsinventionthephonograph,ortalkingmachineasitwaswidelycalled,stillseemeduncertainwhatcontentbesttoemit–verbalspeechormusic.Asthemachineentersintothetwentiethcenturyitcontinuestocapturetheinterestofthepress,althoughtheviewishighlyambivalent.Forinstance,inareviewofan“Opera-fonograf-konsert”giveninNovember1900attheAcademyofscienceinStockholm,thedailySvenskaDagbladet(SvD),whichsince1897hadadoptedanexplicitambitiontocovercultural-aestheticissues(Lundström2001,26),reportsinsardonictone,pleadingfordivineredemption(SvD001119).Howeverareviewinthesamepaperofafollowingconcertafewweekslaterismoresoberlytreated(thelabel“concert”signalsnotonlyamusicalcontentbutalsothephonograph’s“serious”ambitions),notingtheaudience’senthusiasticapplause,whilealsoinformingthereaderabouttheEdisonPhonographCompany’scommercialaimsbehindtheconcert(SvD001212).Whereastherecordingofsoundbythephonographwassensationalnewsinthelate1870s,the1903gramophonepremièrewasnot.Squeezedbetweennoticesonrealestatepurchasesandanewlypatentedchairbed,thegramophoneneverthelessgainsapositivejudgementasunequalledinreproducingthehumanvoice:“onecouldalmostimagineseeingthevocalist”(SvD030415).Thiscanbecomparedwiththereview(also

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inthesamepaper)ofthe“grammofon-konsert”inthefoyeroftheRoyalOperain1906,arrangedbyGrammofonaktiebolaget(theGramophoneCompany):Nomatterhowtheinventionmaybefurther“perfected”,itistobefearedthatitshallnotbeabletobestowrealartisticenjoyment;thereproducedinstrumentsandthehumanvoiceswillinevitablysounddeadandshrill,sinceapparentlytheinscrutable“overtones”,whichprovideforthedistinctivetimbre,willnotmakeitontotherecord.(SvD060224)6Buttherearealsopositivereviews.Asimilareventatalessfashionableretailer’sstoreayearearlierarrangedbytheLyrophonecompanyreceivedanunhesitatinglypositivereviewinthejournalDamernasMusikblad(TheLadies’MusicMagazine):[A]lthoughwehavepreviouslynotbeenenthusiasticadmirersofsuchdevices,wemustadmitthatouropinioninthismatterhascompletelychanged,sincetheLyrophonediscswehadtheopportunitytohearreproducedwithanunequallylifelikewaywithunusualstrengthandcleartonethesongsperformed.(DM1905issue16)Eventhephonographgetsanoccasionalgoodwordinthepress.ThesemischolarlySvenskMusiktidning(SwedishMusicJournal),whichhadreportedalreadyin1900aboutthementionedphonographconcert(SMTissue19),reportsagramophoneconcertin1908(issue8),andina1912issueitpublishesanarticleonthereceptionofthephonographbyindigenousGreenlandersonanethnographicexpedition(issue12-14).Theethnographicthemeisrepeatedthefollowingyear,nowreportingthephonographasrecordingdeviceintheserviceofethnographerKarlTiréninhisresearchonSamiyoiks(issue7-8).Theinterestquiteobviouslyisnotinthephonographperse,butinthefieldrecordingsofmusicfromdistantcultures(e.g.SvD120808,121112,121116,130223,130302,131003,140618),asreflectedbythefactthatby1912phonogramconcertsaregivenattheethnographicmuseuminStockholm(Boström2003,30).Thisisaninterestinreproductionofsound,insoundfidelity,whichtheethnographershareswiththereviewersoftheearlygramophoneconcerts,andwhichwasalsopromotedbysellers(forinstance,Lyrophonmarketeditsrecordplayeras“representingsongandmusicwithfullnaturalfidelity”,SvD050917).However,thephonographwouldcontinuetoappearinthepressformanyyears,mainlyinethnographiccontexts.7Butwhenitcomestorecordingsofmusicforotherthanethnographicpurposes,thephonographandthewaxcylinderwouldsoonbesupersededbythegramophoneandtheshellacdisc.2)Salongenrevisited,orthemysteryofthemissingmusicmachines(1913-1930)TheLadies’MusicMagazine,whichwaspublishedfrom1902to1913,containedsheetmusic,journalisticmaterial,andcommercialadvertisements.Itwasprimarilyaimedatthefemaleamateurmusicianofthebourgeoisie,offering“everyhome,whereinmusicisplayed,acollectionofpopularandpleasingsalon-anddancepieces”(DMissue1,1902,seefurtherEdin2017).Around1900,thesaloninSweden–salongen–hadtwomajorvariants,thesemi-publicandthefamilial.Thesemi-publicsalonwashostedbythe

6AlltranslationsfromSwedishbytheauthor.7AsstilltodayinEnglish,thetermissometimesusedforthegramophone,aswhena“victorphonographwithover100discs”isadvertisedforsale,SvD280821).

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familiesofthehaute-bourgeoisieandoftenservedasshowcaseforyoungandpromisingmusicians,aswellastrialsfornewlycomposedmusicalworks.Whereasthesemi-publicsalonoftenpresentedbothnationalandinternationalmusicalcelebrities,thefamilialsalonwasashelteredspaceforthefamilyanditsclosestfriends,whereinthedaughtersofthehouseweretheprimeperformers(Öhrström2007).TheSwedishsalong,inbothitsversions,wasalong-standingimportfromthecontinent(GermanyandFrance),andassuchitshowedsimilaritieswiththeparlorintheU.S.A.asdescribedinthequotedsourcesabove.AgainstthebackgroundofthereportsinTheLadies’MusicMagazine,TheSwedishMusicJournal,andthedailies,itwouldbequitejustifiedtoenvisiontheplaceofthegramophoneinthemidstofthemusicalsalong.Butassaid,thereisreasonfordoubt.Awell-informedciceronetosettlethecaseisthejournalSvenskahemiordochbilder(Swedishhomesinwordsandpictures),issuedmonthlyfrom1913to1955.Thejournalisdevotedtohomereportsfromtheupperclass,consistingofliterallythousandsofphotographsofinteriorsanddetailedcommentsontheexquisitetasteexhibitedtherein.Onecanassumethatthereadersofthejournalbelongedtothesegmentportrayed,i.e.thearistocracy,hautebourgeoisie,andonoccasion,wellknownartistsandculturalcelebrities,butalsothatitincludedmembersofthelowerclasseswhofoundtheinteriorsdesirable,inspiringandworthstrivingfor.Duringitsfirstdecadeandahalf,thejournalbringsthereaderalongonvisitstoseveralmusicalhomes.Almostahalfofthevisitedhomesdisplayagrandpianointhesalonorlivingroom(thetwotermsoccurinterchangeablyalreadyfromthestart:salong,vardagsrum).FromfamoussculptorCarlMilles,whokeepsa16thcenturySalzburgerorganinhis“Grandroom”(aug1913),toCavalryCaptainThureBielke’sClementipianofromthe1780sin“thesalon”(march1916),toPrinceEugen’sresidenceWaldemarsudde,wherethegrandpianoisseennotinthesalon,butintheadjacent“musicroom”(nov1915).Noneoftheinstrumentsarecommentedinthetext,whichhoweverspeaksexplicitlyofthehomeas“anexpressionofitsowner’spersonality”(june1914),asforinstancethatofNobellaureateSelmaLagerlöf,whichissaidtohave“organicallygrownaroundanoriginalkernel,uponwhichannuallayersareaddedoneaftertheother”(feb1918).Nevertheless,inspiteoftherebeingshownanuncommentedhorngramophoneintheveryfirstissueofthejournal,inthesalonofChamberlainCarlLagerberg(march1913),itisquitesurprisinglynosignwhatsoeverofgramophonesinanyissueduringthisperiod.NoteveninthehomesofsymphoniccomposersHugoAlfvén(july1914)orWilhelmPeterson-Berger(sept1915).Itwilltakeuntil1930beforeagramophoneiscommerciallyadvertised(March1930),anduntil1932(p.196f.)beforeagramophoneshowsupintheeditorialmaterialofSvenskahemiordochbilder.Untilthenthegramophoneisvirtuallynon-existent,ano-issueinmattersofprestigiouscultureanddisplay.Thestrikingabsenceofanykindofmusicmachines,phonographsorgramophonesinSvenskahemshouldbeseeninthelightoftwoparalleltendenciesintheSwedishculturalclimateduringtheperiod.ThesecanbedescribedastwofoldcriticismagainstwhatNorbertElias(1994)laterdescribedasanantithesisbetweencultureandcivilization.IntheSwedishcasethetwotendenciesareneverarticulatedasantitheses,butoftenoccurintertwined(Stolare2003,27).Suchisthecasewith,forinstance,theconservativephilosopherVitalisNorström,whoinhiswidelyreadessayMasskultur,

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arguesthatcivilizationisthemasteringofmaterialnature,andinitselfonlyaconditionfortheexistenceofculture,butneverequaltoit.Cultureisspiritualandmoralandstandsoverthematerialistfoundationsofcivilization.Modernsociety,“ourculture’scivilization”,accordingtoNorström,isan“apparatus”forcommunicationwhich“overwhelms”oursensesandbecomesa“strait-jacket”foroursouls,ahindranceforculturaldevelopment(Norström1910,6,10f.,14,20f.).Asaconsequenceculturalformsandexpressionsarebeingreplacedbythe“anaestheticofpleasure”(njutningensnarkos)ultimatelyservingescapismandoblivion,acultureintheserviceoftheuniformmassesofcivilization(ibid.26).NorströmwasinfluencedbyGermanthinkerssuchasFriedrichNietzscheandGeorgSimmel(Hansson1999,119),anditisnocoincidentthatmanyofthethemesthatappearsinhiscritiquewouldturnupalsointhewritingsoftheFrankfurtSchoolafewdecadeslater,albeitinadiametricallyoppositepoliticalgarb.ButwhereasforvariousreasonsWalterBenjaminandTheodorAdornowereintheendpositivetothemechanicalreproductionofartandthelong-playingrecord(andwouldmoreorlessinvertthevaluehierarchybetweenspiritandmatter),Norströmissilentonthesubject.NeverthelessitisreasonabletoassumethatNorström’scultureandcivilizationcriticismwasasymptomofawidespreadtendencyinSweden,whichwhenitcametosuchspecificmattersasthephonographandthegramophoneresultedinanegativeverdict.Asamachineandtechnologicalinnovation,thegramophonewasasignofcivilizationgoneastray.Thatthesalongsgrammofon(commonnameforluxuriouscabinetgramophones)wasmarketedassuchbytheStockholmretailersalreadyin1917didnotmattermuch(SvD170903,221108).Andastoitscontent,thecylindersanddiscsweretooobviouslycarriersofmassculturalexpressions–anaestheticsofpleasure,touseNorström’sphrase–toberepresentedinthefinemilieuofthemusicalsalong.Tofindanyexplicitexpressionsinthepressofeitherofthetwostrainsofthiscriticism–ofcivilizationandofculture–levelledatthegramophone,wemustturnfromSvenskahemandlookelsewhere.SvenskaDagbladetisalavishcase,althoughthetwotypesofcriticismcanbedifficulttodisentangle.Forinstance,thegramophoneisfrequentlycharacterizedintermsofthewaysit(supposedly)sounds.Thegramophoneclatters,honks,gargles,spews,rattles,bellows,andbreaksloose,itbawls,blares,screams,crashesandwhines,grinds,roars,rails,anddisturbinglyyellsoutoftune.Onoccasionthegramophoneisusedtocharacterizethoughtlesspersons(100622),repetitiouspoliticians(180729)andteetotallers(200801),saucywomen(140510),brainlessBolsheviks(240724),andevenacomposersuchasMaxRegerislikenedtoagramophone,whenhismusicisfoundtoomonotonous(180130).Instillothercasesthegramophoneischaracterized–sometimesinpassing,othertimesasthefocaltopic–byallthebadthatit(supposedly)isordoes.Itputsmusiciansoutofbusiness(090318),itoutcompetesthepianointhehome(241115),andwearsoutanygoodmelody(231112).Itisaccusedofeffacingtheregrowthofmusicians(190128)andofexterminatingtheauthenticfiddlertradition(200530,220526).Itisdismissedasasurrogateforrealmusic(210925),andasameansforfraud,magic,andbogusspiritism(220128,220223,230225,231207).Itisthefactotumofthespiritualsubclass(200620),shallowandunnecessary(191125),andaluxuryfortherichandwasteful(190328).Itisaninstrumentoftorture(210908)andultimatelythetoolofthedevilhimself,asinthereviewedtrilogySatanthewaster,byVernonLee(201003).Thepoint

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isvariouslybutclearlystated:thegramophoneisasignoftheuncultivated(251110),itisbutatoy(251129),anditcertainlyisnotart(111112).“Thelineoftastecultivatedbythemeansof…gramophones,causesaspiritualindustrialism,whichiswayworsethanitsmaterialcounterpart”(140224).3)Musicforthemany(1903-1925)Inspiteofallthenegativepublicity,thegramophonehadcometostay.Duringthefirstdecadeofthe20thcenturyitsupersedesthephonographasthemajorrecordplayer(notjustinSweden,butglobally,Gelatt1977,158ff.;Gronow&Saunio,1998,6f.),mainlyasaresultoftheeaseofmass-producinggramophonediscsascomparedwiththeindividuallyrecordedphonographcylinder.In1899,formingthefirstpartofaninternationalexpeditiontorecordnationalartistsandrepertoiresforlocalmarkets,theGramophoneCompanystopsinStockholmtorecordasmanyas119Swedishsongtitles(amongtheotherstopsarecitiesasdistantlyapartasPortoandIstanbul).Another156songsarerecordedin1903,andby1925,annualrecordingvisitshadproducedmorethan5400musicrecordings(Gronow&Englund2007,284),addinguptoatotalof12696titleswhencompetinglabelsaretakenintoaccount(Englund&Gronow2011,172,importnotaccountedfor).Thesingersontheearliestrecordingsarewell-knownartistsfromtheRoyalOperaandvarioustheatresinthecapital,aswellaspopularartistslikeballadsingerDelsbostintan,andlateraccordionistCalleJularboandrevueartistErnstRolf(Gronow&Englund2007,282ff.).Giventhatin1899therearehardlyanygramophonesinthecountry8–itisreportedasatechnicalinnovationintheStockholmdailiesinconjunctionwiththe1903recordingsessions–onecanassumethattheearlyrecordsarepressedinsmallnumbersfordemonstrationpurposes,asamainincentiveistomarketthenewgramophoneplayers.In1903anearlyversionofthejukeboxisalsoexhibitedtothepublic,aTelefonografautomat(Dahlqvist2006,186),butitnevercatchesoninSwedenthewaythejukeboxdoesintheU.S.(itwouldtakeuntilafter1945beforeitgainsanywiderpopularityintheU.K.seeHorn2009).Inthesameyear,1903,SkandinaviskaGrammophoneABisfoundedinStockholmasasubsidiaryoftheGramophoneCompany,anditsoonfacescompetitionbyothercompaniesrecordingSwedishartists,suchasColumbia,LyrophonandPathé(Gronow&Englund2007,286ff.).ThemostseriouscompetitorformanyyearsisCarlLindströmAG,aGermancompanyfoundedbyaSwedein1904,manufacturingitsownlow-pricedrecordplayersandcontrollinglabelssuchasParlophonandOdeon(Englund2009,73f.).Inlinewiththeproductionrate,gramophonesandrecordsareregularlyadvertisedinmanypapersandjournals,evenwhenthereislimitededitorialinterest.Interestingly,duringthefirsttwodecadesofthecenturyitoftenappearsinadvertisementsformusicinstruments,asinthejournalsArbetarensvän(Theworker’sfriend),theprotestantHemochUngdom(HomeandYouth),andtheunboundViochvårt(Weandour’s).Thelatteralsohostsadvertisementsforrecords,whicharerepaired,aswellasswapped(issues2and3,1910).Followingthesepublicationsisthemorelong-livedHemmetsJournal(TheHome’sJournal),issuedweeklyfrom1921uptothisday.Ithostsadvertisementsbothbyinstrumentretailers,suchasA.Th.Nilsson’smusicstoreinNorrköping,boasting

8In1891atotalof19phonographsweresoldinStockholm(Franzénetal2008,60).

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“Violins,guitars,brassinstruments,Italianaccordions,talkingmachinesandrecords,harmonicas,sheetmusicforsextet,andmore”(severalissuesfrom1921tothemid1930s),andbylabelssuchasPathéfon,andGrammophon.Onarareoccasion,thelatterpromotesHisMaster’sVoicerecordswithanadvertisementdisplayingnotonlythecompany’sfamiliarlogotype,butalsoapictureoftwowomentalkingatthesideofaluxuriousgramophonecabinet,theonetellingtheother,that“[y]oucan’timagine,butIhaveputtogethersuchaniceprogramforournextdanceevening!”(1923,issue3).Morecommon,however,isthetypeofadvertisementbyretailerErnstG.Olin,for“SuitcasesizedGramophones”(1923,issue19).InthedailySvenskaDagbladetgramophonesareadvertisedbothbyretailersandprivatesellers.Thebrandsvary,asdothetypesofgramophone.Theretailersgenerallyadvertisesmallplayers,whereasmoreexclusivetypesofcabinetsoccurwhenprivateownerswanttodisposeofthemforsomereasonorother(suchasupcoming“travels”,etc.SvD200921).Cabinetmodelsbecomefrequentonlyinthe1920s,alongsidethepopularportablegramophone,or“travel-gramophone”,asitwascalled(resegrammofon,seeBjörnberg2012).Thereis,inotherwords,arathermultifacetedandburgeoningmarketforgramophonesanddiscs.Andasusualwithmarkets,itisnotlimitedtoproducersandsellers,butalsoconnectsbuyersandconsumers.InthenationwidequestionnaireNärgrammofonenkom(Whenthegramophonecame),compiledbyNordiskaMuséetin1962,itispossibletoreadtherecollectionsof(someof)thosewhowerepresentatthetime.Thequestionnaireexplicitlyasksforearlymemoriesofwhatwasplayedonthegramophone,bywhom,whoownedit,whereitwasplayed(andheard),andwhichtypes,manufacturersandlabelstherewas.Therecollectionsspanthefirstthreedecadesofthecentury,butsomegoasfarbackasthe1890s.Theresponsesoftenconsistofcolourfulpersonalmemories,suchasqueuingtolistentosomepopulartunethroughtubesatafair(around1905):“itwasmostlydrunklabourers,half-drunkfarmers,andusyounglads”.Anotherrecollectiontellsaboutthelocalpriest’swarningforthedevil’svoiceinthehorn,whereasyetanothertellsaboutamissionarymeetingandthepastorwindingthegramophone.Asignificantnumberofreminiscencesareofprivategramophones.Forinstance,oneinformantremembershearingmusicongramophoneasachildathercousin’shomearound1910,afterwhichshedoesn’tgettheopportunityuntilmanyyearslaterwhenworkingasahousemaidandhearingthefamily’sdaughterplayingpopularmusic.Inadditiontoprivatelisteningathome,twoothertypesofoccasionappearinseveralreports.Oneisthatofborrowingagramophonetoplayfordance,eitherwithagroupofyoungsters,orforengagement-orweddingparties(theearliestaround1905,thelatestin1928).Theotherrecurringtypeofrememberedoccasionishearinggramophone-musicatthelocalcafé(withresponsesdatingmostlyfromthe1910s).9Toseewhatcharacterizesthesethreecategories–privatelisteningincompanyathome,theprivatedanceparty,andthepubliccafé–intermsofthelisteners’relationtothegramophoneandthemusicrecorded,afourthtypeofoccasioncanbeaddedasheuristiccontrast.Thisisthepublicdanceevent,viewedfromtheperspectivesofthemusicians9Althoughnotmentionedintherepliestothequestionnaire,itshouldbenotedthatinStockholmforafewyearsintheearly1910s,andpromotedbytheSwedishGramophoneCompany,someofthemorefashionablecafésandrestaurantsgavegramophoneconcertswithfamoussingerssuchasCarusoonrecord,accompaniedbya“live”orchestraoflocalmusicians(SvD110119,121022,131024).

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andsubsequentlytherecordproducers.InanarticleinSvenskaDagbladetin1940,EricWestberg,headoftheSwedishcopyrightagency(STIM)warnsagainstwhathedescribesas“giantgramophonecabinets”thatwill“killalldanceorchestras”inthecountry.Moreover,thesituationisasbadfortheCafé´-andrestaurantorchestras(SvD400906).Themusicians’union’sreactiontothesituationisfastandtheircomplaintclear:mechanicalmusicisdead,humanlyperformedmusicisaliveandshouldthereforebetheprimarychoiceonanyoccasion(Fleischer2012,139ff.,192ff.).Theclaimofthemusicianslaysolidonthestrandoffamiliarcivilizationcriticism.AsputinthejournalMusikern(TheMusician):Themachine,thegramophone,inimprovedshape,haswipedouthuman,livingmanpower.Westandinparallelismwiththesetters…theweavers,telephoneoperatorsandalltheothergroupsofmanuallabourersthathavebeendisplacedbythemachine.(Musikern,issue121930,quotedinFleischeropcit.171)When,ontheotherhand,therecordingindustryhadfacedoneofitsmanycrisesjustafewyearsearlier,10itclaimeditsrecordingstobemorethanmerecopiesofperformances,musicrecordingswereoriginalcreationsintheirownright,theproducerbeingakintothephotographer(Fleischer2012,229).Heretheargumentdoesnotdependoncivilizationcriticism,butclaimsformusicrecordingsauthenticculturalvaluelikeanyotherworkofart:therecordingbusinesscouldnotandshouldnotbeblamedforthemusicians’misfortunes.However,aswereturnfromthespokesmenoftherecordproducersandthemusicians,tothebuyersofthegramophonesandtheconsumersofthemusicrecordedonitsdiscs,wefindnothingofthis.Duringtheearlydecadesofthecentury,therearehardlyanysignsatallinthesourcematerialofanycivilization-orculturecriticismamonggramophoneusersandrecordlisteners(asinthemusicians’complaint).Neitherarethereanysignsofexclusive“work”aesthetics,anyanxietyofauthenticityororiginality(asintherecordproducers’claim).Whenitcomestodancingatprivatepartiesorhearingmusicinthebackgroundprivatelyathomeorpubliclyatacafé,thereisnodemandforaudiofidelityinanytechnicalsense.Insteadtheonlyqualitythatmattersisfunctionalefficacy.Whatcountsassoundinggoodisthatthemusicplayedonthegramophoneshouldbegoodtodanceto,andthattherecordsplaythesongsyouliketohear.11Inthisrespectthegramophoneisnotonlyamechanicalinstrument,asmanyoftheadvertisementsinthepressindicate(itisalsomentionedonaparwiththebarrelorgan,e.g.SvD070521,120827,190601,350609);itisamechanicalmusician.Thisseeminglyincongruousattitudeamongtheconsumerswillnotvanish,evenwhenthegramophoneanditsrecordsbegintogainadifferentstatusamonganewgroupoflisteners.4)Electronicrecordings,culturalvalue,andanemergingmediaaesthetics(1920-1945)Ittakesuntilabout1920beforeachangeinattitudetowardsthegramophonecanbeobservedinSvenskaDagbladet.Alreadyin1919itappearsasapropinashortnovelto

10Acrisisforwhichithoweverblamedtheradio,notthemusicians(Fleischeropcit.).11IndicativeofthisattitudeareadvertisementssuchthatoftheFavoritelabel’s,whomarketsitsrecordsbyonlymentioningthesongtitlesinitsrepertoire(SvD051215),andPathéfon,whoannouncesrecordsperfectforthesummer’sdanceoccasions,withoutmentionofeitherartistortune(SvD160608).

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signalmodernity(191126),andassuchthegramophonewillcontinuetofunction(e.g.240730).Duringthefirsthalfthe1920sdiscussionsofnewimprovedgramophonemodelsalsooccur(230413),alongwithwhatispossiblyoneoftheearliestrecordreviewsinthecountry,ofTchaikowsky’sSymphoniePathétiquewithTheRoyalAlbertHallOrchestra,conductedbySirLandonRonaldsonHisMaster’sVoice(231202).ItisalsonotedthatItaliancomposerOttoriniRespighihasrecordedbirdsongonadisctobeincludedinoneofhiscompositions(250103).12Yetanotherarticledescribeshowgramophonemusiccanbebroadcastedthroughthenewradiomedium(240107),whileonearticlestressestheimportanceofthethentenyearsoldgramophonearchive,whichhasnotyetfoundahousinginstitutionforitsmanyrecordings(250719).Thereisevenacauserieaboutthegramophoneasafuturedegree-subjectinschool(240405).Withitsself-proclaimedmissiontocoverculturalissues,November1928marksaturningpointforSvenskaDagbladetinitscoverageofphonography.Thisiswhenoneofitsforemostmusiccritics,composerMosesPergament,beginsaseriesofcomprehensiverecordreviewstitledGrammofonmusikunderkritik(Gramophonemusicundercriticism).Theseriesisintroducedprogrammatically,referringtothetechnicalimprovementsofthetechnology,aswellasculturalandentertainingadvantagesofbothseriousandpopularrepertoires(SvD281109).Theseriesroundsoffafewmonthslaterwithaneducativedescriptionofthenewelectronicrecordingandplaybacktechnology(290208).Thetechnologyitselfhadbeenintroducedinternationallyalreadyin1925andelectronicallyrecordeddiscswerecommerciallyadvertisedinSvenskaDagbladetinearly1926(e.g.260214).13Thisembracingoftechnicalinnovationrevealsamoremoderniststancevis-a-vistheotherwisewidespreadcivilizationcriticism,anditgoesstrategicallyhandinhandwithatendencytotiephonographytoestablishedculturalvalues.Atellinginstanceiswhenthedaily’sothercritic,musicologistKajsaRootzén,mentionsIgorStravinsky’sinterestinthegramophoneandmechanicalinstruments(330813,390528).LikewiseaninterviewwithSergeiRachmaninoffworkstothesameeffect(350208).Thetendencycanalsobedetectedincommentsontheutilityofthegramophoneineducation(321128,340904,350228,360903,400211,400909,420823,421007,431017,440423),andintheregularrecordreviewsthatforacoupleofyearswouldfollowundertheheadingsGrammofonrevy(1933-1934)andInspelatochavlyssnat(1938-1939).WhereasInspelatochavlyssnatisalmostexclusivelydedicatedtoclassicalmusic,Grammofonrevyreviewsamorebalancedmixofbothclassicalandpopulargenres,althoughwiththeprovisothatthereisacrucialdifferencebetweenthegoodandthebadinpopularmusic.Onlyonceisjazzdiscussedundereitherheading(340401,380424),althoughjazzonrecordisnotlackingpositivecommentsinthepaper.BothPergamentandRootzénpublisheslengthyessaysonjazz(250815,440701),RootzénalsospecificallyonDukeEllingtonandhisrecordings(350811),aswellasanobituaryofGeorgeGershwin(370725).TofullyunderstandtheimpactofSvenskaDagbladet’smusic

12OnSwedishrecordingsofclassicalmusic,seeBurlin2008.13TrademagazinesandspecialistjournalssuchasGrammofonJournalen(TheGramophoneJournal),andRadioochGrammofon(RadioandGramophone)cropupintheearly1930s,coveringissuesoflesserimportanceforthisinvestigation,suchaswhentrademagazineGrafo(issue9,1936)proposesacommondistribution-centralassolutiontotheproblemfacedbystockholdingretailerswhentherecordmanufacturersinthemid30sdrasticallycutpricesbyalmostahalf.

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journalism–despiteitsundisguisedhighbrowidealsaboutartandculture(onPergament’sfarfromunreservedopiniononjazz,seeRosengren2007,257ff.)–itshouldbegaugedagainstananti-Americanistformofculture-andcivilizationcriticismcommonofthetime.DrawingontheidealisticnotionofVolksgeist,thisformofcriticismexplicitlyorimplicitlydismissesanyclaimtoanAmericanculture,ontheaccountthattheU.S.A.doesnotqualifyasatruenation(itisatbestasavagenationofAmericanIndians),butisratherajumbleofimmigrantsofdifferentnationalitiesandprimitiveAfricancultures(cf.Volgsten2013,21ff.;Fornäs2004,193ff.).Fromsuchananti-Americanistperspectivethegramophonewouldonlybeonemoremachinefromthecountryofdecadenceanddecay,whereastherecordedsoundswouldhardlyevenqualifyasmusic.Alongsidereviewsofdancemusicondisc(e.g.340805),aparticularlyinterestingcaseofcelebrityjournalisminSvenskaDagbladetisanarticlethatcomparesthedifferentstylesandpersonalitiesofSwedishvocalistZarahLeanderandVienneseGretaKeller,thefirstdramaticandspectacular,theotherintimate,softandwhisperingthroughthemicrophone,gettingevenclosertothelistenerwiththerecordingsthaninaliveperformance–asthereviewernotes:“Isn’tthisaparadox?”(360913).Themediaaestheticsmanifestedinthisarticleisaradicallydifferentwayofapproachingrecordedmusicthanthatexemplifiedbythequestionnairecases,buttressinginsteadtheartisticclaimsbytherecordproducers.EspeciallyKellerdemonstratesavocaltechniquemadefamousintheU.S.A.throughBingCrosby’ssocalledcrooningstyle.InSwedentheforemostrepresentativeofthetechniqueissingerSven-OlofSandberg,whopioneerselectricrecordingin1927(Strand2003),andwhose“lovesick”baritonerendershimnicknameslike“thegramophoneenchanter”,“themicrophonevoice”and“S.O.S.”(SvD281109,300409,360112,400112).However,inthereviewmentioned,bothKellerandLeanderalsoexemplifyvariousdegreesofauthenticpersonalitymediatedthroughtherecordings,whichwouldnotbepossiblewerethegramophoneservingmerelyasamechanicalmusician(cf.Pontara&Volgstenforthcoming).ThereviewsectionsinSvenskaDagbladetwouldeventuallydisappearasthedailyenterstheatrocious1940s.Advertisementsforgramophonesandrecordsremain,nowincompanywithappealstohandinuseddiscsforrecycling,duetowartimescarcityofshellac(e.g.441129).145)Theseizingofdomesticspace(1923-1945)Asnotedabove,itwouldtakeuntil1932beforeagramophoneshowsupintheeditorialmaterialofSvenskahemiordochbilder.Thehomethusdepictedisaradicalexception.ItisthemodernvillaofthefamousfunctionalistarchitectSvenMarkelius(andtheplayerisportable,notasalongsgrammofon).Markelius,trainedbyWalterGropiusofthe

14IntheweeklyHemmetsJournal(TheHome’sJournal)thereishardlyanymentionatallofgramophonesintheeditorialmaterialbythemid1930s,andgramophonesanddiscsbecomemoreandmorerareintheadvertisements.Insteadthespaceisdevotedtotheradio,whichhadnationalcoveragethroughtheSwedishnationalradiofrom1925.Itisnotunlikelythatthevitalinformationbroadcastedbytheradiogivesamoreseriousauratothemediumthanwhathadtillthenbeenthecasewiththegramophone.WhentheSwedishnationalradiostartstobroadcastrecordedmusicfrom1926on(Björnberg1998,36),takingadvantageofthenewelectronictechnology,itis(expandingthehypothesis)notunlikelythatmusicongramophoneatlargebenefittedfromthe“seriousness”oftheradiomedium.

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BauhausschoolinGermany,wasoneoftheauthorsofthepamphletacceptera!thatfollowedTheStockholmExhibitionof1930.Amongotherthings,thepamphletdisplaysaphotoofagramophone,withthestatement(p.124):“Luxuryisforusthehighestdegreeofquality,notofsplendour”.Inotherwords,theaversionfornon-functionalornamentationdoesnotcondemnamechanicalandmassproducedgadgetsuchasthegramophoneaslongasitiswellmadeandfulfilsitsfunction.TheStockholmExhibitionfocussedonurbanplanning,architectureanddesign,andisgenerallyregardedasabreakthroughinSwedenformodernistideals.Withthesloganacceptera!(accept!)itstoodindiametricalcontrasttotheconservativecivilizationcriticism,andwithitsfunctionalistaestheticidealsitcametoserveasideologicalbasisforthenationalhousingpolicyfordecadestocome(Sydhoff1980).15TheStockholmExhibitionhadbeenprecededsincetheearly1920sbyannualhousingexhibitions,Byggeochbo(Buildingandhome),whichin1928promotesthemodernlivingroomasopposedtotheoldbourgeoissalong(orfinrum,asitwasalsocalled).Whereasthesalongisaccusedofbeingoverloadedanddysfunctional,themodernlivingroom“givestherichestpossibleimpressionthroughthesmallestmeans”(quotedinPerers2001,90).Twoyearsearlier,inthe1926exhibition,agramophonehadevenmadeitswayintotheveryplanfora40m2flat,designedforafamilyoffourpersons(Bilderochblad1926,42f.repeatedthefollowingyearp.28).AndlatertheexhibitionVibo(Welive)inMalmöwouldlikewisereservespaceinoneofitsapartmentplansfora“radio-gramophone”(ViboiRibershus1938,34),asdidtheexhibitionBobättre(Livebetter)inGothenburgin1945fora“gramophonecabinet”.ThemodernistidealsofTheStockholmExhibitionwereexpressedtoawiderpublicinjournalssuchasNutidenshem(Thehomeofthepresent),andHemkultur(Homeculture).Nutidenshem,whoseleaderexplicitlypromotes“democratisationofwaysofthinkingandliving”,opensitsfirstissuein1935withanarticleonthenewlivingroom.Itsaysnothingaboutgramophones.However,alaterissuediscusses“Musicinthehome”,whereinthesupposeddangersofgramophonelisteningaredismissed,althoughitisclaimedthat“passive”listeningcanneverreachthecultivatedheightsof“active”

15Bycontrast,thegramophonenevershowedupinanyplansordisplaysoftheSwedishhomeownershipproject.Asaconsequenceofwidespreadpovertyandevenstarvationinthenorthernregions,Swedenhadfacedamassiveemigrationresultingin20%ofthemaleand15%ofthefemalepopulationbornduringthelatterhalfof19thcenturyleavingthecountry,mainlyforNorthAmerica(Thorborg2013).Beginningin1904,inresponsetoasteadilygrowing“HomeOwnership”(egnahem)movement,withthecommonaimtodecreaseemigration,thegovernmentsetuplowinterestloanfundstoenablepeoplewithlimitedmeanstoobtainahomeoftheirown.Startingintheruralareas,themovementsoonledtoegnahems-areasatthesuburbanoutskirtsofthecities(Kjellberg1999).ThejournalEgnaHem(“OwnHome”),issuedmonthlybetween1901and1907,withamottothatemphasized“diligence,thrift,andGodliness“asthemeanstoearn“yourownhomeonyourownland”,containedbuildingplansandadvicehowbesttocultivateone’ssmalllot,andonacoupleofoccasionsadvertisementsforpianosandorgans(issues4and6,1902).Givenitsmottoandtargetgroupofcroftersandsmalltenants,itisperhapstobeexpectedthatphonographsandgramophonesareneithermentionednordepictedinanyofthejournal’sissues.Intheslightlymorewell-offorientedSverigesvilla-ochegnahems-tidning(Sweden’sBungalow-andownhome-journal),issuedmonthlybetween1909and1914,therearepianoscoresforBostonwaltzesinacoupleofChristmasissues(1910and1911),butstillnomentionofphonographsorgramophones.However,ahorn-gramophoneisdepictedinadvertisementsfor“musicalinstruments”(issues6,1911through12,1912).Alikelycluetotheabsenceistheculture-andcivilizationcriticismthatmarked,notonlythewealthysalong,butalsothehomeownershipmovement.Thepervasiveidealinthehomeownershipmovementwasthemanualcultivation–ofthesoilratherthansoul–ofone’sownlot(Edling1996,295ff.).

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playing(issue4).ThemoremiddlebrowHemkulturoffersregularrecordreviews,whichusuallystartswithclassicalrecordingswhilepresentingpopularnoveltiestowardstheend.Onearticlereferspositivelyto“England,wherethegramophonehasamorethanusualnobleposition”,andrhetoricallyasksthereader“Doyoutakecareofyourrecords?”(1935,issue1).Althoughbothjournalswereshortlived,theidealspromotedwerenot(cf.Perersetal.2013).16EventhegoodoldSvenskahemcontinuestoexposethegramophone,bothintheeditorialmaterial(e.g.issue2,1936,showinga“bachelor’sflat”witha“hat-boxgramophone”,andissue10,1940,showingan“ineveryrespectexemplaryradiogramophone”,“apieceoffurniturenotattemptingtobeanythingitisnot”),andintheadvertisementsections(e.g.issue101939,a“parchmentcoated”gramophoneboxfromtheposhdesignstoreSvensktTenn).Areportfromaflowerexhibitiondisclosestheideabehindthegrowinginterestinthegramophone:“Leisuretimewillcreateharmoniouspeople”(issue7,1936,italicsinoriginal).Butleisuretimerequiresleisurespace.Ifthereisnoplacetorelaxinglyspendone’sfreetime,itwilllooseitsrecreationalworth.Aninterestingbutunacknowledgedandhardlyintendedmodelfortheparticularspacerequiredforthegramophoneanditsmusiccanbeobservedinadvertisementsforgramophonesstartingin1923,andafewyearslaterforrecords(SvD230317,231209,290419,430926).Intheseadvertisementstheparticularretailersboastsespeciallydesignedlisteningrooms(orratherclosets)intheirstores.Thesignificanceoftheselisteningroomsisnotthattheyallowedthelistenertoappreciatethefidelityofthesoundreproductiontechnology(thatthequalityofsoundproductionbea“natural”conditionforaestheticoutputhadbythe1920sbecomeacommonsellingpoint,cf.Siefert1995).Onthecontrary,thecrucialpointistheaffordanceofashieldedspacewherethelistenerisabletohearmusicwhilebeingbothunobservedandundisturbed.Thisdiffersfromthesalongaswellasthephonographattractionsatthecountrysidefairs,bothofwhichwerecollectivedisplays.Inthesalongthemusicwasplayedandlistentoincompanywithothers,andalthoughtherecordedsoundsatthefairswerenotaudibleexceptthroughtubes,thelisteningactandreactionsofthelistenerswerepartofthespectacle(thecaseresemblestheAmericanphonographparlorsofthe1890s,cf.Kenney1999,26).Amorelikelyprecursoristhetelephonebooth,separating“hearingfromtheproximalauditoryenvironment”,while“theactofcommunicationitself”is“separatedfromthesurroundingphysicalenvironment”(Sterne2003,158).Forthenewmediaaestheticsdescribedintheprevioussectiontocometofullfruition,asecludedspacewastobepreferred.Andthiswasarguablyalsothecaseforthesoundexperiencebehindthegrowingamountofreviewsofclassicalmusicrecordings(cf.Gaußopcit.314;Pontara&Volgsten,forthcoming).Intimateencounterswithcaressingcrooners,likepenetrationofthespiritualdepthsofclassicalworks,boththriveinundisturbedsolitude.Butalthoughthegramophonetoanextent(howeversmall,asjudgedfromthehousingplans)waspartofthedefinitionofthemodernlivingroom,formanyasolitaryspaceathomewasatmostawishfulthinking.In1945,thirtypercentoftheSwedishpopulationsharedroomintheirhomeswithatleasttwoothers,kitchensnotcounted(Perersetal.opcit.,71).Thecontrastisstrikingwhenoneturnsfromthewell-offmilieusdepictedinjournalssuchasSvenskahemiordochbilderandNutidenshem,tothoseaddressedin

16Fromtheearly1930son,Swedishsoundfilmincreasinglyportrayedgramophonelisteninginthelivingroom,seePontara(forthcoming).

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Vårbostad(Ourhome),thejournalofthemembersoftheNationalTenantsAssociation.Vårbostad,issuedfrom1924on,coversactualandimportantissuesofaccommodationandeverydayhomematters(suchas“vacationforhousewives”,Jan1937),aswellasentertainmentsections.Whenitcomestorecordplaying,whichoneunderstandsisfrequentlyoccurringinthetenementhousesconcerned,itisbynowayasignof“harmonious”neighboursgettingtogether,butaseriousenvironmentalprobleminwantofstrictregulation(March1932,theproblem,whichbythistimealsoincludestheradio,cropsupfrequentlyasbriefnotesandcommentsinthedailySvenskaDagbladet).Andtotheextentthattheeditorialmaterialisconcernedwithculturalissues,itpromotestraditionalpianoplaying,whileparentsareadvisedtokeeptheirchildrenawayfrom“thatHydra,whichiscalledjazzmusic”(Dec1925).Amongitsmanydepictedhomeinteriors,agramophonedoesnotshowupinVårbostaduntilMay1945,whenthejournalpaysavisitatthehomeoffamousmusicianCarlJularbojr,observingthat“Inthecombinedbed-andlivingroomstandsalovelyradio-gramophone”.Concludingremarks:mediatization,musicalization,andthephonographyofeverydaylifeInSwedentheentranceofthephonographdidnottakeplaceinthelivingroom.Andneitherdidthegramophone.Itratheroccurredatfairs,ondanceeventsandatcafésandrestaurants(thephonograph’sroleduringthefirstdecadesofthe20thcenturyseemsmainlytohavebeenasadeviceforrecordinganddisplayingethnographicresearch).Recordsweredancedtoandheardatoccasionsandeventsnotparticularlydesignedforattentivemusiclistening.So-calledgramophoneconcertswereexceptional,andwereeconomicallybackedupbypromotionalincentives.Thegramophonewasplayedlikeamechanicalinstrument,or(consideringtheangeritwouldcauseinthemusicians’union)itappearedmoreorlessasamechanicalmusician.Ineithercaseitneedednoparticulartrainingorskillonthepartoftheplayer(intheway“real”instrumentsdo),whichleaditsdetractorstodenouncethegramophoneasainhumanemachineorasamereatoy.Consideringtherecordsofthisearlyperiod,theywerenotparticularlyregardedasrepresentationsofartisticperformanceorofanyaestheticcontenttobeextractedbythelisteners.Musicalrecordingswerenotprimarilyregardedasmedia,butasintegraltotherecordplayers(theearlymanufacturersprovidedtheirownrecordlabels).Notuntilthecourseofthe1920scanachangeinaestheticattitudebeobserved.Interestingly,thechangegoeshandinhandwithachangeinthespatiallocalizationofthegramophone,frompubliccafésandtheundefinedlocalesofprivatedanceevents,totheintimateand–yetonlyforafew–solitaryprivacyofthemodernlivingroom.Apictureherebyemergesofhowphonographyturnedfrombeingascientificinventionintobecominganeverydaymediatechnology.Wecanalsodetectsomeimportantcontoursofitsmediatizinginfluenceoncultureandeverydaymusicalcommunication.Duringthefirstdecadesofthe20thcenturythemostsignificantaspectisprobablythede-professionalizingofmusicalcommunicationandperformancethatthegramophoneaffords.Anyonecannowplayapieceofdancemusic,aballadorevenanentiresymphonyprivatelyathomeorinpublic.Uptothispointtheon-goingchangeisquitereasonablyexplainedintermsofamediatizationofmusic,i.e.along-termprocessbywhichnewrecordingtechnology

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affectsmusicalcommunicationandinteraction(cf.Krotz2009,24).However,inlinewiththelivingroomsuccessivelybecomingarealityinanincreasingnumberofhomes,itisasmuchtheincreasingpresenceofmusicasthatofthegramophonethatcallsforexplanation.Atacloserlooktheneedforexplanationisapparentalreadyinthecaseofthede-professionalizeduseofthegramophoneduringtheearlydecades.Totheextentthattheepithettalking-machineisdiscardedandmusicbecomesthedominatingcontentoftherecordings,theprocessisarguablyasmuchaninstanceofmediatizationofmusicasitisaninstanceofmusicalizationofthemedium(cf.Pontara&Volgsten2017).Thisbecomesevenmoreevidentasthegramophonetakespartintheverydefinitionofwhatkindofspacethelivingroomis(andbyextensionalsowhatrecreationalleisure-timeis).Seeminglyinconspicuousthoughimportantpartsinthisprocessaretherecordreviewandthelisteningroom.Notonlydoestherecordreviewaddaseriousdimensiontothemusic(therecordisworthyofqualifieddiscussion);thereviewitselfalsoaddstothediscursivedefinitionsbywhich“musicisconstitutedaswhatitis”,andthusdiffusesmusic,beyondtheimmediateencountersofthosealreadyinpossessionofarecord,toareadingmasspublic(Pontara&Volgstenopcit;theradio,thoughbeyondthelimitsofthisinvestigation,significantlyaddstothisaspectofmusicalization,seeBjörnberg1998,36-39,etpassim).Consideringthelisteningroom,ontheotherhand,itconveysthemorecentripetalattitudethatlisteningtomusicongramophoneisbestdoneinsolitudeinaroomspeciallyfurnishedforitspurpose(anattitudeturnedintoanecessityinthepracticeoftherecordreviewer).Or,putdifferently,thatthelivingroomisbestfurnishedsoastofacilitatefocussedandundisturbedlisteningtomusic.Thusweseemtoendupwithtwomutuallyexcludingtechnologicalstrainsinfluencingcultureandeverydaylifeduringthefirsthalfofthe20thcentury.Onemoreanarchic,involvingthegramophoneasamechanicalinstrumentatmoreorlessunforeseeablelocales,withdanceanddivertedlisteningtopopularmusic.Theother,demandingthecontrollablesolitaryspacethatonlyamodernlivingroomcanafford,intheserviceofanewmediaaestheticsthatpromotesfocussedlisteningtothemusicalcontentoftherecords.However,thatthetwostrainsarenotcompletelyexclusivebecomesevidentwhenweconsiderthenoveltyoftheaforementionedmediaaesthetics;incontrasttothe“disinterested”listeningdemandedby19thcenturyclassicalmusic,thisnewaestheticsisequallyinvitingofclassicalasofpopularmusic.ItisevenarequisiteforthepopularstylesrepresentedbysingerssuchasBingCrosby,GretaKellerandSven-OlofSandberg.AnditwillprovenecessaryforfuturestylesfollowingthewakeofTheBeatles’Sgt.Pepper’s,TheBeachBoys’GoodVibrations,andFrankZappa’sFreakOut!.Ontheotherhand,usingthegramophoneasamechanicalinstrumentportabletowhateverlocationsuitablefortheoccasionisanattitudethatwouldremainevenwhenstationarygramophone-cabinetshadmadethemselvescomfortableinthenewlivingrooms.Itwouldlieatheartoffutureusessuchastheportableteenage-roomplayer,movablesound-systems,moderndancemusicofeverykind,andnewstylesmixingliveandpre-recordedsoundandmusic.AndastheWalkmanmapstheterritoryforfuturedigitaldevices,newwaysoflisteningtoclassicalmusicinevitablygettogether.Whatthefocusonphonographyinaperipheralcountrysuchasearlytomid-20thcenturySwedenbringstothefore,then,isnothinglessthanananalyticallycontrastingpictureshowingtwoirreducibleaspectsofcontemporarytechnologyofmusicking.

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