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ROLE OF DIFFERENT PHARMACEUTICAL INGREDIENTS
Category Description Example
Acidulant/
Acidifying agent
Used in liquid preparations to
provide acidic medium for
product stability
Ammonium Chloride
Hydrochloric Acid
Phosphoric Acid
Sulfuric Acid
Acetic acid
Hydrochloric acid
Nitric acid
Fumaric Acid Cis -trans
Tartaric Acid Isomers
Malic AcidHydroxy –
Dicarboxylic acid[4 C]
Citric acid Tricarboxylic acid
Alkalinizing agent Used in liquid preparations to
provide alkaline medium for
product stability
Ammonia solution
Ammonium carbonate
Diethanolamine
Monoethanolamine
Potassium hydroxide
Sodium bicarbonate
Sodium hydroxide
Sodium borate
Sodium carbonate
Trolamine
Adsorbant
An agent capable of holding other
molecules onto its surface by
physical or chemical
(chemisorption) means
Aluminum Hydroxide Adjuvant
Aluminum Oxide
Aluminum Phosphate Adjuvant
Attapulgite
Colloidal Silicon Dioxide
Hydrophobic Colloidal Silica
Magnesium Oxide
Powdered cellulose
Activated charcoal Strong
adsorbant
Aerosol propellant
Agent responsible for developing
the pressure withinaerosol
container and expelling the
product when the valve is
opened.
Carbon dioxide
Dichlorodifluoromethane
Dichlorotetrafluoroethane
Trichloromonofluoromethane
Chlorodifluoroethane (HCFC)
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC)
Difluoroethane (HFC)
Dimethyl Ether
Heptafluoropropane (HFC)
Hydrocarbons (HC)
Nitrous Oxide
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Tetrafluoroethane (HFC)
Air displacement
Agent employed to displace air in
a hermetically sealed container to
enhance product stability
Nitrogen
Carbon dioxide
Antifoaming
Agent/ defoamer
Defoamer is an antifoaming agent
that inhibits the formation of
foam on the surface of liquids by
reducing the surface tension.
Dimethicone and Simethicone
Antifungal
preservative
Used in liquid and semisolid
preparations to prevent growth
of fungi. Effectiveness of
parabens is usually enhanced by
use in combination.
Methyl and propyl paraben in
ratio of 10: 1 effective
antimicrobial.GPAT 2018
Butylparaben
Ethylparaben
Methylparaben
Propylparaben
Benzoic acid
Sodium benzoate
Sodium propionate
Antimicrobial
preservative
Used in liquid and semisolid
preparations to prevent
growth of microorganisms
Benzalkonium chloride
Antioxidant
Used to prevent deterioration of
preparations by Oxidation
Alpha Tocopherol
Ascorbic Acid
Ascorbyl Palmitate
Butylated Hydroxy anisole (BHA)
ButylatedHydroxy toluene (BHT)
Butylparaben
Monothioglycerol
Potassium Metabisulfite
Propyl Gallate
Sodium Ascorbate
Sodium Formaldehyde
Sulfoxylate
Sodium Metabisulfite
Sodium Sulfite
Sodium Thiosulfate
Sulfur Dioxide
Astringent
Astringent, any of a group of
substances that cause the
contraction or shrinkage of
tissues and that dry up
secretions. Astringents are
usually classified into three
groups according to their mode of
action:
(1) Those that decrease the blood
supply by narrowing the small
Potassium Alum and Sodium
Borate
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blood vessels (e.g., epinephrine
and cocaine)
(2) Those that abstract water
from the tissue (e.g. glycerol and
alcohol)
(3) Those that coagulate the
superficial tissue layers into a
crust (e.g., metallic astringents,
such as calamine or alum)Bihar DI
98
Bittering Agent
A bittering agent is a flavoring
agent added to a food or beverage
to impart a bitter taste, possibly
in addition to other effects.
Denatonium Benzoate and
Sucrose Octaacetate
Buffering Agent
Used to resist change in pH upon
dilution or addition of acid or
alkali.
Acetic Acid, Glacial
Adipic Acid
Ammonia Solution
Calcium Hydroxide
Citric Acid Monohydrate
Lactic Acid
Maleic Acid
Meglumine
Monoethanolamine
Potassium Citrate
Potassium Hydroxide
Sodium Carbonate
Sodium Citrate Dihydrate
Sodium Lactate
Sodium Phosphate, Dibasic
Sodium Phosphate, Monobasic
Boric Acid
Diethanolamine
Chelating Agent
Substance that forms stable
water-soluble complexes
(chelates) with metals; used in
some liquid pharmaceuticals as
stabilizers to complex heavy
metals that might promote
instability. In such use, they are
also called sequestering agents
Disodium Edetate
Edetic Acid
Pentetic Acid
Colorant
Used to impart color to liquid and
solid (e.g., tablets and capsules)
preparations
FD&C Red No. 3
FD&C Red No. 20
FD&C Yellow No. 6
FD&C Blue No. 2
D&C Green No. 5
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D&C Orange No. 5
D&C Red No. 8
Caramel
Ferric oxide, (red, yellow and black)
Clarifying agent
Used as a filtering aid for its
adsorbent qualities
Bentonite
Coating Agent Shellac and Zein
Desiccant A desiccant is a hygroscopic
substance that induces or
sustains a state of dryness
(desiccation) in its vicinity; It is
the opposite of a humectant.
Calcium Chloride
Disinfectants Disinfectants are antimicrobial
agents that are applied to the
surface of non-living objects to
destroy microorganisms that are
living on the objects
Chloroxylenol Present in Dettol
Chlorhexidine
Effervescent Base Potassium Bicarbonate
Sodium Bicarbonate
Emollient Smoothing to the skin or mucous
membrane.
An agent that softens the skin or
soothes irritation in the skin or
mucous membrane.
Isopropyl Myristate
Isopropyl Palmitate
Mineral Oil
Mineral Oil, Light
Emulsifier/
Emulsifying Agent
Used to promote and maintain
dispersion of finely subdivided
particles of liquid in a vehicle in
which it is immiscible. End
product may be a liquid emulsion
or semisolid emulsion (e.g., a
cream)
Lecithin (Naturally occurring
Amphoteric surfactant )
Cholesterol
Mineral Oil
Lanolin Alcohols
Octyldodecanol
Polyoxylglycerides
Triethanolamine
Vitamin E Polyethylene Glycol
Succinate
Wax, Anionic Emulsifying
Wax, Nonionic Emulsifying
Emulsion
Stabilizer
An emulsifier (also known as an
"emulgent") is a substance that
stabilizes an emulsion by
increasing its kinetic stability
Ethylene Glycol Stearates
Glyceryl Behenate
Glyceryl Monooleate
Glyceryl Monostearate
Glyceryl Palmitostearate
Encapsulating
agent
Used to form thin shells to
enclose a drug for ease of
administration
Gelatin
Flavoring Agent Used to impart a pleasant flavor Ethyl Maltol
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and often odor to a preparation. Ethyl Vanillin
Isomalt
Leucine
Maltol
Menthol
Methionine
Monosodium Glutamate
(Synthetic)
Vanillin
Hydrocolloid Colloid system wherein the
colloid particles are hydrophilic
polymers dispersed in water.
Acacia
Alginic Acid
Ammonium Alginate
Calcium Alginate
Carrageenan
Chitosan
Guar Gum
Pectin
Potassium Alginate
Sodium Acetate
Sodium Alginate
Tragacanth
Xanthan Gum
Humectant Used to prevent drying of
preparations, particularly
ointments and creams
Glycerin
Propylene glycol
Sorbitol
Ion exchange
Resin
An ion-exchange resin or ion-
exchange polymer is a resin or
polymer that acts as a medium
for ion exchange. It is an insoluble
matrix (or support structure)
normally in the form of small
(0.25–0.5 mm radius)
microbeads, usually white or
yellowish, fabricated from an
organic polymer substrate.
Polacrilin Potassium
Levigating agent
Liquid used as an intervening
agent to reduce the particle size of
a powder by grinding, usually in a
mortar.
Mineral oil
Glycerin
Propylene glycol
Oily Vehicle
Used as vehicle in parentrals Almond Oil
Canola Oil
Castor Oil
Coconut Oil
Corn Oil
Cottonseed Oil
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Ethyl Oleate
Medium chain Triglycerides
Oleyl Alcohol
Olive Oil
Palmitic Acid
Peanut Oil
Safflower Oil
Sesame Oil
Soybean Oil
Sunflower Oil
Ointment Base
Semisolid vehicle for medicated
ointments
Castor Oil, Hydrogenated
Ceresin
Cetostearyl Alcohol
Cetyl Alcohol
Lanolin
Lanolin Alcohols
Lanolin, Hydrous
Paraffin
Petrolatum
Petrolatum and Lanolin Alcohols
Opacifying agent
Substance added to reduce their
clear or transparent appearance
of product. Some opacifying
agents provide the pearly
appearance desired in certain
products. Other opacifying agents
are used for covering purposes
and to hide blemishes.
Iron Oxides and Titanium Dioxide
Plasticizer Component of film-coating
solutions to make film more
pliable, enhance spread of coat
over tablets, beads, and granules
and provide plasticity to the film.
Acetyltributyl Citrate
Acetyltriethyl Citrate
Dibutyl Phthalate
Dibutyl Sebacate
Diethyl Phthalate
Dimethyl Phthalate
Triacetin
Tributyl Citrate
Triethyl Citrate
Polishing Agent Used to impart an attractive
sheen to coated tablets
Wax, Carnauba
Wax, White
Wax, Yellow
Solvent Used to dissolve another
substance in preparation of a
solution; may be aqueous or not
(e.g., oleaginous). Cosolvents,
such as water and alcohol
Acetone Alcohol
Butylene Glycol
Cyclomethicone
Dimethyl Sulfoxide
Dimethylacetamide
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(hydroalcoholic) and water and
glycerin, may be used when
needed. Sterile solvents are used
in certainpreparations (e.g.,
injections).
Ethyl Acetate
Ethyl Lactate
Glycerin
Glycofurol
Isopropyl Alcohol
Propylene Carbonate
Propylene Glycol
Pyrrolidone
Triolein
Stiffening agent
Used to increase thickness or
hardness of a preparation, usually
an ointment
Yellow wax
Cetyl alcohol
Cetyl esters wax
Microcrystalline wax
Paraffin
Stearyl alcohol
White wax
Stabilizer
Albumin
Calcium Acetate
Glycine
Raffinose
Trehalose
Zinc Acetate
Suppository Base
Vehicle for suppositories Cocoa butter
Polyethylene glycols (mixtures)
PEG 3350
Hard Fat
Surfactant Substances that adsorb to
surfaces or interfaces to reduce
surface or interfacial tension. May
be used as wetting agents,
detergents, or emulsifying agents
Benzalkonium chloride
Polysorbate 80
Sodium lauryl sulfate
Sorbitan monopalmitate
Docusate Sodium
Macrogol 15 Hydroxystearate
Polyoxyethylene Alkyl Ethers
Polyoxyethylene Castor Oil
Derivatives
Polyoxyethylene Sorbitan Fatty
Acid Esters
Polyoxyethylene Stearates
Sodium Lauryl Sulfate
Sorbitan Esters (Sorbitan Fatty
Acid Esters)
Suspending Agent
Viscosity-increasing agent used to
reduce sedimentation rate of
particles in a vehicle in which
they are not soluble; suspension
Agar
Bentonite (Aluminium silicate)
Calcium Silicate
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may be formulated for oral,
parenteral, ophthalmic, topical, or
other route.
Carbomer
Carboxymethylcellulose sodium
(CMC sodium)
Ceratonia
Hectorite (Magnesium silicate)
Hydroxyethyl cellulose(HEC)
Hydroxypropyl cellulose(HPC)
Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose
(HPMC)
Kaolin
Magnesium Aluminum Silicate
Methylcellulose(MC)
Propylene Glycol Alginate
Saponite
Sodium Hyaluronate
Tragacanth
Veegum (Magnesium Aluminium
silicate)
Sweetening Agent
Used to impart sweetness to a
preparation
Aspartame
Acesulfame Potassium
Alitame
Dextrose
Fructose
GlucoseLiquid
Lactitol
Maltitol
Maltitol Solution
Maltose
Mannitol
Neohesperidin Dihydrochalcone
Neotame
Saccharin Saccharin
Sodium Sodium Cyclamate
Sorbitol
Sucralose
Sucrose
Stevia (Natural sweetening agent
used in sugar free)
Tagatose
Thaumatin
Xylitol
Tablet binders Substances used to cause
adhesion of powder particles in
tablet granulations
Acacia
Alginic acid
Carboxymethylcellulose sodium
Compressible sugar (e.g.Nu-Tab)
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Ethylcellulose
Gelatin
Liquid glucose
Methylcellulose
Povidone
Pregelatinized starch
Tablet and capsule
Diluents
Inert filler to create desired bulk,
flow properties, and compression
characteristics of tablets and
capsules
Calcium Carbonate
Calcium Lactate
Calcium Phosphate,
Dibasic Anhydrous Calcium
Phosphate,
Dibasic Dihydrate Calcium
Phosphate,
Tribasic Calcium Sulfate
Cellulose Microcrystalline
Cellulose Powdered
Cellulose Silicified
Microcrystalline
Starch
Starch Pregelatinized
Corn Starch and Pregelatinized
Starch
Dextrates
Erythritol
Inulin
Lactose,
Anhydrous Lactose,
Monohydrate Lactose,
SprayDried Lactose
Magnesium Carbonate
Maltodextrin
Tablet Super
disintegrants
Sodium Starch Glycolate
Croscarmellose Sodium
Crospovidone
Tablet
Disintegrant
Used in solid forms to promote
disruption of the massinto
smaller particles more readily
dispersed or
dissolved
Alginic acid
Polacrilin potassium (e.g.,
Amberlite)
Sodium alginate
Sodium starch glycolate
Starch
Tablet
antiadherents
Prevent tablet ingredients from
sticking to punches and
diesduring production
Magnesium stearate
Tablet Glidant Used in tablet and capsule
formulations to improve flow
Magnesium Silicate
Magnesium Trisilicate
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properties of the powder mixture Talc
Colloidal silica
Corn starch
Tablet Lubricant Used in tablet formulations to
reduce friction during
tablet compression
Calcium Stearate
Starch, Sterilizable Maize
Sodium Stearyl Fumarate
Stearic Acid
Vegetable Oil, Hydrogenated
Zinc Stearate
Magnesium Stearate
Tonicity
Contributor
Used to render solution similar in
osmotic-dextrose characteristics
to physiologic fluids, e.g., in
ophthalmic, parenteral and
irrigation fluids.
Potassium Chloride and Sodium
Chloride
Transdermal
Penetration
Enhancer
Lauric Acid
Linoleic Acid
Myristic Acid
Myristyl Alcohol
Oleic Acid
Tricaprylin
Dimethyl sulphoxide
Vehicle Carrying agent used in
formulating a variety of liquids
for oral and parenteral
administration.
Generally, oral liquids are
aqueous (e.g. syrups) or
Hydroalcoholic (e.g. elixirs).
Solutions for intravenous use are
aqueous, whereas intramuscular
injections may be aqueous or
oleaginous.
Flavored, sweetened
Acacia syrup
Aromatic syrup
Aromatic elixir
Cherry syrup
Cocoa syrup
Orange syrup
Syrup
Oleaginous Corn oil
Mineral oil
Peanut oil
Sesame oil
Sterile
Bacteriostatic sodium
chloride injection
Classification of dosage form based on route of administration:
Route of administration Dosage forms
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Oral Powders, tablets, capsules, solutions, emulsions, syrups,
elixirs, magmas, gels, cachets, pills.
Parenteral Solutions, suspensions, emulsions.
Transdermal Ointments, creams, powders, pastes, lotions, plaster
Rectal Suppositories, tablets, ointments, creams, douches,
foams.
Urethral Suppositories
Sublingual Lozenges, tablets
Intranasal Solutions, sprays, inhalations.
Conjunctival Ointments
Intra-ocular Solutions
Intra-respiratory Aerosols
DOSAGE FORM APPARATUS (USP)
Solid dosage form (IR,MR Products) Type 1-basket
Type 2-paddle
Bead type MR dosage form Type3-Reciprocating
cylinder
MR release dosage form that contain active ingredients with
limited solubility
Type4-flow through cell
apparatus
Soft gelatin capsules, suppositories, poorly soluble drugs Type 3 & 4
Transdermal dosage form Type5-Paddle over disk
Type6-cylinder
Non disintegrating oral modified dosage form as well as
traditional dosage form
Type7-reciprocating holder
Hydrophilic–Lipophilic Balance (HLB)
HLB Value Range Surfactant Application
0–3 Antifoaming agents
4–6 Water-in-oil emulsifying agents
7–9 Wetting agents
8–18 Oil-in-water emulsifying agents
13–15 Detergents
10–18 Solubilizing agent
Pragati Khare (17th AIR in NIPER JEE 2015)
PPA provides great opportunities for everyone to explore his/her talent. It not only help
me in time management during study but also provide better guidance, such that what
to learn and how to learn for the exams. Now I am interested in research for betterment
of the mankind.
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14
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Important Areas in the Pharmacy
Minimum area required for tablet preparation: 30sq.m
Minimum area required for hard gelatin capsules: 20 sq.m
Minimum area required for parenteral preparations: 60sq.m
Minimum area required for wholesale drug store: 200 sq.m
Minimum area required for retail drug store: 150 sq.m
Synthetic sweeteners
Saccharin sodium: 200 – 300 times sweeter than sucrose.
Cyclamate: 30 times sweeter than sucrose. causes cancer
Aspartame: 200 times sweeter than sucrose.
Glycerol: It is glycogenic in nature, hence not used for diabetic patients.
Xylitol: Used in diabetic patients.
Hardness Limits for tablet
Tablet Hardness limit
1. Soft 2 kg
2. Sustained release 8 kg
3. General 4 kg
4. Hard 6 kg
5. Effervescent 1.3 kg
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PHARMACOLOGIC SUFFIXES for different classes of drugs
Suffix Class Clinical Use Example -afil Phosphodiesterase 5
inhibitors Erectile dysfunction, Sildenafil
-ane Inhaled anesthetics General Anesthesia Halothane -artan Angiotensin receptor
blockers Hypertension Losartan
-azepam, -zolam Benzodiazepines Anxiety, convulsion Diazepam -azine Phenothiazines Antipsychotic Chlorpromazine -azole Azole antifungals Antifungal Ketoconazole -barbital Barbituates Anxiety, hypnotic Phenobarbital
-caine Local anesthetics Anesthesia Lidocaine
-cillin Penicillin antibiotics Antibiotic Ticarcillin
-cycline Tetracyclines Antibiotic Doxycycline
-etine SSRI Depression Fluoxetine
-feb, -fene SERM Osteoporosis Tamoxifen, clomifene
-floxacin Fluoroquinolones Antibiotic Levofloxacin -fungin Echinocandins Antifungal Caspofungin
-grastim, Granulocyte CSF Blood dyscrasias Filgrastim
-ide Loop diuretics Hypertension Furosemide
-ipine Dihydropyridine CCB Hypertension Nifedipine
-ipramine Tricyclic antidepressants Depression Desipramine
-ium, -uronium Nondepolarizing paralytics Anesthesia Vercuronium,
-lukast LTD4 receptor antagonist Asthma Montelukast
-navir Protease inhibitor Antiviral Saquinavir
-olol Beta blocker Hypertension Propranolol
-oxin Cardiac glycoside Arrhythmias Digoxin
-phylline Methylxanthine Bronchodilator Theophylline
-pril ACE inhibitor Hypertension Lisinopril
-quine Quinolone derivatives Antimalarial Chloroquine
-statin HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors
Hyperlipidemia Simvastatin
-tecan Topoisomerase I inhibitor Chemotherapy Topotecan
-terol β2 agonist Bronchodilator Albuterol
-tidine H2 receptor blocker Peptic ulcer Cimetidine -fine Allylamine antifungals Antifungal Terbinafine -toposide Topoisomerase II inhibitor Chemotherapy Etoposide
-triptan 5-HT1B/1D agonist Migraines Sumatriptan
-tropin Pituitary hormone Hormone deficiency Somatotropin
-vaptan Vasopressin receptor antagonist
Hypertension Tolvaptan
-zosin α1 antagonist Hypertension, BPH Terazosin
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COMMON ORGANIC SOLVENTS WITH THEIR PROPERTIES
Solvent Formula MW BP(°C) MP
(°C)
density
(g/mL
)
solubility
in water
(g/100g)
Dielectric
Constant
Acetic acid C2H4O2 60.05 118 16.6 1.044 Miscible 6.20
Acetone C3H6O 58.07 56.05 -94.7 0.784 Miscible 21.01
Acetonitrile C2H3N 41.05 81.65 -43.8 0.785 Miscible 36.64
Benzene C6H6 78.11 80.1 5.5 0.876 0.18 2.28
1-butanol C4H10O 74.12 117.7 -88.6 0.809 6.3 17.8
2-butanol C4H10O 74.12 99.5 -88.5 0.806 15 17.26
2-butanone C4H8O 72.11 79.6 -86.6 0.799 25.6 18.6
T-butyl alcohol C4H10O 74.12 82.4 25.7 0.788 Miscible 12.5
Carbon
tetrachloride
CCl4 153.8 76.8 -22.6 1.594 0.08 2.24
Chlorobenzene C6H5Cl 112.5 131.7 -45.3 1.105 0.05 5.69
Chloroform CHCl3 119.3 61.2 -63.4 1.478 0.795 4.81
Cyclohexane C6H12 84.16 80.7 6.6 0.773 <0.1 2.02
1,2-
dichloroethane
C2H4Cl2 98.96 83.5 -35.7 1.245 0.861 10.42
Diethylene glycol C4H10O3 106.1 246 -10 1.119 10 31.8
Diethyl ether C4H10O 74.12 34.5 -116.2 0.713 7.5 4.267
Diglyme
(diethylene glycol
dimethyl ether)
C6H14O3 134.1 162 -68 0.943 Miscible 7.23
1,2-dimethoxy-
ethane (glyme,
DME)
C4H10O2 90.12 84.5 -69.2 0.8637 Miscible 7.3
Dimethyl-
formamide (DMF)
C3H7NO 73.09 153 -60.48 0.944 Miscible 38.25
Dimethyl sulfoxide
(DMSO)
C2H6OS 78.13 189 18.4 1.092 25.3 47
1,4-dioxane C4H8O2 88.11 101.1 11.8 1.033 Miscible 2.21(25)
Ethanol C2H6O 46.07 78.5 -114.1 0.789 Miscible 24.6[GPAT
2017]
Ethyl acetate C4H8O2 88.11 77 -83.6 0.895 8.7 6(25)
Ethylene glycol C2H6O2 62.07 195 -13 1.115 Miscible 37.7
Glycerin C3H8O3 92.09 290 17.8 1.261 Miscible 42.5
Heptane C7H16 100.2 98 -90.6 0.684 0.01 1.92
Hexamethyl
Phosphoramide
(HMPA)
C6H18N3OP 179.20 232.5 7.2 1.03 Miscible 31.3
Hexamethylphosp
horous triamide
(HMPT)
C6H18N3P 163.2 150 -44 0.898 Miscible -
Hexane C6H14 86.18 69 -95 0.659 0.014 1.89
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Methanol CH4O 32.04 64.6 -98 0.791 Miscible 32.6(25)
Methyl t-butyl
ether (MTBE)
C5H12O 88.15 55.2 -109 0.741 5.1
Methylene
chloride
CH2Cl2 84.93 39.8 -96.7 1.326 1.32 9.08
N-methyl-2-
pyrrolidinone
(NMP)
CH5H9NO 99.13 202 -24 1.033 10 32
Nitromethane CH3NO2 61.04 101.2 -29 1.382 9.50 35.9
Pentane C5H12 72.15 36.1 -129.7 0.626 0.04 1.84
Petroleum ether
(ligroine)
-- -- 30-60 -40 0.656 -- --
1-propanol C3H8O 88.15 97 -126 0.803 Miscible 20.1(25)
2-propanol C3H8O 88.15 82.4 -88.5 0.785 Miscible 18.3(25)
Pyridine C5H5N 79.10 115.2 -41.6 0.982 Miscible 12.3(25)
Tetrahydrofuran
(THF)
C4H8O 72.106 65 -108.4 0.8833 30 7.52
Toluene C7H8 92.14 110.6 -93 0.867 0.05 2.38(25)
Triethyl amine C6H15N 101.19 88.9 -114.7 0.728 0.02 2.4
Water H2O 18.02 100.0 0.00 0.998 -- 78.54
Water, heavy D2O 20.03 101.3 4 1.107 Miscible ??
o-xylene C8H10 106.1 144 -25.2 0.897 Insoluble 2.57
m-xylene C8H10 106.1 139.1 -47.8 0.868 Insoluble 2.37
p-xylene C8H10 106.1 138.4 13.3 0.861 Insoluble 2.27
Viscosities of some fluids of pharmaceutical interest
Fluid Dynamic viscosity at 20°C (mPa s) Chloroform 0.58 Water 1.002 Ethanol 1.20 Glyceryl trinitrate 36.0 Olive oil 84.0 Castor oil 986.0 Glycerol 1490 The contact angles of some pharmaceutical solids against their saturated aqueous solutions
Material Contact angle (°) Acetylsalicylic acid 74 Amylobarbitone 102 Diazepam 83 Lactose 30 Magnesium stearate 121 Paracetamol 59 Digoxin 49 Ampicillin 35 Indomethacin 90 Sulphanilamide 64
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Drug action
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Sharad Jain [NIPER JEE 2010-86th
GPAT 2010-86th] Drugs Inspector in Food and Drugs
Administration Department MP
Vinay S Dubey [NIPER JEE-2010-14th
GPAT 2010-333rd] PV Analyst, QSI, Chandigarh at PV Scientist, Quantum Solution India,
Chandigarh
Mradul Shrivastava[NIPERJEE 2010-215th
GPAT 2010-341st ]
Dr. Varun Jain [NIPER JEE 2010-154th
GPAT 2010-253rd] Research assistants brigham young
university, provo, utah, USA
2010
27
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Varun Jain (Post doctorate fellowship USA)
Sir thanks a lot for your help and invaluable guidance. .
Sharad Kumar Jain (88th rank in GPAT and 88th rank in NIPER JEE; Drug Inspector MP
Govt.)
Thanks to all PPA faculty cum seniors/friends for providing moral and academic
support and to provide a plate form, from where I stood up in this profession.
GPAT achievers From PPA (Pioneer Pharma academy) Achievers AIR in GPAT 2010 Achievers AIR IN GPAT In 2011 1. Sharad Jain 88 1. Roopal Jain 15 2. Varun Jain 235 2. Mahendra S. Rajpoot 25 3. Vinay S. Dubey 333 3. Pragyanshu Khare 37 4. Mradul
Shrivastava 341 4. Anjali Jain 46
5. Anupria Jain 541 5. Neha Patel 73 6. Rajkumar Sharma 643 6. Bhawna Kabirpanthi 105 7. Richa Gupta 800 7. Lokendra Bhadoria 114 8. Aakansha Saini 1002 8. Narendra Sahu 117 9. Sikha Pandey 3000 9. Varun Kushwaha 126 10. Ruchi gupta 3500 10. Priyanka Mangal 140 2010 was Foundation Year of Pioneer Pharma Academy (PPA)
11. Prateek Gupta 145 12. Abhshak Pandey 156 13. Priyanka Saraf 172 14. Dheraj Patidar 207 15. Sapna Chaurasia 238 16. Sandeep Sharma 261 17. Deepali Jain 274 18. Isha Saraf 277 19. Surbhi Soni 293 20. Neha Shrivastav 297 21. Shailja Tripathi 321 22. Mayank Agrawal 349 23. Yogesh Bhargav 385 24. Bheshm Pratap 423 25. Sourabh Jain 464 26. Dheeraj Agrawal 585 27. Ravendra Prajapati 579 28. Naveen Shivavedi 760 29. Pankaj Kurmi 657 30. Preeti Singh 865 31. Gopal Patel 1212 32. Mahendra Ahirwar 33. Vinay Sharma ****10 students selected in B. Pharm. 3rd year 1. Shailja Tripathi 2. Shweta Mishra 3. Swapnil Jain 4. Adarsh Sahu 5. Dheeraj Patel
6. Santosh Rai 7. Poorva Jain 8. Priyanka Jain 9. Ruchi Gupta 10. Raghvendra
Kaurav
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Deepali Pathak (AIR 17 in NIPERJEE 2016 and AIR 292in GPAT 2015)
I am Deepali Pathak. I have secured 17th AIR (Gen) in NIPER-2016 .During my journey to GPAT
and NIPER, Pioneer Pharma Academy helped me a lot through it. I have joined PPA whose
papers give me a level similar to main exam whether it is GPAT or NIPER. The question standard
is good and especially the competition is so huge and massive in numbers that it gives me feel of
main exam and removes its fear. It prepares you so nicely that you can face any exam without
fear. One main thing which helps me in cracking my exams is that I focus on concepts, basics and
approach of a topic. PPA teachers are very helpful, having best faculty team and hardworking.
They improved my knowledge and helped me at all steps. Thank You PPA family
CHEMICAL NUCLEUS AND DRUGS
GENERAL ANAESTHETICS
1. Etomidate Imidazole
2. Propofol 2,6-diisobutylphenol(given in emulsion form)
3. Alphaxalolne Pregneane
4. Ketamine Cyclohexanone
5. Thiopental Barbitone (pyrimidine dione)
LOCAL ANAESTHETICS
1. Bupivacaine,mepivacaine Piperidine
2. Ropivacaine Pyridine
3. Dibucaine Quinolone(benzpyridine)
4. Dimethisoquine Isoquinoline
5. Fomocaine,pramoxine Morpholine
6. Euprocin Rubane
OPIOIDS ANALGESICS
1. Pholcodine Morpholine
2. Racemoramide Morpholine,pyrrolidine
3. Methadone Diphenylacetonitrile+1-dimethy lamino-2-propylchloride
NSAIDS
1. Salicylic acid Acetyl Group
2. Piroxicam Pyridine,1,2-benzothiazine
3. Phenylbutazone Pyrazole
4. Sulfinpyrazole Pyrazole
5. Indomethacin Indole
6. Sulindac Indene
7. Tolmetin Pyrrole
SEDATIVEHYPNOTIC/SOPORIFIC/ANXIOLYTICS
1. Flumazenil BDZ fused with imidazole
2. Alprazolam,triazolam BDZ fused with triazole
3. Midazolam BDZ fused with imidazole
4. Zolpidem Pyridine fused with imidazole
5. Zalphelon Pyrimidine fused with pyrazole
6. Glutethimide Piperidinedione
7. Paraldehyde Trioxane
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ANTI-PSYCHOTICS
1. Thioridazine, Mesoridazine ,Piperidine
2. Prochlorperazine Perphenazine,fluphenazinePiperazine
3. Loxepine Dibenzooxazepine + piperazine
4. Thiothixene Thioxanthene + piperazine
5. Clozapine Dibenzodiazepine + piperazine
6. Droperidole Indolinone + pyridine(partially saturated)
7. Risperidone Benzoisoxazole,pyrimidine fused with pipridine
8. Pimozide Benzimidazolidone
9. Molindone Morpholine,pyrrole
10. Sulprideremoxipride Pyrrolidine
Swati Jain (1st rank in NIPER JEE and 5th rank in GPAT)
My expectation: The NIPER-JEE is a fiercely competitive examination. And fairly so, as NIPER is
a great place to be at – fun and exciting – for learning science. No, it wasn't a Herculean task, I
don't say I am the most intelligent in the country, I am not the most hard working girl nor am I
the luckiest, perhaps, I am the best combination of all and that clicked for me. I never worried
about what I can't do, I just had my plans fine-tuned and that used to be my consistent motive.
Planning in my mind helped me.
The joy of Success: Obviously, I was ecstatic and overjoyed at my success. I didn't have any
words; this was the best state I had ever felt. I kept short term goals. I only wanted a good rank,
being first was an add-on. I was aiming to be among top 50, but I was not expecting being the
topper.
My pillars of success:
I would want to devote the entire credit and my reverence to my college, my parents, the
coaching institute which provided me with some of the most hardworking and professional
guides or to put it in a better way my teachers and the all-powerful Almighty. It was the support
of everybody put together that worked for me. I am highly obliged to all of them for their love
and encouragement.
Just some tips:
I am no big a person to advice my loving next generation but would really want to suggest them
that always remember that you are the only one responsible for your future. Formulate your
plan, convey it to your teachers and seek support from them. Follow your heart and keep
patience. If you are worthy of something, it will definitely come to you. As a very popular saying
goes:“ The future belong to those who believe in the beauty of their dreams.” Believe in your
dreams and your perseverance, success will come to you sooner or later.
Pankaj Kurmi (66th rank in NIPER JEE)
Whatever today I am, lot of credit goes to only for PPA and respected Amit sir and Shrikant sir
Ram Sharma (Biocon Limited Bangalore, India)
It is really good plate form for pharmacy and student surely achieve success in various
examinations with the guidance of Amit sir and Shrikant sir. Wherever you want you can
get here...so hurry up friends. It is really best coaching for PHARMACY.
Swapnil Singh (4th rank in GPAT and 3rd rank in NIPER JEE; Ex. Scientist in Dr. Reddy
Laboratories, Currently MP drug inspector.)
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Pioneer pharma academy is the ultimate institute for pharma exams, it had helped me a
lot to brush-up my preparation, test series looks like a real simulation of the "main
exam", guidance provided by the teachers was very helpful; and finally the result of
academy is self-explanatory which tells everything.....best wishes...
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Roopal Jain [NIPER JEE 2011-9th
GPAT 2011-12th]Dr. Reddy's Laboratories
Ltd.Hyderabad
Dr. Varun sing Kushwah[NIPER JEE 2011-98th
GPAT 2011-126th]
Pankaj Kurmi[NIPER JEE 2011-66th]
Assistant Manager at Mylan Pharmaceuticals
Mahendra S rajpoot[GPAT 2011-25th
NIPER JEE 2011-58th]
Dr. Anjali Jain [GPAT 2011-46th
NIPER JEE 2011-65th]
Prgyanshu Khare[GPAT 2011-37th
NIPER JEE 2011-42nd]
2011
44
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Devesh Kumar Jain(8th rank in NIPER JEE and 31st rank in GPAT; Scientist in Dr. Reddy
Lab.
I think it is best coaching institute in India for Pharmacy exams like GPAT & NIPER,
because it place highest no. of students under top 100 ranking in both the exams..
NIPER-JEE achievers From PPA (Pioneer Pharma academy) Achievers AIR in NIPER-JEE
2010 Achievers AIR IN NIPER-JEE
In 2011 11. Vinay S. Dubey 14 1. Roopal Jain 12 12. Sharad Jain 88 2. Pragyanshu Khare 42 13. Varun Jain 154 3. Mahendra S. Rajpoot 58 14. Mradul
Shrivastava 215 4. Anjali Jain 65
15. Richa Gupta 494 5. Pankaj Kurmi 66 16. Anupria Jain 6. Varun Kushwaha 98 17. Rajkumar Sharma 7. Mayank Agrawal 144 18. Aakansha Saini 8. Yogesh Bhargav 160 19. Sikha Pandey 9. Neha Patel 213 20. Ruchi gupta 10. Prateek Gupta 258 2010 was Foundation Year of Pioneer Pharma Academy (PPA)
11. Bhawna Kabirpanthi 260 12. Gopal Patel 299 13. Sourabh Jain 344 14. Neha Shrivastav 346 15. Priyanka Mangal 347 16. Isha Saraf 393 17. Lokendra Bhadoria 415 18. Bheshm Pratap 19. Abhshak Pandey 20. Sandeep Sharma 21. Surbhi Soni 22. Dheeraj Agrawal 23. Narendra Sahu 24. Priyanka Saraf 25. Dheraj Patidar 26. Sapna Chrasia 27. Deepali Jain 28. Shailja Tripathi 29. Ravendra Prajapati 30. Naveen Shivavedi 31. Preeti Singh
Deepika Daksh (32nd rank in GPAT 2016)
“Success is built by many hands. No one achieves success without acknowledging the
contribution made by others.”
I would like to extend hearty thank you to the PIONEER PHARMA ACADEMY for providing me
the platform to evaluate my preparation and performance. Most of all to Shrikant Thakur Sir and
Amit Verma Sir for their consistent teaching, guidance and support throughout two years and
taking so much pain to help me prepare for the exam in time. With sincere regards and hope to
continue to receive your blessings and support.
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PRECLINICAL STUDIES AND CLINICAL TRIALS IN DRUG DEVELOPEMENT
Phases Control&
Blinding
status
Characteristics and
Objective
Time Target group
Preclinical - Determine the drug
safety, toxicity and
Therapeutic effect via In
vitro & Animal Testing
1-5 Years In vitro &
Animal Testing
Phase 0 trials - Human microdosing
studies[GPAT 2017]speed up
the development of
promising drugs or
imaging agent on small
number of subjects (10 to
15)
Determine best
pharmacokinetic
parameters in humans,
study gives no data on
safety or efficacy,
- Healthy
volunteers
(small number)
Phase I
Human
Pharmacology
and safety
OPEN
LABEL
(No
blinding)
Determine Safety, Toxicity
, maximum tolerable dose
(MTD) and tolerability
Major normal
physiological parameters
[ECG, HR, BP and Organ
toxicity]
Single ascending dose
(Phase Ia), Multiple
ascending dose (Phase Ib)
2-10 Years Healthy
volunteers
(20 – 100)GPAT
2018
Phase II
Therapeutic
Exploratory
Single blind
Controlled
Determine therapeutic
efficacy, Therapeutic
Dose ranging and ceiling
effect, [Safety and
Toxicity also considered]
Up to 100-150
Patients of
homogenous
Population
[conduct in
several centers]
Phase
IIITherapeutic
confirmatory
Double blind
Randomized
Controlled
Verify efficacy [confirm
therapeutic efficacy] in
larger patients (300-
3000), Therapeutic
evaluatary phase
After phase III drug
marketed in India.
Upto 1000
patients of
heterogeneous
population
[conduct in
multicenters
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Phase IV
Post
marketing
surveillance
- Postmarketing
surveillance, safety
surveillance
(Pharmacovegillence)
ADR studies of marketed
product
The minimum
time period for
Phase IV clinical
trials is 2 year of
marketeddrug
Clinically
applied drug
response on
many patients
Phase V Comparative
effectiveness research
and community-based
research
PRODRUG CLASSIFICATIONS
Type Bioactiva
tion site
Sub
Type
Tissue location
of Bioactivation
Examples
Type I Intracell
ular
Type IA Therapeutic
target
tissues/cells
Aciclovir, fluorouracil, cyclophosphami
de, diethylstilbestrol diphosphate, L-
DOPA, mercaptopurine, mitomycin,
Zidovudine
Type IB Metabolic
tissues (liver, GI
mucosal cell,
lung etc.)
Carbamazepine, captopril, carisoprodol
, heroin, molsidomine, leflunomide, pali
peridone,phenacetin, primidone, psiloc
ybin, sulindac, fursultiamine, Codeine
Type II Extracell
ular
Type IIA GI fluids Loperamide
oxide, oxyphenisatin, sulfasalazine
Type IIB Systemic
circulation and
other
extracellular
fluid
compartments
Acetylsalicylate, bacampicillin, bambut
erol, chloramphenicolsuccinate,
dipivefrin, fosphenytoin,lisdexamfetam
ine, Pralidoxime
Type IIC Therapeutic
target
tissues/cells
Nicotinic receptor subtype
Comparison Point N1 N2
Synonyms Nm Nn
Receptor type ICR/TYPE-I ICR/TYPE-I
Structure Pentameric structures (2α β γ and δ) α unit ligand binding unit
Effector Ion channel directly no linker Ion channel directly no linker
Mechanism Activation of Na+ & K+ channels Activation of Na+, K+ & Ca2+
channels
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Pharmacological action
Present at skeletal muscle endplate (Neuromuscular junction)- Mediate skeletal muscle contractions by depolarization
Ganglionic cells- depolarization Adrenal medulla- Epi releases Spinal cord and certain areas of brain- site specific excitation or inhibition
Nonselective agonist
Ach, Nicotine Ach, Nicotine
Selective agonist PTMA DMPP
Selective antagonist
Tubocurarine,
α-Bungarotoxin
Hexamethonium, Trimethaphan
Anjali Jain (46th rank in GPAT and 65th rank in NIPER JEE; S NIPER Hyderabad Telangana)
Pioneer institute gives a real competitive environment to students which help them to
get prepared mentally, theoretically as well as practically. I wish a great future for this
institute.
Roopal Jain (12th rank in GPAT and 15th rank in NIPER JEE; Scientist in Dr. Reddy Lab.)
The guidance and support of PPA faculties made me reach to the position where I am
today. It was their moral support which could help me to fight with the competition and
reach to my goal. PPA is a nice platform for all students who aim for their bright future
in pharma field. All the best for future and success story will keep repeating!!
Shailja Tripathi (12th rank in NIPER and 12th rank in GPAT; Scientist Torrent Ahmedabad)
I am Shailja Tripathi; I’m feeling very proud to say that m a product of Pioneer Pharma
Academy. I am great thankful to my mentors for their valuable supports and guidance,
the place where m resides by virtue of them. I have remember each and every day when
I was a student of pioneer academy, sometimes I had done mistake or feel depressed
but their support, love and most Imp their blindly believe in me gives tremendous of
energy and courage to achieved my goal. I have learned many things apart from the
academics, which helps me in every stage of my life. Once again, I would like to thanks
to my all guide and wish that the Institute would achieve their own height and a distinct
place in pharmaceutical field.
Swapnil Jain(Pharma MBA)
I strongly believe that pioneer pharmacy academy is reason for my success and good
rank in GPAT , NIPER & GATE. As far as I experience say expert faculty guidance with
expert faculty like Amit sir and Shrikant sir with supportive environment 24*7 ,
motivation and exam oriented refined study material with test series this all is mantra
of success @PPA .It turns stone into diamond
Payal Kesharwani (10th Rank in GPAT)
PPA is best coaching for the GPAT...thank to all faculty members for their support...
Ashish Rajput(8th rank in GPAT)
PPA is doing best job to prepare yourself for various competitive exams because
syllabus of pharmacy is very comprehensive so it is very hard to sum up and get
prepare for always. But straight forward notes and continuous evaluation of your
performance in test al keep you updated to give your best. Good luck to all juniors &
special thanks to Amit sirand Shrikant sir.
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Yugvijay Singh (22nd Rank in GPAT and First rank in Manipal)
Our teachers are highly qualified and have vast knowledge of each and every subject of
pharmacy and they provide us perfectly designed and precise study material that makes
us competent for all exams we face.
Properties of drug substances important in dosage form design and potential stresses occurring
during processes, with range of manufacturing procedures
Properties Processing stresses Manufacturing procedures Particle size, surface area Solubility Dissolution Partition coefficient lonization constant Crystal properties, polymorphism Stability Organoleptic (Other properties)
Pressure Mechanical Radiation Exposure to liquids Exposure to gases and liquid vapours
Temperature Precipitation Filtration Emulsification Milling Mixing Granulation Drying Compression Autoclaving Crystallization Handling Storage Transport
Emulsifying waxes
Product Oil-soluble
component
Water-soluble component
Emulsifying wax(anionic) Cetostearyl
alcohol
Sodium lauryl (dodecyl) sulphate
Cetrimide emulsifying
wax(cationic)
Cetostearyl
alcohol
Cetrimide (hexadecyl trimethyl
ammonium bromide)
Cetomacrogol emulsifying
wax(non-ionic)
Cetostearyl
alcohol
Cetomacrogol (polyoxyethylene
monohexadecyl ether)
Analytical preformulation
Attribute Test
Identity Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
Infra red spectroscopy (IR)
Ultraviolet spectroscopy (UV)
Thin-layer chromatography (TLC)
Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)
Optical rotation, where applicable
Purity Moisture (water and solvents)
Inorganic elements
Heavy metals
Organic impurities
Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)
Assay Titration
Ultraviolet spectroscopy (UV)
High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
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Quality Appearance
Odour
Solution colour
pH of slurry (saturated solution)
Melting point
Some of the models available for predicting or measuring drug absorption
Model type Model Description
Computational cLogP Commercial software that calculates octanol/water
partition coefficient based on fragment analysis, known
as the Leo-Hansch method
mLogP Method of calculating log P, known as the Moriguchi
method
Physicochemical Partition
coefficient
Measure of lipophilicity of drug, usually measured
between octanol and aqueous buffer via a shake-flask
method
Immobilized
artificial
membrane
Measures partition into more sophisticated lipidic phase
on an HPLC column
Cell culture Caco-2
monolayer
Measures transport across monolayers of differentiated
human colon adenocarcinoma cells
HT-29 Measures transport across polarized cell monolayer with
mucin-producing cells
Excised tissues Cells Measures uptake into cell suspensions, e.g. erythrocytes
Freshly
isolated cells
Measures uptake into enterocytes; however, the cells are
difficult to prepare and are short-lived
Membrane
vesicles
Measures uptake into brush border membrane vesicles
prepared from intestinal scrapings or isolated
enterocytes
Everted sacs Measures uptake into intestinal segments/sacs
Everted
intestinal rings
Studies the kinetics of uptake into the intestinal mucosa
Isolated sheets Measures the transport across sheets of intestine
In situ studies In-situ
perfusion
Measures drug disappearance from either closed or open
loop perfusate of segments of intestine of anaesthetized
animals
Vascularly
perfused
intestine
Measures drug disappearance from perfusate and its
appearance in blood
In vivo studies Intestinal loop Measures drug disappearance from perfusate of loop of
intestine in awake animal
Human data Loc-l-Gut Measures drug disappearance from perfusate of human
intestine
High-frequency
capsule
Non-invasive method; measures drug in systemic
circulation
InteliSite Non-invasive method; measures drug in systemic
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capsule circulation.
Bioavailability Deconvolution of pharmacokinetic data
GPAT achievers From PPA (Pioneer Pharma academy) Achievers AIR in GPAT 2012 Achievers AIR IN GPAT In 2013 1. Swati Jain 5 1. Swapnil singh 4 2. ShailjaTripathi 12 2. Surbhi Soni 13 3. Ruchi Gupta 45 3. Yugvijay Singh 22 4. Rahul Soni 55 4. Devesh Jain 31 5. Chetna Pandey 94 5. Ramsevak Sharma 50 6. Neeraj Pandey 101 6. Dilip Sharma 83 7. Deeraj Singh Patel 119 7. Mayank Malaiya 126 8. Priyanka Jain 132 8. Pavan Thapak 170 9. Varun Yadav 160 9. Pawan Baghel 186 10. Pallavi
Vishwakarma 167 10. Kavita Yadav 215
11. Swapnil Jain 267 11. Anupriya Jain 223 12. Shailendra Dhakad 365 12. Poornima Agrawal 228 13. Anuja Jain 377 13. Shreya Thakkar 237 14. Sweta Mishra 549 14. Shreya Thakkar 237 15. Rajkishor Pandey 594 15. Anamika Jain 250 16. Poorva Jain 664 16. Ankita Jain 297 17. Kamal Kishor 786 17. Deepanshu Shilpi 452 18. Sonal Dubey 850 18. Ravi Pratap 620 19. Manisha 1254 19. Priyanka
Chaurasiya 728
20. Preeti Thakur 1330 20. Niharika Dubey 773 21. Ashutosh Modi 1351 21. Swati Sahu 1036 22. Roli Jain 1600 22. Reshma Koshta 1100 23. Adarsha Sahu 23. Monika Nema 1140 24. Megha Saraf 24. Minaj Khan 1295 25. Sarita Mehra 25. Ayushi Paliwal 1425 26. Neeraj Gupta 26. Navneet Jain 1425 27. Prajeet bansood 27. Ritu Shrivastav 1425 28. Anoop Maurya 28. Keerti Bala Dubey 2700 29. Sweta Rai 29. Rajul Jain 2934 30. Ankit Rawat 31. Arvind Kedia 3036
32. Krutika Nawathye 3385 33. Bhoopendra Singh 4000
Kriti Jain (AIR 184 in NIPERJEE 2016 and AIR 229 in GPAT 2016)
Pioneer is not only coaching but guidance for GPAT and NIPER. Hard work have no
alternative But smart work is needed. Pioneer makes us learn how to do hard work as
well as smart work. When we were in 3rd year, we people don’t have much idea. How to
prepare and what, Amit Verma Sir told me, how to prepare and importance of revision,
how revision and mugging up the things which are important. How the time should be
managed. A good teacher makes us to love the subjects. So my favourite subject is
Pharmaceutic
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Swati Jain [NIPER JEE 2012- 1st GPAT
2012- 5th] Senior Research Scientist at
Fresenius Kabi Oncology Ltd.
Dheeraj Patel [NIPER JEE 2012-21st
GPAT 2012-119th]
Neeraj Pandey [NIPER JEE 2012-9th
GPAT 2012-101st].
Shailja Tripathi[NIPERJEE-2012-12th
GPAT 2012-12th] Scientist at Torrent
pharmaceuticals Ltd
Ruchi gupta[NIPER JEE 2012-91st
GPAT 2012-45th ]
Swapnil Jain [NIPERJEE-2012-73rd
GPAT 2012-267th] Management trainee in
marketing at cipla
2012
52
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FDA DRUG CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMBY CHEMICAL TYPE
Type 1 New molecular entity; not marketed in United States
Type 2 New ester, new salt, or other derivative of an approved active moiety
Type 3 New formulation of a drug marketed in United States
Type 4 New combination of two or more compounds
Type 5 New manufacturer of a drug marketed in United States
Type 6 New therapeutic indication for an approved drug
Note: A drug may receive a single or multiple classifications, as 3 and 4.
BY THERAPEUTIC CLASSIFICATION
Type P Priority review; a therapeutic gain
Type S Standard review; similar to other approved drugs
ADDITIONAL CLASSIFICATIONS
Type AA For treatment of AIDS or HIV-related disease
Type E For life-threatening or severely debilitating disease
Type F Review deferred pending data validation
Type G Data validated; removal of F rating
Type N Nonprescription drug
Type V Drug having orphan drug status
Note: A drug may receive a single or multiple classifications, as P, AA, and V.
EXAMPLES OF TAMPER-EVIDENT PACKAGING
PACKAGE TYPE TAMPER PROTECTION
Film wrapper Sealed around product and/or product container; fi lm must be cut or
torn to remove product
Blister/strip pack Individually sealed dose units; removal requires tearing or breaking
individual compartment
Bubble pack Product and container sealed in plastic, usually mounted on display
card; plastic must be cut or broken open to remove product
Shrink seal, band Band or wrapper shrunk by heat or drying to conform to cap; must be
torn to open package
Foil, paper, plastic
pouch
Sealed individual packet; must be torn to reach product
Bottle seal Paper or foil sealed to mouth of container under cap; must be torn or
broken to reach product
Tape seal Paper or foil sealed over carton flap or bottle cap; must be torn or
broken to reach product
Breakable cap Plastic or metal tearaway cap over container; must be broken to remove
Sealed tube Seal over mouth of tube; must be punctured to reach product
Sealed carton Carton flaps sealed; carton cannot be opened without damage
Aerosol container Tamper-resistant by design
Priya Shrivastava (AIR 57 in NIPERJEE 2015 and AIR 247in GPAT 2015)
Pioneer pharma academy is a team of well experienced, dedicated, supportive and
result orienting faculties. Faculties of this hub possess advanced learning tool to tackle
the problems faced by the students. They make learning process more enjoyable for
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students. They also provide study materials. I was also one of the students from this
academy. I was used to study 2-3 hrs other than coaching hours during my GPAT and
NIPER preparation. The students can take benefit from the study material and regular
exams are also conducted by them to help students evaluate themselves.
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Degradation indication for different dosage form
Tablets Appearance (cracking, chipping, mottling), friability, hardness, color,
odor, moisture content, clumping, disintegration, and dissolution
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Capsules Moisture tackiness, color, appearance, shape, brittleness, and
dissolution
Oral solutions and
suspensions
Appearance, precipitation, pH, color, odor, redispersibility
(suspensions) and clarity (solutions).
Oral powders Appearance, color, odor, and moisture
Metered-dose
inhalation aerosols
Delivered dose per actuation, number of metered doses, color, particle
size distribution, loss of propellant, pressure, valve corrosion, spray
pattern, and absence of pathogenic microorganisms
Topical nonmetered
aerosols
Appearance, odor, pressure, weight loss, net weight dispensed, delivery
rate, and spray pattern.
Topical creams,
ointments, lotions,
solutions, and gels
Appearance, color, homogeneity, odor, pH, resuspendability (lotions),
consistency, particle-size distribution, strength, and weight loss.
Ophthalmic and
nasal and oral
inhalation
preparations
Appearance, color, consistency, pH, clarity (solutions), particle size and
resuspendability (suspensions, ointments), strength, and sterility
Small-volume
parenterals
Appearance, color, particulate matter, dispersibility (suspensions), pH,
sterility, pyrogenicity, and closure integrity.
Large-volume
parenterals
Appearance, color, clarity, particulate matter, pH, volume and
extractables (when plastic containers are used), sterility, pyrogenicity,
and closure integrity
Suppositories Softening range, appearance, and melting
Emulsions Appearance (such as phase separation), color, odor, pH, and viscosity.
Controlled-release
membrane drug
delivery systems
Seal strength of the drug reservoir, decomposition products, membrane
integrity, drug strength, and drug release rate.
Some Molecular Organic Complexes of Pharmaceutical Interest
Agent Compounds That Form Complexes with the Agent Listed in the
First Column
Polyethylene glycols m-Hydroxybenzoic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, salicylic acid,o-
phthalic acid, acetylsalicylic acid, resorcinol, catechol, phenol,
phenobarbital, iodine (in I2 · KI solutions), bromine (in presence
of HBr)
Povidone (polyvinyl-
pyrrolidone, PVP)
Benzoic acid, m-hydroxybenzoic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid,
salicylic acid, sodium salicylate,p-aminobenzoic acid, mandelic
acid, sulfathiazole, chloramphenicol, Phenobarbital
Sodium
carboxymethylcellulose
Quinine, benadryl, procaine, pyribenzamine
Oxytetracycline and
tetracycline
N-Methylpyrrolidone,N,N-dimethylacetamide, γ-valerolactone, γ-
butyrolactone, sodium p-aminobenzoate, sodium salicylate,
sodium p-hydroxybenzoate, sodium saccharin, caffeine
Driving Forces in Pharmaceutical Systems
Driving Force Example Description
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Concentration Passive diffusion Passive diffusion is a process of mass transfer of
individual molecules of a substrate brought about by
random molecular motion and associated with a
concentration gradient
Drug dissolution Drug “dissolution” occurs when a tablet is introduced into
a solution and is usually accompanied by disintegration
and deaggregation of the solid matrix followed by drug
diffusion from the remaining small particles
Pressure Osmotic drug
release
Osmotic drug release systems utilize osmotic pressure as
the driving force for controlled delivery of drugs; a simple
osmotic pump consists of an osmotic core (containing
drug with or without an osmotic agent) coated with a
semipermeable membrane; the semipermeable
membrane has an orifice for drug release from the pump;
the dosage form, after contacting with the aqueous fluids,
imbibes water at a rate determined by the fluid
permeability of the membrane and osmotic pressure of
core formulation; this osmotic imbibition of water results
in high hydrostatic pressure inside the pump, which
causes the flow of the drug solution through the delivery
orifice
Pressure-driven
jets for drug
delivery
Pressure-driven jets are used for drug delivery; a jet
injector produces a high-velocity jet (>100 m/sec) that
penetrates the skin and delivers drugs subcutaneously,
intradermally, or intramuscularly without the use of a
needle; the mechanism for the generation of high-velocity
jets includes either a compression spring or compressed
air
Temperature Lyophilization Lyophilization (freeze-drying) of a frozen aqueous
solution containing a drug and a inner-matrix building
substance involves the simultaneous change in receding
boundary with time, phase transition at the ice–vapor
interface governed by the Clausius–Clapeyron pressure–
temperature relationship, and water vapor diffusion
across the pore path length of the dry matrix under low
temperature and vacuum conditions
Microwave-
assisted
extraction
Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) is a process of
using microwave energy to heat solvents in contact with a
sample in order to partition analytes from the sample
matrix into the solvent; the ability to rapidly heat the
sample solvent mixture is inherent to MAE and is the
main advantage of this technique; by using closed vessels,
the extraction can be performed at elevated
temperatures, accelerating the mass transfer of target
compounds from the sample matrix
Electrical Iontophoretic Iontophoresis is used to enhance transdermal delivery of
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potential dermal drug
delivery
drugs by applying a small current through a reservoir
that contains ionized drugs; one electrode (positive
electrode to deliver positively charged ions and negative
electrode to deliver negatively charged ions) is placed
between the drug reservoir and the skin; the other
electrode with opposite charge is placed a short distance
away to complete the circuit, and the electrodes are
connected to a power supply; when the current flows,
charged ions are transported across the skin through a
pore
Electrophoresis Electrophoresis involves the movement of charged
particles through a liquid under the influence of an
applied potential difference; an electrophoresis cell fitted
with two electrodes contains dispersion; when a potential
is applied across the electrodes, the particles migrate to
the oppositely charged electrode; capillary
electrophoresis is widely used as an analytical tool in the
pharmaceutical sciences
NIPER-JEE achievers From PPA (Pioneer Pharma academy) Achievers AIR in NIPER-JEE
2012 Achievers AIR IN NIPER-
JEE In 2013 1. Swati Jain 1 1. Swapnil Singh 3 2. Neeraj Pandey 9 2. Devesh K. Jain 8 3. ShailjaTripathi 12 3. Anamika Jain 17 4. Deeraj Singh Patel 21 4. Pawan K. Singh 21 5. Swapnil Jain 73 5. Ramsevak Sharma 32 6. Ruchi Gupta 91 6. Surbhi Soni 35 7. Neeraj soni 115 7. Shreya Thakkar 38 8. Rahul Soni 119 8. Pavan Thapak 44 9. Chetna Pandey 124 9. Kavita Yadav 56 10. Priyanka Jain 132 10. Dilip Sharma 69 11. Pallavi
Vishwakarma 179 11. Deepanshu Shilpi 155
12. Shailendra Dhakad 186 12. Navneet Jain 340 13. Sweta Mishra 211 13. Mayank Malaiya 373 14. Varun Yadav 331 14. Ravi Pratap S.
Bhadoriya 435
15. Adarsha Sahu 352 15. Reshma Koshta 585 16. Santosh Rai 355 16. Anupriya Jain 920 17. Anuja Jain 412 17. Ayushi Paliwal 1293 18. Prajeet bansood 426 18. Krutika Nawathye 1449 19. Poorva Jain 510 19. Rajul Jain 1527 20. Kamal Kishor 536 21. Anoop Maurya 500 22. Rajkishor Pandey 749 34. Amit Ghanghoria
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Diffusion Coefficients of Compounds in Various Media
Diffusant Partial Molar Volume
(cm3/mole)
D ×
106(cm2/sec)
Medium or Barrier
(Temperature, °C)
Ethanol 40.9 12.4 Water (25)
n-Pentanol 89.5 8.8 Water (25)
Formamide 26 17.2 Water (25)
Glycine 42.9 10.6 Water (25)
Sodium lauryl
sulfate
235 6.2 Water (25)
Glucose 116 6.8 Water (25)
Hexane 103 15.0 Chloroform (25)
Hexadecane 265 7.8 Chloroform (25)
Methanol 25 26.1 Chloroform (25)
Acetic acid dimer 64 14.2 Chloroform (25)
Methane 22.4 1.45 Natural rubber (40)
n-Pentane — 6.9 Silicone rubber (50)
Neopentane — 0.002 Ethycellulose (50)
Classification of Interfaces
Phase Interfacial Tension Types and Examples of Interfaces
Gas–Gas — No interface possible
Gas–liquid γLV Liquid surface, body of water exposed to atmosphere
Gas–solid γSV Solid surface, table top
Liquid–liquid γLL Liquid–liquid interface, emulsion
Liquid–solid γLS Liquid–solid interface, suspension
Solid–solid γSS Solid–solid interface, powder particles in contact
Initial Spreading Coefficient, S, at 20°C*
Substance S (dynes/cm)
Ethyl alcohol 50.4
Propionic acid 45.8
Ethyl ether 45.5
Acetic acid 45.2
Acetone 42.4
Undecylenic acid 32 (25°C)
Oleic acid 24.6
Chloroform 13
Benzene 8.9
Hexane 3.4
Octane 0.22
Ethylene dibromide -3.19
Liquid petrolatum -13.4
Bhoopendra Singh Kushwah (9th Rank in NIPER)
पायनियरफामााअकैडमीभारतकाएकमात्रऐसासंस्थािहैजोएकसामान्यस्तरसेभीिीचेकेनिद्याथीकोसफल
ताकेउच्चतमस्तरतकलेजािेमेंसक्षमहै .यहााँहरसबे्जक्टकागहराईसेअध्ययिकरायाजाताहै .
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हरछात्रकेऊपरध्यािनदयाजाताहै .
यहीकारणहैनकहरसालइससंस्थािसेअिेकछात्रअच्छीरैंककेसाथक्वालीफाईहोतेहै .
हरसप्ताहहोिेिालेटेस्टऔरउसकानडस्कशियहााँसेबेहतरकहीिंहीहंोसकता ..
यहााँकीपढाईकेनलएएकहीिाक्यसहीबैठताहै!PPAकेगागरमेंपूराफामााकासागरसमायाहुआहै!
Surya Keshri (AIR 107 in NIPERJEE 2016 and AIR 210 in GPAT 2016)
PPA and its teachers have always been the best support to me. They have always guided
and motivated me to aim high and practice hard in order to achieve the target.
Motivation is the biggest thing that a institute and teacher can give to a student and that
is the best part of PP and its teachers. They are always there when you need their help.
When you need the guidance the teachers keep on guiding and motivating me during
my lows and even told me to keep up my performance during my highs. When it
specifically comes to the teachers each and every teacher of PPA has an unique ability of
making the student understand the subjects. As like Amit sir has and great explanation
technique thus it makes us easy to understand pharmaceutics. His brief notes unable a
student to learn difficult topics easily. Shrikant sir has and ability of explaining tedious
pharmacological processes in a simple manner. The tricks taught Saket sir are the
ultimate solution to mug up lengthy pharmaconosy. Chemistry lessons given by
Nandkishor sir and Amit Patahk sir are helpful in understanding it well.
Samkit Jain (AIR 37 in NIPERJEE 2016 and AIR 654 in GPAT 2016)
PPA faculty members are very good in their respective field and provide all the
information about the particular topic or chapter and clear all types of doubts related to
competitive exams or college exams. PPA is only one of the places where you get the
complete knowledge with simple and easy way. PPA teacher Srikant sir has very good
hand in pharmacology while no one can beat Amit sir in pharmaceutical field. He has a
proper knowledge and proper way to transfer it and that is what makes the difference
from others. Also Nandkishor sir is there to clear all the doubts related to chemistry or
analysis.
Soumya Mishra (GPAT 2016 and NIPER JEE 2016 qualified)
My PPA journey involves all the ups and downs which i had during my preparatory
period. The most heart throbbing part was the test series. As sometimes it boosts up
the moral & confidence whereas at times it shattered everything. But what so ever the
case will be the unparalleled faculty always guided me and supported during depressing
times. I owe my success to PPA.
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Some Typical Emulsifying Agents
Name Class Type of Emulsion
Formed
Triethanolamine oleate Surface-active agent
(anionic)
o/w (HLB = 12)
N-cetyl N-ethyl morpholinium ethosulfate
(Atlas G-263)
Surface-active agent
(cationic)
o/w (HLB = 25)
Sorbitan monooleate (Atlas Span 80) Surface-active agent
(nonionic)
w/o (HLB = 4.3)
Polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate (Atlas
Tween 80)
Surface-active agent
(nonionic)
o/w (HLB = 15)
Acacia (salts of d-glucuronic acid) Hydrophilic colloid o/w
Gelatin (polypeptides and amino acids) Hydrophilic colloid o/w
Bentonite (hydrated aluminum silicate) Solid particle o/w (and w/o)
Veegum (magnesium aluminum silicate) Solid particle o/w
Carbon black Solid particle w/o
*Key: o/w = oil in water; w/o = water in oil; HLB = hydrophilic–lipophilic balance value.
Particle Dimensions in Pharmaceutical Disperse Systems
Particle Size, Diameter Approximate
Sieve Size
Examples
Micrometers (µm) Millimeters
0.5–10 0.0005–0.010 – Suspensions, fine emulsions
10–50 0.010–0.050 – Upper limit of subsieve range, coarse
emulsion particles; flocculated
suspension particles
50–100 0.050–0.100 325–140 Lower limit of sieve range, fine
powder range
150–1000 0.150–1.000 100–18 Coarse powder range
1000–3360 1.000–3.360 18–6 Average granule size
True Density in g/cm3 of Solids Commonly Used in Pharmacy
Aluminum oxide 4.0 Mercuric chloride 5.44
Benzoic acid 1.3 Mercuric iodide 6.3
Bismuth subcarbonate 6.86 Mercuric oxide 11.1
Bismuth subnitrate 4.9 Mercurous chloride 7.15
Bromoform 2.9 Paraffin 0.90
Calcium carbonate (calcite) 2.72 Potassium bromide 2.75
Calcium oxide 3.3 Potassium carbonate 2.29
Chalk 1.8–2.6 Potassium chloride 1.98
Charcoal (air free) 2.1–2.3 Potassium iodide 3.13
Clay 1.8–2.6 Sand, fine dry 1.5
Cork 0.24 Silver iodide 5.67
Cotton 1.47 Silver nitrate 4.35
Gamboge 1.19 Sodium borate, borax 1.73
Gelatin 1.27 Sodium bromide 3.2
Glass beads 2.5 Sodium chloride 2.16
Graphite 2.3–2.7 Sucrose 1.6
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Kaolin 2.2–2.5 Sulfadiazine 1.50
Magnesium carbonate 3.04 Sulfur, precipitated 2.0
Magnesium oxide 3.65 Talc 2.6–2.8
Magnesium sulfate 1.68 Zinc oxide (hexagonal) 5.59
Vaishali Tiwari (NIPER JEE AIR 549 and GPAT 2016 AIR 1256)
Faculty of PPA is just like a elder person who hold our hand from first step of career
and give us a guidance in each and every step in our for future and i think it is a very
important part of our life. Life is full of ups and down but only one thing can give you the
power to stay focus on your goal i. e. your positive mind set and PPA guidance. PPA's
teachers always say never give up for something that you want it.
Absolute Viscosity of Some Newtonian Liquids at 20°C
Liquid
Viscosity (cp)
Castor oil 1000
Chloroform 0.563
Ethyl alcohol 1.19
Glycerin, 93% 400
Olive oil 100
Water 1.0019
Important Physical, Chemical, Mechanical, and Biological Properties for Oral Drug Delivery
Physical properties Chemical properties
Polymorphic form(s)
Crystallinity
Melting point
Particle size, shape, surface area
Density
Hygroscopicity
Aqueous solubility as a function of pH
Solubility in organic solvents
Ionization constant (pKa)
Solubility product (Ksp) of salt forms
Chemical stability in solution
Chemical stability in solid state
Photolytic stability
Oxidative stability
Incompatibility with formulation additives
Complexation with formulation additives
Solubility in presence of surfactants (e.g., bile acids)
Dissolution rate
Wettability
Partition coefficient (octanol–water)
Mechanical properties Biological properties
Elasticity
Plasticity (hardness)
Bonding
Brittleness
Viscoelasticity
Membrane permeability
Absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion
(ADME)
Metabolism: Gut, first pass, systemic
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DRUG AFFECTING ADRENERGIC TRANSMISSION
Biosynthesis inhibitors
Drug Mechanism Result
Metyrosine
(α methyl tyrosine)
Competitive Inhibitor of Tyrosine
Hydroxylase
(L-Tyrosine L-DOPA)
NE synthesis inhibitor
(Antiadrenergic) Responsible for
false NT synthesis
α methyl Dopa Competitive Inhibitor of
Dopadecarboxylase
L-DOPA Dopamine
NE synthesis inhibitor
(Antiadrenergic) Responsible for
false NT synthesis
Oxidopamine/
6hydroxydopamine (6-
OHDA)
Competitive Inhibitor of Dopamine β
Hydroxylase
NE synthesis inhibitor
(Antiadrenergic)
Neurotoxic synthetic organic
compound selectively destroy
dopaminergic and noradrenergic
neurons in the brain
Drug affecting NE releases and Stores
Drug Mechanism Result
Amphetamine
Ephedrine
Tyramine
Increases NE release Adrenergic action
Gunethidine
Gunadrel
Bretylium
Inhibit NE release and ↑ NE depletion
by MAO enzyme in neuron
Antiadrenergic action
Neuronal blocking agent
Reserpine
Deserpidine
Rescinnamine
Vesicular uptake (MAT) inhibitor and
↑ NE depletion by MAO enzyme in
neuron
Decreases the NE stores
Antiadrenergic action
Drug inhibit transporters
Drug Mechanism Result
Desipramine (TCA)
Cocaine,Nisoxetine
Uptake-I / NET inhibitors
Order for NET-
DA > NE > Epi
NE ↑ in synaptic cleft (Adrenergic)
Cocaine,
Imazindol
Dopamine reuptake/ DAT inhibitors
Order for DAT-
DA >> NE > Epi
Dopamine ↑ in synaptic cleft
Isocyanines,
Corticosterone
O-methyl-
Isoproterenol
(only inhibit OCT3)
Nonneuronal/ uptake-II (OCT 1, OCT2
& OCT3) uptake inhibitors
NE ↑ in synaptic cleft (Adrenergic)
Metabolism inhibitors
Drug Mechanism Result
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MAOA Inhibitors
Moclobemide
Paragyline
Inhibition of MAOA enzyme NE ↑ in synaptic cleft (Adrenergic)
MAOB Inhibitors
Selegiline
Inhibition of MAOB enzyme DA ↑ in Brain
COMT Inhibitors
Tolcapone,Entacapone
Inhibition of COMTenzyme NE & DA ↑ in synaptic cleft and
Brain respectively
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Physical properties that differ among various solids
1. Packing properties a. Molar volume and density
b. Refractive index
c. Conductivity, electrical and thermal
d. Hygroscopicity
2.Thermodynamic properties a. Melting and sublimation temperatures
b. Internal energy (i.e., structural energy)
c. Enthalpy (i.e., heat content)
d. Heat capacity
e. Entropy
f. Free energy and chemical potential
g. Thermodynamic activity
h. Vapor pressure
i. Solubility
3. Spectroscopic properties a. Electronic transitions (i.e., ultraviolet—visible absorption
spectra)
b.Vibrational transitions (i.e., infrared absorption spectra and
Raman spectra)
c.Rotational transitions (i.e., far infrared or microwave
absorption spectra)
d. Nuclear spin transitions (i.e., nuclear resonance spectra)
4. Kinetic properties
a. Dissolution rate
b. Rates of solid-state reactions
c. Stability
5. Surface properties
a. Surface free energy
b. Interfacial tensions
c. Habit (i.e., shape)
6. Mechanical properties a. Hardness
b. Tensile strength
c. Compactibility, tableting
d. Handling, flow, and blending
Major types of phase transformations
Type Explanation of phase transformation
A Polymorphic transition: Transition between the polymorphs. The crystalline phases
include all types of crystalline solids. The composition of the solid
remains the same
B Hydration/dehydration Transition between anhydrates and hydrates or hydrates of
different stoichiometry. The compositions of the solids differ by
the number of water molecules
C Solvation/desolvation Transition between solvent-free crystal forms and solvates,
solvates of different stoichiometry or solvates of different nature
(i.e., different solvents are incorporated into the crystalline
lattice). The compositions of the solids differ by the nature and
number of solvent molecules
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D Salt/parent conversions
or salt/salt exchange
Transition between the salts (ionic adducts), and the parent
unionized compounds (free acids or free bases), between the salts
of different stoichiometry or between the different salts. The
compositions of the solids differ by the nature and number of
counterions
E Cocrystal/parent
conversions or
cocrystal/cocrystal
exchange
Transition between the cocrystals (molecular adducts), and the
parent compound (unionized compounds or salts), between the
cocrystals of different stoichiometry or between the different
cocrystals. The compositions of the solids differ by the nature and
number of cocrystal formers
F Amorphous
crystallization/vitrification
Transition between crystalline and amorphous phases. The
crystalline phases include all types of crystalline solids. Since the
compositions of the amorphous phases are usually less well-
defined, the compositions of the solids change in most cases
Material-sparing characterization methods
Method Measured parameters
Particle characterization
Light microscopy Size, shape, roughness, size range
Polarized light microscopy Crystallinity
Scanning electron microscopy Size, shape, roughness, size range
Sieving Size, size distribution
Light diffraction particle size Quantitative size, distribution, span
Powder characterization
Helium pycnometry True density
Bulk/tapped density Bulk and tapped density, compressibility index
Shear cell of internal friction Powder flow parameters, flow function coefficient,
unconfined yield strength, cohesion, effective angle
Compact characterization
Tablet compaction Compaction pressure, solid fraction
Indentation test Deformation pressure, elastic deformation
Tensile test Tensile strength, compromised tensile strength
Tablet characterization
Tabletability Tensile strength—solid fraction relationship
Compactibility Tensile strength—compression pressure relationship
Compressibility Solid fraction—compression pressure relationship
Manufacturability Tablet crushing force—compression force relationship
General Classification and Description of Gels
Class Description Examples Inorganic Usually are two phase systems Aluminum Hydroxide Gel
Bentonite Magma Organic Usually are single phase system Carbopol, Tragacanth
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Hydrogels Contain water Silica, bentonite, pectin, sodium
alginate, metylcellulose, alumina Organogels Hydrocarbon type Petrolatum, Mineral Oil/Polyethylene
gel (Plastibase) Animal/Vegetable fats Lard, Cocoa butter Soap base greases Aluminum stearate with heavy
mineral oil gel Hydrophilic Organogels
Polar/Nonionic Carbowax bases (PEG Ointment)
Hydrogels Organic Hydrogels Pectin paste, Tragacanth jelly Natural and synthetic gums Methylcellulose, sodium
carboxymethylcellulose, Pluronic Inorganic Hydrogels Bentonite gel (10-25%), Veegum
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Examples of Gelling Agents
1. Acacia 13. Cetostearyl Alcohol 2. Bentonite 14. Ethylcellulose 3. Carbocymethylcellulose sodium 15. Guar gum 4. Colloidal silicon dioxide 16. Hydroxypropryl cellulose 5. Gelatin 17. Magnesium aluminum silicate 6. Hydroxyethylcellulose 18. Methylcellulose 7. Hydroxypropryl methylcellulose 19. Povidone 8. Maltodextrin 20. Sodium alginate 9. Polyvinyl alcohol 21. Starch 10. Propylene carbonate 22. Xanthan gum 11. Sodium starch glycolate 23. Alginic acid 12. Tragacanth 24. Carbomer
Differences Between Volatile and Fixed Acids Fixed Oil Volatile Oil Source: Plant and animal Plants only Volatility: Non volatile Volatile Distillation Decompose Can be distilled Nature: Greasy and thick in consistency Thin and non greasy Solubility in water:
Completely soluble Slightly soluble
Action: Non irritant, soothing when applied to skin and mucosa
Mild irritant to skin and mucosa
Activeness: Not much active Quite active Rancidity: Get rancid with time Do not get rancid Nutritional value:
Have nutritional value No nutritive value
Examples: Castor oil, cod liver oil, olive oil ANISE, camphor, eugenol, methanol
Bioavailability from different routes of administration
Route Bioavailability Characteristics Intravenous 100% Most rapid Intramuscular 75≤100% Large volume may be injected but painful method Subcutaneous 75≤100% Smaller volume than IM, may be painful Oral 5≤100% Convenient, first pass metabolism occurs Rectal 30<100% Less first pass metabolism than oral route Inhalation 5<100% Rapid onset Transdermal 80≤100% Usually slow absorption, lack of first pass metabolism and
prolonged duration of action
Comparison of simple diffusion, Facilitated diffusion, Active transport
Simple Diffusion Facilitated Diffusion Active Transport Down concentration gradient Down concentration gradient Against concentration
gradient No energy required No energy required Energy required No carrier protein involved Carrier proteins involved Carrier proteins involved Non-specific Specific Specific Non-saturable Saturable Saturable Lipid soluble drugs Non-diffusible drugs Lipid insoluble drugs
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Plasma half life of some drugs Drug Half Life Acetylcholine, GABA, catecholamines Milliseconds Adenosine 10 seconds Aspirin 15 minutes Propanolol 4 hours Digoxin 39 hours Digitoxin 168 hours Amiodarone more than 100 days
ALPHA ADRENERGIC RECEPTORS
Comparison point Alpha receptors Types
α1-Receptor α2-Receptor
Receptor Type GPCR/Type-II/Metabotropic GPCR/TYPEII/ Metabotropic
Structure 7-transmembrane helix, N-Terminal drug binding extracellular site
and C-terminal intracellular site link to G-protein
G-protein Gq Gi
Effector PLC activation AC inhibition
Mechanism IP3/DAG↑ Pathway
↑Cytosolic Ca2+& PKc Activation
cAMP ↓ & PKa inactivation
Increasing efflux of K+
Inhibition of voltage-gated Ca2+
channels
Pharmacological action o Vascular smooth muscle
Contraction
o Liver- Glycogenolysis&
Gluconeogenesis
o Intestinal smooth muscle
Hyperpolarization and
relaxation
o Heart Increased contractile
force; arrhythmias
o Pancreatic islets ( β cells)
Decreased insulin secretion
o Platelets Aggregation
o Nerve terminals Decreased
release of NE
o Vascular smooth muscles
Contraction
Non selective agonist Epi ≥ NE >> Iso Epi ≥ NE >> Iso
Selective agonist Phenylephrine, Mephenterine
Metaraminol, Midodrine
Clonidine, Apraclonidine, Methyl
dopa, Gunafancine, Gunabenz
Non selective antagonist Ergotamine, Ergotoxine, Dihydroergotamine, Dihydroergotoxine
Imidazolines (Tolazoline, Phentolamine) Chlorpromazine
Selective antagonist Prazosin, Terazosin,
Doxazosin, Tamsulosin
Phenoxybenzamine (Irreversible
Selectivity α1 with some α 2)
Yohimbine
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Ankita Rai [GPAT 2014- 2nd
NIPER JEE 2014- 121st ]
Ashish Singh Rajpoot[GPAT 2014-8th]Research Associate atEvalueserve SEZ Pvt. Ltd
Bhoopendra S Kushwah[NIPER JEE 2014-9th]
Payal Kesharwani[GPAT 2014-10th rank
Satish lodhi[GPAT 2014-26th
NIPER JEE 2014-49th]
Saurabh Nigam[NIPER JEE 2014-41st ]
Shantanu Gupta [GPAT 2014-29th
NIPER JEE 2014-263rd ]
2014
HOMEOSTATIC ROLES OF THE RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN SYSTEM
Point Angiotensinogen Angiotensin I Angiotensin II Angiotensin
III
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Chemistry Polypeptide
α2 Globulin
Glycoprotein
452 amino acids
Decapeptide Octapeptide Heptapetide
Synthesis Liver From
Angiotensinogen
by renin action
From A-I by ACE action
The principal site of its
action is vascular
epithelium.
Free carboxyl group
required for ACE action
From A-II by
amino
peptidase
action
Receptor - - AT1 (main) & AT2
AT1- Gq-protein and IP3
/DAG pathway.
-
Pharmacological
action
Inactive Inactive Active
Na+ & Water
reabsorption
Aldosterone Release
Vasoconstriction
Stimulates ADH
secretion
Stimulates thirst
↑ Catecholamine
release
↓ NE reuptake
↑ Adrenergic action
Active
Aldosterone
Release
Drug - Renin Inhibitors
Aliskiren
Remikiren
Enalkiren
ACE inhibitors
(pril suffix )
Angiotensin antagonist
(Sartan Suffix)
Aldosterone
antagonist
ACE INHIBITORS
Chemical group Drug (One COOH present in all members)
1.Sulfhydry&Carboxylat Captropril, Zofenopril
2. Dicarboxylate Enalapril, Ramipril, Quinapril (Accupril), Perindopril, Lisinopril ,
Benazepril Imidapril
3.Phosphonate&
Carboxylate
Fosinopril (Fositen/Monopril).
Active drug Prodrug → Active form
Captopril
Lisinopril
[active due to presence of
free COOH group for ACE
binding]
Benazepril → Benazeprilate
Enalpril → Enalprilate
Perindopril → Perindoprilate
Quinapril → Quinaprilate
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TYPES OF CARDIAC ARRHYTHMIAS
Cardiac arrhythmias Symptoms Diagnosis in ECG
Torsades de pointes
(twisting ofpoints)
Polymorphic ventricular tachycardia ↑ QT Interval
Extrasystoles Abnormal automaticity responsible for Premature
beats
↑ QRS
Atrial flutter Atria beat at a rate of 200– 350/min AV block
Atrial fibrillation Atrial fibres are activated asynchronously at a rate of
350–550/min
Irregular beats
Ventricular
tachycardia
Ventricular extrasystoles ↑QRS
Ventricular
fibrillation
Improper contraction of ventricles & loss pumping
action
Common cause of
sudden cardiac death
Atrio-ventricular
(A-V) block
Depression of impulse conduction through the A-V
node and bundle of His due to vagal influence or
ischaemia.
↑ PR Interval
Tachyarrthymias Rthym irregularity increases
Treatment- Antiarrthymic drugs
ECG waves change
Bradyarrthymias Rthym irregularity decreases
Treatment- Surgical approaches
ECG waves change
CARDIAC GLYCOSIDES
Cardenolides from plant
Cardiac Glycosides sources Active constituents
Convallaria majalis (Lily of the Valley) Convallotoxin
Antiaristoxicaria (Upas tree) Antiarin
Strophanthuskombe (Strophanthus vine)
Strophanthusgratus – (seed)
G/K/E-Strophanthi,
Ouabain (Strophanthin-G)
Urginea (Scilla) maritima (bulb) Proscillaridin-A
Thevetianeriifolia (nut) Thevetin
Digitalis lanata (Leaf) Digoxin, Digitoxin, Gitoxin
Digitalis purpurea (Leaf) Digitoxin, Gitoxin, Gitalin
Nerium oleander (Oleander tree) Oleandrin
Asclepias sp. (Milkweed) Oleandrin
Adonis vernalis (Spring pheasant's eye) Adonitoxin
Bufadienolides producing organism
Cardiac Glycosides sources Active constituents
Leonurus cardiaca (Motherwort) Scillarenin
Drimiamaritima (Squill) Proscillaridine A
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Kalanchoedaigremontiana Daigremontianin
Bufomarinus (Cane toad) Various Bufadienolides
Bufo vulgaris (Toad-skin) Bufotoxin
CARDIAC GLYCOSIDES HYDROLYSIS
Compound Aglycone Glycone
Purpurea Glycoside A
(Glucodigitoxin))
Digitoxigenin 3 Digitoxose + glucose
Purpurea glycoside B Gitoxigenin 3 Digitoxose + glucose
Lanatoside A
(derivatives Purpurea glycoside
A)
Digitoxigenin 2 Digitoxose + acetyl Digitoxose + D-
glucose
Lanatoside B
(derivatives Purpurea glycoside
A)
Gitoxigenin 2 Digitoxose + acetyl Digitoxose + D-
Glucose
Lanatoside C Digoxigenin 2 Digitoxose + acetyl Digitoxose + D-
Glucose
Lanatoside E Gitaloxigenin 2 Digitoxose + acetyl Digitoxose + D-
Glucose
CARDIAC GLYCOSIDES PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIONS
Action Cardiac glycosides
Digitalis
Cardiac stimulant drug
Adrenergic drugs
Cardiac contractility ↑↑↑ (Positive inotropic) ↑↑ (Positive inotropic)
Myocardial O2 consumption Not ↑ O2 consumption ↑↑↑ O2 consumption
HR Not ↑ even ↓ HR
(Negative chronotropic)
↑↑ (Positive chronotropic)
Duration of action Long Short
CHF Used for treatment Not use due to ↑ HR
CLASSIFICATION OF VASODILATOR DRUGS
↓ Preload
(10Veiondialator)
↓ Afterload
(10Arteriolar dilators))
Mixed dilator
↓ Preload + ↓ Afterload
Glyceryltrinitrate
Isosorbidedinitrate
Other nitrates
Hydralazine
Minoxidil
Ca2+ channel blockers
(Nifedipine)
Pot. channel openers
(Nicorandil)
ACE Inhibitors
AT1 antagonists (ARBs)
Prazosin (α1 blocker)
Amrinone, Milrinone
Nitroprusside
Flosequinan
(quinolone Derivative)
GPAT achievers From PPA (Pioneer Pharma academy) Achievers AIR in GPAT Achievers AIR IN GPAT
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2014 In 2015 1. Ankita Rai 2 1. Shobhit Kumar Tiwari 44 2. Ashish Rajput 8 2. Chandan Agrawal 73 3. Payal Kesharwani 10 3. Priya Shrivastava 247 4. Richa Tripathy 22 4. Girraj Singh 385 5. Satish Lodhi 26 5. Ku. Sarjana Raikwar 580 6. Shantanu Gupta 29 6. Aakanksha Dubey 587 7. Mukul Tiwari 107 7. Raghav Goyal 587 8. Yogesh Singh 125 8. Aakanksha Shrivastava 650 9. Diamond Jain 161 9. Ashutosh Goswami 700 10. Anamika Jain 377 10. Geetika Tiwari 705 11. Rakhi Asathi 266 11. Ramkishun 911 12. Amit Pathak 315 12. Ku. Neha joshi 1044 13. Sourabh Nigam 342 13. Aesan Patel 1100 14. Anjali Dwivedi 409 14. Suneel Kushwah 1110 15. Amit Gupta 350 15. Pramila Vishwakarma 1190 16. Swati Jain 618 16. Pooja Bidla 1200 17. Romi Sharma 409 17. Romi Sharma 1300 18. Nitin Talreja 965 18. Ku. Pragati Khare 1632 19. Aehsaan Patel 1049 19. Deepa Viswas 1700 20. Bhoopendra Kuswaha 1141 20. Shalini Jain 1799 21. Ajmer Singh 797 21. Namita Badoniya 1934 22. Monika Awasthi 1268 22. Mukul Jain 2500 23. Ravinandan Soni 1700 23. Mayurika Jain 2500 24. Priyanka Arya 1889 25. Vikas Soni 1997 26. Satyanarayan Malviya 2600 27. Devendra Rajak 2833 28. Prakhar Gupta 3210 29. Abhijeet Desai 2304 30. Sikha Jain 2069 31. Benus Yadav 3603 32. Neha Rai 3377
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM PARTS AND FUNCTIONS
CNS Part Functions
Cerebral Cortex /
Cerebrum
Thought
Voluntary movement
Language
Reasoning
Perception
Memory
Speaking &hearing
Sensation &sight,
Largest section of the brain
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Cerebellum Movement
Balance
Posture
Brain stem[Mid
brain + medulla +
pons]
Breathing
Heart Rate
Blood Pressure
Pons • Responsible for: conducting messages to other parts of the
brain
• Reflex actions such as chewing, production of saliva
Medulla Oblongata • Lowest part of brain stem
• Connects to the spinal cord
• Responsible for- regulating heart beat, respirations,
swallowing, coughing
Hypothalamus Body Temperature
Emotions
Hunger
Thirst
Circadian Rhythms
Thalamus Sensory processing
Movement
Limbic System Emotions
Memory
Hippocampus Learning
Memory
Basal Ganglia Movement
Midbrain Vision
Audition
Eye Movement
Body Movement
Spinal Cord Goes down back of body from Medulla Oblongata
Surrounded and protected by vertebrae
Responsible for reflex actions
Carries sensory and motor messages
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Chandal agrawal[GPAT 2015-73rd rank]
Pragati Khare [NIPER JEE 2015-17th ]Shobhit Tiwari
[NIPER JEE 2015-5th
GPAT 2015-44th ]MP drug inspector
Priya Shrivastav [NIPER JEE 2015-57th ]
2015
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CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION AND STRUCTURES OF BENZODIAZEPINE
Benzodiazepine (5-phenyl-1,4-benzodiazepine-2-one)
Drug R1 R2 R3 R7 R2’
Diazepam —CH3 =O H Cl H
Oxazepam H =O OH Cl H
Nitrazepam H =O H NO2 H
Nordazepam H =O H Cl H
Clonazepam H (1,5
benzodiazepines)
=O H NO2 Cl
Clobazama -CH3 =O H Cl H
Demoxepam H =O H Cl H
Flurazepam -CH2CH2N(C2H5)2 =O H Cl F
Lorazepam H =O OH Cl Cl
Nordazepam H =O H Cl H
Quazepam CH2CF3 =O H Cl F
Temazepam CH3 =O OH Cl H
Alprazolam Fused triazole ring
Fused triazole ring
Fused triazole ring
Fused imadazole ring
Fused imidazole ring
H Cl H
Estazolam H Cl H
Triazolam H Cl Cl
Midazolam H Cl F
Flumazenil H F =O at C5
ADVANTAGES OF BZDS OVER BARBITURATES/ DIFFERENCES
Point BZDs Barbiturates
MOA ↑ frequency of Cl channel opening
Not have other mechanisms
Prolong Cl channel opening and act by
other mechanism also.
TI/Safety High Low
Drug
interaction
Minor interaction not induce the
metabolism of many drugs
Major drug interaction commonly induce
the metabolism of many drugs
Adverse effect Relatively safe Higher chances
Abuse
potential
Least High
Clinically
application
Commonly Rarely used
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Antidote Flumazenil No specific antidote
NIPER-JEE achievers From PPA (Pioneer Pharma academy) Achievers AIR in NIPER-JEE
2014 Achievers AIR IN NIPER-JEE In
2015 1. Bhoopendra
Kuswaha 9 24. Shobhit Kumar
Tiwari 5
2. Sourabh Nigam 41 25. Pragati Khare 17 3. Satish Lodhi 49 26. Priya Shrivastava 57 4. Ravinandan Soni 120 27. Namita Badoniya 112 5. Ankita Rai 124 28. Sarjana Raikwar 118 6. Guru Datt Dubey 186 29. Neha joshi 129 7. Richa Tripathi 211 30. Raghav Goyal 133 8. Priyanka Arya 227 31. Pooja Bidla 191 9. Shantanu Gupta 263 32. Ramkishun 192 10. Vikas Soni 266 33. Shalini Jain 209 11. Anjali Dwivedi 286 34. Aakanksha Dubey 211 12. Swati Jain 288 35. Girraj Singh 228 13. Monika Awasthi 326 36. Aesan Patel 253 14. Neha Rai 336 37. Mukul Jain 289 15. Payal Kesharwani 456 38. Chandan Agrawal 320 16. Ashish Rajput 470 39. Pramila
Vishwakarma 350
17. Yogesh Singh 655 40. Ashutosh Goswami 384 18. Devendra Rajak 536 41. Aakanksha
Shrivastava 412
19. Diamond Jain 724 42. Mayurika Jain 430 20. Anamika Jain 1366 43. Romi Sharma 443 21. Rakhi Asathi 500 44. Suneel Kushwah 759 22. Amit Pathak 975 45. Geetika Tiwari 868 23. Amit Gupta 891 46. Deepa Viswas 888 24. Prakhar Gupta 870 25. Abhijeet Desai 1421 26. Sikha Jain 1011 27. Satyanarayan
Malviya
DRUG ACTING ON GABAACl CHANNEL COMPLEX
Drug Category Remarks
GABA Endogenous Orthosteric agonists Inhibitory neurotransmitter
Muscimol
Gaboxadol
Isoguvacine
Orthosteric agonists(agonist bind to active
site)
Bind to GABAa Site
Bicuculline
Gabazine
Orthosteric antagonists
(antagonist bind to active site )
Competitive antagonist at
GABAA receptor
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Picrotoxin
Cicutoxin, Oenanthotoxin,
PentylenetetrazolLindane
Non-competitive Antagonist Not bind to GABA site bind to
picrotoxin sensitive site
Flumazenil
Sarmazenil
Amentoflavone
Zinc
Competitive antagonist for BZD site Negative allosteric
modulators
Epigallocatechin‐3‐gallate Second-order modulators (Bind to an
allosteric site on the receptor complex and
modulate the effect of first order
modulators)
Note- First order allosteric
modulators: bind to allosteric
sites on the receptor complex
β Carboline Inverse agonist at BZD site Delay GABA action
Positive allosteric
modulators
Barbiturates
Benzodiazepines
Certain Carbamates
(Carisoprodol, Meprobamate, Lorbamate)
Ethanol (Alcohol),
Etomidate,
Glutethimide,
Meprobamate,
Quinazolinones
( Methaqualone, Etaqualone, Diproqualone)
Nonbenzodiazepines
(Zolpidem, Eszopiclone)
Propofol
Volatile/Inhaled Anesthetics,
First order positive allosteric
modulators
Drug ↑ GABA action but bind
to other than active site.
Barbiturate First order positive allosteric modulators ↑ Life time of Cl opening
↑ GABA action
(Facilitator + Mimetic )
BZDs First order positive allosteric modulators ↑ Frequency of Cl opening
↑ GABA action
(Only Facilitator)
AUTACOIDS
Amine autacoids Lipid autacoids Peptide autacoids Miscellaneous
Histamine
5 Hydroxytryptamine
(Serotonin)
Eicosanoids
Prostaglandins
Leukotrienes
Platelet activating
factor
Angiotensin
Kinnins
(Bradykinin, Kallidin)
Cytokines (interleukins,
TNFα) Gastrin
Somatostatin
Vasoactive intestinal
peptide.
PHYSIOLOGICAL ROLE of different mediators
Autacoids Role
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Histamine Mediates immediate allergic
Inflammatory responses
Gastric acid release
acting as a neurotransmitter
Vasodilator
Serotonin
(5-HT)
Responsible for maintaining mood balance, and that a deficit of serotonin
leads to depression
Constricting smooth muscles
transmitting impulses between nerve cells
Acting as a neurotransmitter
↓ Decreased 5-HT level associated with Depression
Affect mood and social behavior, appetite and digestion, sleep, memory and
sexual desire and function.
Prostaglandins Reproduction
Pain & Fever
Inflammation
Affect platelets functions
Immunological action
Vasoconstriction or Dilation
Function depend up on the subtype of PGs
Leukotrienes Regulate vasoconstrictions
Strong vasoconstriction
↑ Vessels permeability
Lipoxins Retard inflammation contrast to proinflamatory Eicosanoids(PG & LT)
Platelet activating
factor(PAF)
Vasoconstrictions
Bronchoconstriction
↑ Platelets aggregations
↑ Leukocyte adhesion and chemotaxsis
↑ Vascular permeability
Angiotensin Potent vasoconstrictor
↑ Na & Water reabsorptions
↑ Aldosterone
Bradykinin &
Kallidin
Vasodilator (10 time to histamine)
Act locally to produce pain
Smooth muscles constrictions-Bronchoconstriction
↑ PG synthesis
↑ Permeability
Stimulate histamine release
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Chemotherapy important terms
Blackwater Fever Syndrome of hemolytic anemia, hemoglobinuria, and renal failure associated
with massive parasitemia.
Cinchonism Poisoning syndrome associated with quinine, quinidine, and Cinchona;
symptoms include tinnitus, deafness, headache, blurry vision, and nausea.
Disulfiram Reaction Syndrome that occurs due to coingestion of alcohol and disulfiram; disulfiram
blocks aldehyde dehydrogenase, leading to accumulation of acetaldehyde;
symptoms include nausea, headache, flushing, and hypotension.
G6PD Deficiency Lack of enzyme important in the oxidation/reduction capabilities of the red
blood cell; deficiency leads to hydrogen peroxide accumulation, which causes
hemolysis. Hemolysis often associated with drugs that produce oxidative
stress (eg, sulfonamides).
Gray Baby
Syndrome
May be caused by deficiency of a hepatic enzyme required for the degradation
of chloramphenicol or impaired renal function; syndrome is characterized by
circulatory collapse, cyanosis (gray color), acidosis, abdominal distention,
coma, and death.
Lassa Fever A hemorrhage febrile illness associated with arenavirus infection.
Mazzotti Reaction Syndrome of fever, urticaria, tender lymphadenopathy, arthralgias, abdominal
pain, edema, hypotension, and tachycardia seen with treatment of
microfilariasis with Ivermectin, Praziquantel, and Albendazole.
Methemoglobinemia Accumulation of methemoglobin, which is a form of hemoglobin with a low
oxygen affinity. Methemoglobinemia results in pseudocyanosis, tissue hypoxia,
and death.
Stevens-Johnson
Syndrome
Immunologic reaction characterized by lesions of the skin and mucous
membranes; involves both the mouth and eyes.
Superinfection A novel infection in addition to a pre-existing one.
Trachoma Chronic inflammation of the conjunctiva caused by Chlamydia trachomatis.
Pharmacology fact
Acetylcholinesterase Enzyme responsible for the degradation of Ach.
Adrenergic Neuronal Blockers Medications that prevent NE from exiting the nerve
terminal.
Anisocoria Unequal pupils.
Intrinsic Sympathomimetic Activity
(ISA)
Drugs with paradoxical partial β-agonist properties;
clinical significance unknown.
Lipid Solubility Accounts for the CNS side effects of a drug.
Malignant Hypertension Severely elevated blood pressure associated with CNS,
renal, or cardiac symptoms.
Membrane Stabilizing Activity (MSA) Imparts a local anesthetic quality to β-blockers; may
contribute to antiarrhythmic property.
Miosis Pupillary constriction.
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Myasthenia Gravis [GPAT 2018] Autoimmune disease characterized by increasing muscle
weakness with use due to the presence of antibodies to
the Ach receptor at the neuromuscular junction.
Mydriasis Pupillary dilation.
Nonselective α-Adrenergic Blockers Medications that block α1- and α2-adrenergic sites.
Nonselective β-Blockers Medications that block β1- and β2-adrenergic sites.
Pheochromocytoma Tumor of the adrenal glandthat secretes catecholamines.
Postural (orthostatic) Hypotension A 20 mm Hg drop in systolic blood pressure or 10 mm
Hg drop in diastolic blood pressure within 3 minutes of
standing due to a defect in the blood pressure control
system.
Raynaud's Disease Vascular disorder characterized by peripheral
vasoconstriction.
Selective α-Adrenergic Blockers Medications that block α1-adrenergic sites only.
Selective β1-Adrenergic Blockers Medications that block β1-adrenergic sites only.
Sjögren's Syndrome Syndrome of dry mouth and dry eyes due to lymphocytic
infiltration of the salivary and lacrimal glands; often
observed in patients with autoimmune disorders
including RA and SLE.
Tourette's Syndrome Syndrome characterized by motor and verbal tics
[repetitive, involuntary movement]
Xerostomia Dry mouth.
Acromegaly Syndrome associated with excessive levels of growth
hormone after puberty; symptoms include thickened
skin, vocal hoarseness, joint pain, insulin resistance,
hypertension, and cardiovascular disease.
Asthenia Debility or weakness.
Carcinoid Syndrome Symptoms associated with excessive levels of serotonin
secreted by carcinoid tumors; symptoms include facial
swelling, diarrhea, bronchial spasm, tachycardia,
hypotension, and right-sided valvular disease.
Central Precocious Puberty Early onset of puberty due to activation of the
gonadotropins leading to maturation of the gonads; this
early gonadal maturation leads to early secretion of sex
hormones and, therefore, early onset of secondary
sexual characteristics in adolescents.
Craniosynostosis Premature closure of the cranial sutures.
Cushing's Disease Disease associated with excessive glucocorticoid levels
most commonly caused by an adrenal cortical adenoma;
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symptoms include fat redistribution with a
characteristic buffalo hump, thin extremities,
hypertension, hirsutism, infertility, and amenorrhea.
Diabetes Insipidis Syndrome due to insufficient levels of ADH (central) or
decreased renal response to ADH (peripheral);
Symptoms resemble the excessive thirst and urination
associated with diabetes mellitus.
Endometriosis Growth of cells of the uterine lining outside of the
uterus; symptoms include pelvic pain and infertility.
Hyperprolactinemia Syndrome associated with excessive levels of prolactin;
symptoms include infertility, amenorrhea, galactorrhea,
and mastodynia [breast pain].
Hypogonadotropic Hypogonadism Inadequate function of the gonads due to insufficient
secretion of pituitary gonadotropins.
Kaposi's Sarcoma Rare skin malignancy characterized by soft blue-black
plaques and is typically seen in elderly and
immunosuppressed patients; it is caused by human
herpes virus 8.
Oligospermia Low sperm count.
SIADH Syndrome of inappropriate ADH; numerous causes
include trauma, tumors, endocrine disorders, and drugs;
excessive levels of ADH lead to hypernatremia.
Steatorrhea Large amounts of fat in the feces.
Uterine Fibroids Benign smooth muscle tumors; their growth is related to
estrogen.
Virilization Acquisition of adult male characteristics in women or
prepubescent males.
PREDOMINANT SYMPATHETIC OR PARASYMPATHETIC TONE
Anatomical Site Predominant Autonomic Tone Effect of Ganglionic Blockade
Arterioles Sympathetic-adrenergic vasodilatation; increased
peripheral blood flow; hypotension
Veins Sympathetic-adrenergic
dilatation; blood pooling;
decreased venous return;
decreased cardiac output
Heart Parasympathetic-cholinergic Tachycardia
Ciliary Muscle Parasympathetic-cholinergic cycloplegia (loss of
accommodation)
Gastrointestinal Tract Parasympathetic-cholinergic reduced tone and motility;
constipation; decreased secretions
Salivary Glands Parasympathetic-cholinergic Xerostomia (dry mouth)
Sweat Glands Sympathetic-cholinergic Anhidrosis (lack of sweating)
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Deepika Daksh [NIPER JEE 2016-40th
GPAT 2016-32nd ]
Dipali Pathak [NIPER JEE 2016-17th
GPAT 2016-292nd ]
Samkit jain[NIPER JEE 2016-37th
GPAT 2016-654th ]
Ajmer Singh[GPAT 2016-36th
NIPER JEE 2016-216th]
Rahul Kumar [NIPER JEE 2017-73rd
GPAT 2016-99th ]
Surya Kesri[NIPER JEE 2016-107th
GPAT 2016-210th ]
Subham Prajapati[NIPER JEE 2016-91th
GPAT 2016-107th ]
2016
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MPORTANT CORTICOSTEROIDS STRUCTURES
+ OH at 11 — Corticosterone
+ OH at 11 + OH at 17 — Hydrocortisone
(if O at 11) + OH at 17 — Cortisone
+ OH at 11 + OH at 17 + Δ 1, 2 — Prednisolone
+ OH at 11 + OH at 17 + Δ 1, 2 + F at 9 + OH at 16
— Triamcinolone
+ OH at 11 + OH at 17 + Δ 1, 2 + F at 9 + CH3 α at
16 — Dexamethasone
+ OH at 11 + OH at 17 + Δ 1, 2 + F at 9 + CH3 β at
16 — Betamethasone
Hydrocortisone + F at 9 — Fludrocortisone
Corticosterone + CHO at 18 — Aldosterone
Cell Membrane
Ca
Ca
Ca -dependent protein kinase
SR
a
Phospholipase C
IP
DAG
Phosphatidylinositol 4, 5-diphosphate
Alpha -Agonist
Protein kinase C
Gq
IP3/DAG PATHWAY
91
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Cell Membrane
AC Gi
a
Alpha 2 Agonist
ATP cAMP
No biological effect
Enzyme-PO
AC= Adenylyl cyclase
Cell MembraneBeta receptor
Beta -Agonist
ACGs
ATP
cAMP
Biological effect
Enzyme-PO
AC= Adenylyl cyclase
↑ Camp/AC PATHWAY
GPAT achievers From PPA in Year 2016 GPAT achievers From PPA in Year 2017
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(Pioneer Pharma academy) (Pioneer Pharma academy) Achievers AIR in GPAT
2016 Achievers AIR in GPAT 2017
1. Deepika Daksh 32 1. Adity Sharma 46 2. Ajmer Singh 36 2. Kaushlendra Dangi 93 3. Amruta Pandey 99 3. Sarjana Raikwar 114 4. Rahul Chadar 99 4. Gunja Moolchandani 131 5. Poorvi Saraf 105 5. Neeraj Patel 146 6. Pradeep S. Thakur 178 6. Shefali Ahuja** 166 7. Anshul Jain 195 7. Meenakshi
Chaurasiya 366
8. Shubham Prajapati 195 8. Sanskar Jain 456 9. Surya Keshri 210 9. Amruta Pandey 484 10. Kriti Jain 229 10. Neelesh Kori 530 11. Krishna Lodhi 256 11. Vipul Shrivastava 577 12. Deepali Pathak 292 12. Bhagwati Bhardwaj 577 13. Abhilash Kesharwani 504 13. Neha Singh 598 14. Govinda Chourasia 504 14. Ashwani Kumar 685 15. Suchita Sahu 575 15. Shiva Sen 685 16. Shubham Mishra 625 16. Shruti jain 717 17. Manoj Prajapati 625 17. Pooja Tiwari ** 776 18. Samkit Jain 654 18. Devansh Sodhiya 777 19. Shiva Chourasia 702 19. Rahul Kumar 815 20. Sanket Tiwari 800 20. Samima Khatun 819 21. Sanskar Jain 804 21. Shubham Soni 819 22. Soumya Mishra 834 22. Ankit Soni** 819 23. Yashwant Raikwar 894 23. Ayushi jain 819 24. Manish Jain 1200 24. Deepak Khandawa 819 25. Vaishali Tiwari 1256 25. Nitin Gangil 965 26. Mansi Gupta 1423 26. Abhijit Sharma** 1057 27. Sourabh Soni 1456 27. Samiksha Jain** 1095 28. Subham Gupta 1565 28. Himanshi Gupta 1172 29. Ankit Namdev 1600 29. Devyani Rajput 1455 30. Poonam Sen 1804 30. Radhika Kesharwani 1554 31. Shivani
Vishwakarma 2050 31. Kumud Soni 1662
32. Sonal Singhal 1800 32. Manvi Bhatnagar 1798 33. Neelesh Kori ** 3300 33. Devendra
Dhanoriya 1892
34. Anju Rathore 1892 35. Diksha Jain 2032 36. Manish Jain 2032 37. Namita Badonia 2116 38. Palak Kaushal 2305 39. Ajay Viswakarma 2309 40. Rashmi Rawal 2457 41. Deepali Lariya 4507
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42. Gayatri Rohit 5369 43. Shivam Kori ** 6872
GPCR Pathway and Examples (VIMP Table)
Adenylyl cyclase: cAMP Phospholipase IP3-DAG(Gq)
↑
Channel regulation
Increase(Gs) Decrease(Gi) K+↑ Ca2+↑ Ca2+↓
Adrenergic-β
Dopamine-D1
Glucagon
FSH & LH
ACTH
Vasopressin (V2)
H2
Prostaglandin-EP2
Prostacyclin-IP
Adenosine-A2
Adrenergic-α2
Dopamine-D2
5-HT1
H3,H4
GABAΒ
Opioid-μ, δ
AT1& AT2
Prostaglandin-EP3
Somatostatin
Adenosine-A1
Adrenergic-α1
Muscarinic-M1, M3
5-HT2
H1
Vasopressin (V1&V3)
Oxytocin(OXTR)
Bradykinin-B2
AT1
Prostaglandin-FP, EP1, EP3
Thromboxane-TP
Leukotriene
Cholecystokinin-Gastrin
PAF
α2
D2
5-HT1
H3
GABAΒ
μ, δ
β1 D2 GABAΒ
A1
Opioid-k
somatostatin
Summary of important pharmacological receptors (VIMP Table)
Type I Type II Type III Type IV
Synonyms ligand-gated ion
channels or inotropic
GPCRs
Metabotropic
Kinase-linked
receptors
Nuclear
receptors
Location Membrane
(cell surface)
Membrane
(cell surface)
Membrane
(cell surface)
Intracellular
(nuclear
membrane)
Effectors Ion channel Channel or enzyme Protein kinases Gene
transcription
Coupling Direct G-protein Direct via DNA
Structure Oligomeric assembly
of pentameric
subunits surrounding
central pore
Monomeric
dimericor structure
comprising seven
transmembrane
helices
(heptahelical))
Single
transmembrane
helix linking
extracellular
receptor domain to
intracellular kinase
domain
Monomeric
structure with
separate
receptor- and
DNA-binding
domains
Ligand
binding
site
Extracellular
(N-terminal )
Extracellular
(N-terminal )
Extracellular
(N-terminal )
Extra nuclear or
intracellular
(C-terminal )
Effectors
binding
site
Transcellular
(C-terminal )
Intracellular
(C-terminal )
Intracellular
(C-terminal )
Intranuclear
(DNA binding)
Action time Milliseconds Seconds Hour Hours
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Cellular
effect
mechanism
Hyperpolarization
Depolarization
Secondary
messenger
(IP3/DAG and
Camp) and calcium
release
Protein
phosphorylation
Protein
phosphorylation
Gene transcription
Protein synthesis
Gene
transcription
Protein
synthesis
Examples Nicotinic receptor
GABA A receptor
Glycine (inhibitory)
Excitatory AA
(kainate, NMDA or N-
methyl- D-aspartate,
quisqualate) and 5-
HT3 receptors
Muscarinic
receptor,
adrenoceptors, etc
Most abundant in
body
Insulin, growth
factors, cytokine
receptors
Steroidal
receptors
Thyroxine
Vit D and Vit A
receptors
COMPITITIVE REVERSIBLE ENZYME INHIBITORS
Drug /inhibitor Substrate Enzyme Inhibition result
Physostigmine like Acetylcholine Acetylcholinisterase Increase action of Ach
Sulphonamide PABA Folate synthetase Decrease DHFA
synthesis
Moclobemide CATECHOLAMINES Mono amino oxidase Increase catecholamine
action
Captopril angiotensin 1 angiotensin converting
enzyme (ACE)
Decrease angiotensin
ii synthesis
Finasteride testosterone 5alpha-reductase Decrease testosterone
action
Letrozole androstenedione and
testosterone
aromatase enzyme Decreases the
synthesis of estrogen
Allopurinol
oxidized to alloxanthine
( non competitive
inhibitor).
hypoxanthine xanthine oxidase Decrease uric acid
synthesis
Carbidopa methyldopa levodopa dopa decarboxylase Decease pheripheral
synthesis of dopamine
COMPITITIVE IRREVERSIBLE ENZYME INHIBITORS
Drug /inhibitor Substrate Enzyme Inhibition result
Organophosphates
react covalently
Acetrylcholine Acetyl cholinesterase Increase action of Ach
Methotrexate (50,000
times higher affinity)
DHFA dihydrofolate
reductase
Decrese synthesis of
THFA
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Vipul Shrivastav[NIPER JEE 2017-49th
GPAT 2017-253 rank]
Aditya Sharma [GPAT 2017-46th rank]
Gunja Moolchandani[NIPER JEE 2017-170th
GPAT 2017-131st]Kaushalendra Dangi[NIPER JEE 2017-64th rank
GPAT 2017-93rd rank]
Devansh Jain[NIPER JEE 2017-112th rank
GPAT 2017-777th rank]
2017
Table 1: Woodward-Fieser Rule for Dienes
Group Increment
Extended conjugation +30
Each exo-cyclic C=C +5
Alkyl +5
-OCOCH3 +0
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-OR +6
-SR +30
-Cl, -Br +5
-NR2 +60
Table 2: Woodward-Fieser Rule for Benzoyl Derivatives
Group
C
O
R
R= alkyl or ring residue 246 nm
250 nm 230 nm
R= H R= OH or alkoxy Substituent Position Increment alkyl or ring residue O, m 3 P 10 -OH, OCH3 O,m 7 P 25 -O Ortho 11 Meta 20 Para 78 -Cl O, m 0 P 10 -Br O, m 2 P 15 -NH2 O, m 13 P 58 -NHCOCH3 O, m 20 P 45 Table 3: Woodward-Fieser Rule for Enones
Group Increment
6-membered ring or acyclic enone Base 215 nm
5-membered ring parent enone Base 202 nm
Acyclic dienone Base 245 nm
Substituent
Double bond extending conjugation 30
Alkyl group or ring residue α, β, γ and higher 10, 12, 18
-OH α, β, γ and higher 35, 30, 18
-OR α, β, γ , δ 35, 30, 17, 31
-O(C=O)R α, β, δ 6
-Cl α, β 15, 12
-Br α, β 25, 30
-NR2 Β 95
Exocyclic double bond 5
Homocyclic diene component 39
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NIPER JEE achievers From PPA in Year 2016 (Pioneer Pharma academy)
NIPER JEE achievers From PPA in Year 2017 (Pioneer Pharma academy)
Achievers AIR in NIPER JEE 2016
Achievers AIR in NIPER JEE 2017
1. Deepali Pathak 17 1. Pooja Tiwari(In third year)
38
2. Samkit Jain 37 2. Vipul Srivastava 49
3. Deepika Daksh 40 3. Shefali Ahuja (In third year )
62
4. Raghav Goyal 49 4. Kaushlendra S. Dangi 64
5. Shubham Prajapati 91 5. Rahul Kumar 73 6. Surya Keshri 107 6. Samima Khatun 109 1. Rahul Chadar 116 7. Devansh Sodhiya 112 2. Anshul Jain 119 8. Gunja Moolchandani 170 3. Pradeep S. Thakur 152 9. Ashwani Kumar 182
4. Govinda Chourasia 181 10. Ayushi Jain 233
5. Kriti Jain 184 And many more sections. 6. Ajmer Singh 216 7. Manoj Prajapati 223 8. Abhilash
Kesharwani 272
9. Amruta Pandey 282 10. Ankit Namdev 326 11. Shiva Chourasia 339 12. Sanket Tiwari 389 13. Krishna Lodhi 471 14. Yashwant Raikwar 521 15. Vaishali Tiwari 549 16. Subham Gupta 700 17. Mansi Gupta 748 18. Shubham Mishra 777 19. Sanskar Jain 778 20. Soumya Mishra 870 21. Manish Jain 883 Regions of the electromagnetic spectrum
Wavelength range Region Spectra
100–1 m Radiofrequency Nuclear
magnetic resonance
1–0.1 m Radiofrequency Electron spin resonance
100–1 mm Microwave Rotational
1–0.02 mm Far infrared Vibrational
20–2 mm Infrared (IR) Vibrational
2–0.8 mm Near infrared Vibrational
800–400 nm Visible Electronic
400–150 nm Ultraviolet (UV) Electronic
150–2 nm Vacuum UV Electronic
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2–0.1 nm X-ray Inner shell electronic
0.1–0.0001 nm Ƴ-ray Nuclear reaction
IR range:
S.no Region Wave number(Cm-1) Wavelength(u) 1. Near IR 12500-4000 0.8 to 2.5
2. Mid IR 4000-667 2.5 to 15
3. Far IR 667-50 15to 200
Bond Wave no. (cm-1) C-H alkane 3000-28000 = C-H alkene C=C alkene
3100-3000 1650-1600
C-H alkyne
C C
3300 2250-2150
C-C 1200-800 -C-H Cycloalkanes 3050-3000 =C-H Aromatic hydrocarbon * mono substituted * meta disubstituted *para disubstituted
3000-3050 690-700 750-800 800-840
-O-H alcohols -OH (H-bonded) C-O (alcohol) * 10 alcohol * 20 alcohol * 30 alcohol -OH (phenol)
3600-3500 3500-3300 1200-1000 1050 1100 1150 3200-3600(slight increase due to resonance)
C-O (ether) 1250-1000 Aldehyde and ketones C=O Aliphatic aldehydes C=O aromatic aldehyde C=O Ketones
1720-1740 1690- 1710 1720
Acid C=O -O-H
1700 3500-3300 (broad peak)
Ester C=O C-O
1760-1750 1100-1000
Amide C=O N-H
1640-1620 3500-3300
Amines Primary amine –N-H Secondary amine –N-H
3500- 3300 ( 2 peaks) 3600-3500 ( one peak)
Nitrile C N 2250-2150
Nitro –N=O 1375-1300
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NMR of Organic compounds
STRUCTURE OF ADRENERGIC DRUGS
Basic Structure
Drugs Aromatic
Substitution
β-Substitution α-Substitution N-Substitution
Phenylethylamine H H H H
Epinephrine 3-OH, 4-OH OH H CH3
Norepinephrine 3-OH, 4-OH OH H H
Compounds Chemical shift(PPM)
Alkanes (primary)
(secondary)
(tertiary)
0.9
1.3
1.5
Alkenes (olefinic proton) 4-6.5
Alkynes 1.5-3.5
Alkyl halide
H-C-F
H-C-Cl
H-C-Br
H-C-I
4-4.5
3.8-4
3-3.5
2.1-2.8
Alcohol
H-C-OH
H-C-OH
3.5-4
1-5 (broad peak)
Aldehyde
R-CHO
H-C-C=O
9-11
2.1-3
Benzene 6.5-8.5
Amine
H-CN
C-N-H
3.5-4.5
1-7
Carboxylic acids 10-14
Phenolic 10-13
Ether
H-C-OC
3.5-4
Enolic proton 16-18
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Dopamine 3-OH, 4-OH H H H
Dobutamine 3-OH, 4-OH H H
Colterol 3-OH, 4-OH OH H C(CH3)3
Albuterol 3-CH2OH,
4-OH
OH H C(CH3)3
Ethylnorepinephrine 3-OH, 4-OH OH CH2CH3 H
Isoproterenol 3-OH, 4-OH OH H CH(CH3)2
Isoetharine 3-OH, 4-OH OH CH2CH3 CH(CH3)2
Metaproterenol 3-OH, 5-OH OH H CH(CH3)2
Terbutaline 3-OH, 5-OH OH H C(CH3)3
Metaraminol 3-OH OH CH3 H
Phenylephrine 3-OH OH H CH3
Tyramine 4-OH H H H
Hydroxyamphetamine 4-OH H CH3 H
Amphetamine - H CH3 H
Methamphetamine - H CH3 CH3
Ephedrine - OH CH3 CH3
Phenylpropanolamine - OH CH3 H
Ritodrine 4-OH OH CH3
Methoxamine 2-OCH3
5-OCH3
OH CH3 H
Mnemonics or short tricks
S.No. Title Mnemonic Description
1 Bowel components
Dev Jiju Illi ko apne
kaan se rokenge
From proximal to distal:
Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum
Appendix
Colon
Sigmoid
Rectum
2 Atrioventricular valves "LAB RAT":
Left Atrium: Bicuspid
Right Atrium: Tricuspid
3 Axillary artery
branches
Screw The Lawyer
Save APatient
Superior thoracic
Thoracoacromiol
Lateral thoracic
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Subscapular
Anterior circumflex humeral
Posterior circumflex humeral
4 Sperm pathway
through male
reproductive tract
SEVEN UP Seminiferous tubules
Epididymis
Vas deferens
Ejaculatory duct
Nothing
Urethra
Penis
5 Tonsils: The three
types
PPL (people) have
tonsils
Pharyngeal
Palatine
Lingual
6 Carpal bones
Scap Lal Tera Par
Tum Tak Cap Ham
hai
Proximal row, lateral-to-medial:
Scaphoid
Lunate
Triquetrum
Pisiform
Distal row, lateral-to-medial:
Trapezium
Trapezoid
Capitate
Hamate
7 Cranial bones
PEST OF Franche Parietal
Ethmoid
Sphenoid
Temporal
Occipital
Frontal
8 Male erectile
dysfunction (MED):
biological causes
MED Medicines (propranalol,
methyldopa, SSRI, etc.)
Ethanol
Diabetes mellitus
9 B vitamin names
Theater se Ruby
Nikli Par Kab
Thiamine (B1)
Riboflavin (B2)
Niacin (B3)
Pyridoxine (B6)
Cobalamin (B12)
10 Essential amino acids
Ptv. Tim Hall
P- Phenylanine
T- Threonine
V- Valine
T- Tryptophan
I-Isoleucine
M- Methionine
H- Histidine
A-Arginine
L- Leucine
L- Lysine
11 Fasting state:
Branched-chain amino
acids used by skeletal
Muscles LIVe fast
Leucine
Isoleucine
Valine
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muscles
12 Folate deficiency:
causes
A FOLIC DROP Alcoholism
Folic acid antagonists
Oral contraceptives
Low dietary intake
Infection with Giardia
Celiac sprue
Dilatin
Relative folate deficiency
Old
Pregnant
13 Glycogen storage:
Anderson's (IV) vs.
Cori's (III) enzyme
defect
ABCD
Anderson's=Branching
enzyme.
Cori's=Debranching enzyme
14 Glycogen storage:
names of types I
through VI
Veer Poll Koi
Andhere Me Hai
Von Gierke's
Pompe's
Cori's
Anderson's
McArdle's
Her's
15 Glycolysis steps
Goodness Gracious,
Father Franklin Did
Go By Picking
Pumpkins (to)
Prepare Pies
Glucose
Glucose-6-P
Fructose-6-P
Fructose-1,6-diP
Dihydroxyacetone-P
Glyceraldehyde-P
1,3-Biphosphoglycerate
3-Phosphoglycerate
2-Phosphoglycerate (to)
Phosphoenolpyruvate [PEP]
Pyruvate
16 Hypervitaminosis A:
signs and symptoms
Increased Vitamin A
makes you HARD
Headache/ Hepatomegaly
Anorexia/ Alopecia
Really painful bones
Dry skin/ Drowsiness
17 Type 1 glycogen
storage disease
Type 1 = one (Von), Von Giereke's disease
18 Vitamin B3 (niacin,
nicotinic acid)
deficiency: pellagra
The 3 D's of pellagra Dermatitis
Diarrhea
Dementi
19 Vitamins: which are fat
soluble
KEDA:
Vitamin K
Vitamin A
Vitamin D
Vitamin E
20 Coagulation common
pathway: factors in
order
10 + 5 - 2 = 13 Coagulation common pathway:
Factor X to Factor V to Factor II
to Factor XIII
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21 Fabry's disease
FABRY'S
Foam cells found in
glomeruli and tubules/
Febrile episodes
Alpha galactosidase A
deficiency/ Angiokeratomas
Burning pain in extremities/
BUN increased in serum/
Boys
Renal failure
YX genotype (male, X linked
recessive)
Sphingolipidoses
22 Hemoglobin binding
curve: causes of shift
to right
CADET, face right CO2
Acid
2,3-DPG (aka 2,3 BPG)
Exercise
Temperature
23 Sickle cell disease
pathophysiology
SICKle cell disease is due to a Substitution of the
SICKsth amino acid of the B chain.
24 Vitamin K dependent
cofactors
Several Tend To
Nicely Stop Clots
Factor Seven, Ten, Two, Nine.
Protein S, Protein C
25 Adrenaline mechanism
ABC of Adrenaline Adrenaline--> activates Beta
receptors--> increases Cyclic
AMP
26 Insulin: function
INsulIN stimulates 2 things to go
IN 2 cells: Potassium and Glucose.
27 G6PD: oxidant drugs
inducing hemolytic
anemia
AAA Antibiotic (eg:
sufamethoxazole)
Antimalarial (eg: primaquine)
Antipyretics (eg: acetanilid,
but not aspirin or
acetaminophen)
28 Carbon monoxide:
electron transport
chain target
CO blocks CO Carbon monoxide (CO) blocks
Cytochrome Oxidase (CO)
29 Citric acid cycle
compounds
Cinha Aai Aalu ko
Sanche me Sukhaya
Fir Me Achha
Citrate
Isocitrate
alpha Ketogluterate
Succinyl CoA
Succinate
Fumerate
Malate
Oxaloacetate
30 DNA bond strength
(nucleotides)
Crazy Glue Strongest bonds are between
Cytosine and Guanine, strong
like Crazy Glue (3 H-bonds),
whereas the A=T only have 2 H-
bonds
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31 Enzyme kinetics: competitive vs. non-competitive inhibition
With Kompetitive inhibition: Km increases; no change in Vmax.
With Non-kompetitive inhibition: No change in Km; Vmax decreases.
32 Enzymes: classification Over The HILL Oxidoreductases
Transferases
Hydrolases
Isomerases
Ligases
Lyases
33 Enzymes: competitive
inhibitors
Competition is
hard because we
have to travel more
kilometers (Km)
with the same
velocity
With competitive inhibitors,
velocity remains same but Km
increases
34 Metabolism sites
Use both arms to
HUG
Heme synthesis
Urea cycle
Gluconeogenesis
These reactions occur in both
cytoplasm and mitochondria
35 Na/K pump:
concentrations of Na vs.
K on inside/outside of
cell, pump action,
number of molecules
moved
HIKIN There is a HIgh K concentration
INside the cell.
From this can deduce that the
Na/K pump pumps K into cell
and Na out of cell.
36 Na+/K+ pump:
movement of ions and
quantity
K+ and in each consist of 2 characters, so so 2 K+ are
pumped in.
Na+ and out each consist of 3 characters, so 3 Na+ are
pumped out
37 Phenylketonuria: which
enzyme is deficient
PHenylketonuria Phenylalanine
Hydroxylase
38 Pompe's disease: type
"Police = Po + lys":
Pompe's disease is a lysosomal
storage disease (alpha 1,4
glucosidase).
39 Pyruvate: products of
complete oxidation
4 Naye Phone 3
Card + 1 Grip
4 NADH
FADH2
3 CO2
1 GTP
40 Atrial fibrillation:
management
ABCD Anti-coagulate
Beta-block to control rate
Cardiovert
Digoxin
41 Betablockers:
cardioselective
betablockers
Betablockers
Acting Exclusively
At Myocardium
Betaxolol
Acebutelol
Esmolol
Atenolol
Metoprolol
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42 CHF: causes of
exacerbation
FAILURE Forgot medication
Arrhythmia/ Anaemia
Ischemia/ Infarction/
Infection
Lifestyle: taken too much salt
Upregulation of CO:
pregnancy, hyperthyroidism
Renal failure
Embolism: pulmonary
43 MI: basic management
BOOMAR Bed rest
Oxygen
Opiate
Monitor
Anticoagulate
Reduce clot size
44 MI: therapeutic
treatment
O BATMAN Oxygen
Beta blocker
ASA
Thrombolytics (eg heparin)
Morphine
Ace prn
Nitroglycerin
45 MI: treatment of acute
MI
COGA Cyclomorph
Oxygen
Glycerol trinitrate
Aspirin
46 Myocardial infarctions:
treatment
INFARCTIONS IV access
Narcotic analgesics (eg
morphine, pethidine)
Facilities for defibrillation (DF)
Aspirin/ Anticoagulant (heparin)
Rest
Converting enzyme inhibitor
Thrombolysis
IV beta blocker
Oxygen 60%
Nitrates
Stool Softeners
47 Benzene ring: order of
substituents
Benzene likes to
ROMP
From R group moving around
the ring:
R group
Ortho
Meta
Para
48 Cis/trans (geometric)
isomer nomenclature
Zame Zide.
Epposite
Z is the 2 functional groups on
the same side of double bond.
E is for opposite sides.
49 Cis/trans (geometric)
isomers: arrangement of
functional groups
Cis starts with a C and the functional groups form a
C.
Trans, therefore is the other one by default.
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50 Gibb's free energy
formula
Good Honey Tastes
Sweet
(delta)G = H - T(delta)S
51 Oxidation vs. reduction:
electrochemical cell and
electron gain/loss
AN OIL RIG CAT At the ANode, Oxidation Involves
Loss of electrons.
Reduction Involves Gaining
electrons at the CAThode.
52 Teratogenesis: when it
occurs
TEratogenesis is most likely during organogenesis--
between the:
Third and Eighth weeks of gestation
53 Placenta-crossing
substances
WANT My Hot Dog Wastes
Antibodies
Nutrients
Teratogens
Microorganisms
Hormones/ HIV
Drugs
54 Miosis: causes of pin-
point pupils
CPR ON SLIME Clonidine
Phenothiazines
Resting (deep sleep)
Opiates
Narcotics
Stroke (pontine hemorrhage)
Lomotil (diphenoxylate)
Insecticides
Mushrooms/ Muscarinic
(inocybe, clitocybe)
Eye drops
55 Bilirubin: common
causes for increased
levels
HOT Liver Hemolysis
Obstruction
Tumor
Liver disease
56 H. Pylori treatment
regimen (rough
guidelines)
Please Make
Tummy Better
Proton pump inhibitor
Metronidazole
Tetracycline
Bismuth
57 Cell cycle stages
Go Sally Go! Make
Chay!"
G1 phase (Growth phase 1)
S phase (DNA Synthesis)
G2 phase (Growth phase 2)
M phase (Mitosis)
C phase (Cytokinesis)
58 Codons: nonsense
mutation
"Stop talking nonsense!"
Nonsense mutation causes premature stop.
59 DNA: Z vs. B form: which
is inactive
ZZZZ is sleeping
(inactive)
B form is therefore active DNA
60 Exon vs. intron function
Exons Expressed.
InTrons In Trash
61 Nucleotides: class
having the single ring
Pyrimadines are
CUT from purines
Pyrimidines are:
Cytosine
Uracil
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Thiamine
They are cut from purines so the
pyrimadines must be smaller
(one ring).
62 Nucleotides: double vs.
triple bonded base pairs
TU bonds" (two
bonds):
T-A and U-A have Two bonds.
G-C therefore has the three
bonds
63 Nucleotides: which are
purines
Pure Silver (Ag) Chemical formula of Pure silver
is Ag.
Therefore, Purines are Adenine
and Guanine
64 Leukocytes: granulated
and agranulated
BEN Loves Money Granulocytes:
Basophil
Eosinophil
Neurophil
Agranulocytes:
Lymphocytes
Monocytes
65 Mast cell primary
granule contents
Master, His Hepes
Causes Choking &
Gagging
Mast = Mast cell
His = Histamine
He= Heparin
C = Chymase
Ch = Chemotactic factor for
eosinophils
Gag = GAGase
66 Neutrophil's 2
distinctive physical
features
1: There's up to 5 lobes of the nucleus joined by thin
appendages. Tie this to it being a neutrophil nucleus
by arranging the 5 lobes into a capital N for
Neutrophil.
2: the chicken leg (Barr Body) sticking out. Say it out
loud: chick-N. The chick-N leg is for Neutrophil.
67 Muscle cells: cardiac vs.
skeletal's nuclei
location/number
Nuclei location mirrors where the muscle is located in
human body.
Heart muscle is in the middle of body, so heart muscle
has nucleus in middle.
Skeletal muscles are at periphery of body, so nuclei
are at periphery.
Also, you have 1 heart, so usually only 1 nucleus per
heart muscle cell, but have many skeletal muscles,
so have many nuclei per long fibre.
68 Muscle sarcomere: A vs.
I as light or dark
There is only one vowel in "dark" and one vowel in
"light".
These one vowels match up to their one letter names:
DArk band is the A band.
LIght band is the I band.
Knowledge Level 2, System: Muscle
69 Muscle sarcomere: H
line vs. Z disc location
HAZI (Hazy) H line is in A-band.
Z disc is in the I band
70 Complement cascade
initiating items:
Classic: Combined Complexes.
Alternative: Activators Alone, or IgA.
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alternative vs. classic
Complexes are made of Ab and Ag combined together.
Examples of activators: endotoxin, microbial surface
71 Complement: function of
C3a versus C3b
C3a: Activates Acute [inflammation].
C3b: Bonds Bacteria [to macrophages--easier
digestion].
If wish to know more than just C3:
C3a, C4a, C5a activate acute.
C3b, C4b bind bacteria
72 Hypersensitivity
reactions: Gell and
Goombs nomenclature
ACID
From I to IV:
Anaphylactic type: type I
Cytotoxic type: type II
Immune complex disease: type
III
Delayed hypersensitivity (cell
mediated): type IV
73 Immunoglobulin (Ig)
types: the important
ones worth
remembering, in order of
appearance
MAGDEra
IgM
IgA
IgG
IgD
IgE
74 Immunoglobulins, and
order B cells present
them
MAD GE IgM
IgA
IgD
IgG
IgE
75 Immunoglobulins: which
crosses the placenta
IgG crosses the placenta during Gestation.
Knowledge Level 2, System: Lymphoid
Anonymous Contributor
76 Interferon gamma:
action on macrophages
Th1nk BIG Mac
Attack
Th1 and NK cells Build
Interferon Gamma.
Causes Macrophages to have an
augmented Attack [by better
lysosome function and
increasing reactive oxygen
metabolites, nitric oxide and
defensins].
77 T and B cells: types
When bacteria
enter body, T-cell
says to B: "Help Me
Catch Some!" B-
cell replies: "My
Pleasure
T-cell types:
Helper
Memory
Cytotoxic
Suppressor
B-cell types:
Memory cell
Plasma cell
78 Heamatology: key
numbers
3 and 4 are key in in haematology:
1.34 cm3 of oxygen is carried by a gram of
hemoglobin.
There's 3.4mg of iron in each gram of hemoglobin.
There's an average of 3.4 lobes per neutrophil.
There's 34mg bilirubin from each gram of hemoglobin.
Knowledge Level 5, System: Cardiovascular
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Anonymous Contributor
79 Macrocytic anemia:
causes
ABCDEF Alcohol + liver disease
B12 deficiency
Compensatory reticulocytosis
(blood loss and hemolysis)
Drug (cytotoxic and AZT)/
Dysplasia (marrow problems)
Endocrine (hypothyroidism)
Folate deficieny/ Fetus
(pregnancy
80 Metabolic acidosis:
causes
KUSSMAL Ketoacidosis
Uraemia
Sepsis
Salicylates
Methanol
Alcohol
Lactic acidosis
81 Alkalosis: metabolic
changes in alkalosis
Al-K-loss, Al-Ca-
loss
There is loss of K+ (hypokalemia)
and Ca++ (hypocalcemia) in state
of alkalosis.
82 E. coli: major subtypes,
key point of each
HIT by E. coli
outbreak
EnteroHemorrhagic:
HUS from Hamburgers
EnteroInvasive:
Immune-mediated Inflammation
EnteroToxigenic:
Traveller's diarrhea
83 Entameoba histolytica:
disease caused, action
EntAmoeba causes Amoebic dysEntery.
Action: histo (cell) lytic (burst), so it bursts cells.
84 Vibrio: motility
Vibrio Vibrates Vibrio is a genus of actively
motile bacteria
85 Psedomonas aeruginosa:
features
AERUGINOSA
Aerobic
Exotoxin A
Rod/ Resistance
UTIs, burns, injuries
Green-blue dressings
Iron-containing lesions
Negative gram
Odor of grapes
Slime capsule sometimes (in CF
pt)
Adherin pili
86 UTI-causing
microorganisms
KEEPS Klebsiella
Enterococcus faecalis/
Enterobacter cloacae
E. coli
Pseudomonas aeroginosa/
Proteus mirabilis
Staphylococcus saprophyticcus/
Serratia marcescens
Endotoxin features
ENDOTOXIN Endothelial cells/ Edema
Negative (gram- bacteria)
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DIC/ Death
Outer membrane
TNF
O-antigen
X-tremely heat stable
IL-1
Nitric oxide/ Neutrophil
chemotaxis
87 IgA protease-producing
bacteria
Nice Star Hamu Neisseria
Streptococcus pneumonia
Haemophilus influenza
88 Common cold: viral
causes
Common cold
(acute infectious
rhinitis, coryza) is
PRIMArily caused
by
Paramyxoviruses
Rhinoviruses
Influenza viruses
Myxoviruses
Adenoviruses
89 Obligate anaerobes:
members worth knowing
ABC Actinomyces
Bacteroides
Clostridium
90 RNA viruses: negative
stranded
Orthodox Rhabbi's
Party Around Fine
Bunnies
Orthomyxo
Rhabdo
Paramyxo
Arena
Filo
Bunya
91 RNA viruses: positive
stranded
Pico Called Flavio
To Return Renzo's
Corona
Picorna
Calici
Flavi
Toga
Retro
Reo
Corona
92 Teratogens: placenta-
crossing organisms
ToRCHeS Toxoplasma
Rubella
CMV
Herpes simplex, Herpes zoster
(varicella), Hepatitis B,C,E
Syphilis
93 Cranial nerves
On Old Olympus
Towering Tops, A
Finn And German
Viewed Some Hops
In order from 1 to 12:
Olfactory
Optic
Occulomotor
Trochlear
Trigeminal
Abducens
Facial
Auditory [or Vestibulocochlear]
Glossopharyngeal
Vagus
Accessory [or Spinal root of the
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accessory]
Hypoglossal
94 Cranial nerves: sensory,
motor or both
Some Say Marry
Money But My
Brother Says Big
Brains Matter More
From I to XII:
Sensory
Sensory
Motor
Motor
Both
Motor
Both
Sensory
Both
Both
Motor
Motor
95 Cranial nerves: olfactory
and optic numbers
You have two eyes
and one nose
Optic nerve is cranial nerve two.
Olfactory nerve is cranial nerve
one.
96 Meninges: layers in
order
PAD Piamater
Arachnoid
Dura
97 Cerebellar deep nuclei
Ladies Demand
Exceptional
Generosity From
Men
The 4 nuclei, from lateral to
medial
[Lateral]
Dentate
Emboliform
Globose
Fastigial
[Medial]
98 Cerebellar functional
areas
Anatomical shape/location of cerebellar areas is a key
to their function and related tract.
Vermis = Spinocerebellar = Axial equilibrium.
Vermis: right down the axis of cerebellum, and
vertically segmented like a spinal column.
Flocculonodular lobe = Vestibulocerebellar = Ear, eye,
body coordination.
Flocculonodular lobe: flares out to the edges, just like
ears.
Hemispheres of cerebellum = Cerebrocerebellar =
Peripheral coordination.
Hemispheres: around periphery of cerebellum, and
tract to cerebral hemispheres
99 Thirst/water balance
control centre: location
in hypothalamus
You look up (supra...optic) at the clouds, to check if
it's going to rain (water)":
Therefore, water balance is in supraoptic nucleus.
100 Red eye causes
GO SUCK Glaucoma
Orbital disease
Scleritis
Uveitis
Conjunctivitis
Keratitis
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101 Vitamin toxicities:
neonatal
Excess vitamin A: Anomalies (teratogenic)
Excess vitamin E: Enterocolitis (necrotizing
enterocolitis)
Excess vitamin K: Kernicterus (hemolysis)
102 Hypertension: treatment
ABCD ACE inhibitors/ AngII
antagonists (sometimes Alpha
agonists also)
Beta blockers
Calcium antagonists
Diuretics
103 Propranolol and related
'-olol' drugs: usage
olol" is just two backwards lower case b's.
Backward b's stand for "beta blocker".
Beta blockers include acebutolol, betaxolol, bisoprolol,
oxprenolol, propranolol.
104 Thrombolytic agents USA Urokinase
Streptokinase
Alteplase (tPA)
105 Warfarin: metabolism SLOW Has a slow onset of action.
A quicK Vitamin K antagonist,
though.
Small lipid-soluble molecule
Liver: site of action
Oral route of administration.
Warfarin
106 Gynaecomastia-causing
drugs
DISCOS Digoxin
Isoniazid
Spironolactone
Cimetidine
Oestrogens
Stilboestrol
107 K+ increasing agents
K-BANK K-sparing diuretic
Beta blocker
ACEI
NSAID
K supplement
108 Propythiouracil (PTU):
mechanism
It inhibits PTU Peroxidase/ Peripheral
deiodination
Tyrosine iodination
Union (coupling)
109 Osmotic diuretics:
members
GUM Glycerol
Urea
Mannitol
110 Vir-named drugs: use
"-vir at start, middle or end means for virus":
Drugs: Abacavir, Acyclovir, Amprenavir, Cidofovir,
Denavir, Efavirenz, Indavir, Invirase, Famvir,
Ganciclovir, Norvir, Oseltamivir, Penciclovir, Ritonavir,
Saquinavir, Valacyclovir, Viracept, Viramune,
Zanamivir, Zovirax
111 Antimuscarinics:
members, action
Inhibits Parasympathetic And Sweat
Ipratropium
Pirenzepine
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Atropine
Scopolamine
112 Benzodiazepenes:
antidote
"Ben is off with the
flu
Benzodiazepine effects off with
Flumazenil.
113 Delerium-causing drugs
ACUTE CHANGE
IN MS
Antibiotics (biaxin, penicillin,
ciprofloxacin)
Cardiac drugs (digoxin,
lidocaine)
Urinary incontinence drugs
(anticholinergics)
Theophylline
Ethanol
Corticosteroids
H2 blockers
Antiparkinsonian drugs
Narcotics (esp. mepridine)
Geriatric psychiatric drugs
ENT drugs
Insomnia drugs
NSAIDs (eg indomethacin,
naproxin)
Muscle relaxants
Seizure medicines
114 Morphine: effects
MORPHINES Miosis
Orthostatic hypotension
Respiratory depression
Pain supression
Histamine release/ Hormonal
alterations
Increased ICT
Nausea
Euphoria
Sedation
115 Narcotic antagonists
The Narcotic Antagonists are NAloxone and
NAltrexone.
Important clinically to treat narcotic overdose.
116 Parkinsonism: drugs
SALAD Selegiline
Anticholinenergics
(trihexyphenidyl, benzhexol,
ophenadrine)
L-Dopa + peripheral
decarboxylase inhibitor
(carbidopa, benserazide)
Amantadine
Dopamine postsynaptic receptor
agonists (bromocriptine, lisuride,
pergolide)
117 Antibiotics
contraindicated during
pregnancy
MCAT Metronidazole
Chloramphenicol
Aminoglycoside
Tetracycline
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118 Metabolism enzyme
inducers
Rafi’s Black Car
Goes Putt Putt and
Smokes
Rifampin
Barbiturates
Carbamazepine
Grisoefulvin
Phenytoin
Phenobarb
Smoking cigarettes
119 Therapeutic index:
formula
TILE TI = LD50 / ED50
120 Zero order kinetics
drugs (most common
ones)
PEAZ (sounds like
pees) out a
constant amount
Phenytoin
Ethanol
Aspirin
Zero order
121 Asthma drugs:
leukotriene inhibitor
action
zAfirlukast: Antagonist of lipoxygenase
zIlueton: Inhibitor of LT receptor
122 Beta-1 vs Beta-2
receptor location
You have 1 heart
and 2 lungs
Beta-1 are therefore primarily on
heart.
Beta-2 primarily on lungs
123 Respiratory depression
inducing drugs
STOP breathing Sedatives and hypnotics
Trimethoprim
Opiates
Polymyxins
124 TB: antibiotics used
STRIPE Streptomycin
Rifampicin
Isoniazid
Pyrizinamide
Ethambutol
125 Teratogenic drugs: major
non-antibiotics
TAP CAP Thalidomide
Androgens
Progestins
Corticosteroids
Aspirin & indomethacin
Phenytoin
126 Antirheumatic agents
(disease modifying):
members
CHAMP Cyclophosphamide
Hydroxycloroquine and
choloroquinine
Auranofin and other gold
compounds
Methotrexate
Penicillamine
127 Ideal gas law
Pure Vegetarian
Never Really Tired
PV=nRT
128 PGI2 vs. TxA2
coagulation function
TxA2 Aggregates platelets.
PGI2 Inhibits aggregation
Note: Full name of PGI2 is prostaglandin I2 or
prostacyclin, full name of TxA2 is thromboxane A2
129 Adrenal cortex layers
and products
Go Find Rat, Make
Good sign
Layers:
Glomerulosa
Fasiculata
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Reticulata
Respective products:
Mineralcorticoids
Glucocorticoids
Sex hormones
130 Pituitary hormones
FLAGTOP Follicle stimulating hormone
Lutinizing hormone
Adrenocorticotropin hormone
Growth hormone
Thyroid stimulating hormone
Oxytocin
Prolactin
131 Progesterone: actions
PROGESTE Produce cervical mucous
Relax uterine smooth muscle
Oxycotin sensitivity down
Gonadotropin [FSH, LH]
secretions down
Endometrial spiral arteries and
secretions up
Sustain pregnancy
Temperature up / Tit
development
Excitability of myometrium down
132 Temperature control:
cerebral regions
High Power Air
Conditioner
Heating = Posterior hipothalamo
[hypothalamus].
Anterior hipothalamo
[hypothalamus] = Cooling
133 Urination: autonomic
control
When you pee, it's
PISs
Parasympathetic Inhibits
Sympathetic
134 Alkalosis vs. acidosis:
directions of pH and
HCO3
ROME Respiratory= Opposite:
pH is high, PCO2 is down
(Alkalosis).
pH is low, PCO2 is up (Acidosis).
Metabolic= Equal:
pH is high, HCO3 is high
(Alkalosis).
pH is low, HCO3 is low
(Acidosis).
135 Osteoblast vs. osteoclast OsteoBlast Builds bone.
OsteoClast Consumes bone.
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