predicting asian international students

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International Journal of Intercultural Relations

29 (2005) 561576

Predicting Asian international students

sociocultural adjustment: A test of two

mediation models

Andrew Li, Michael B. Gasser

Department of Psychology, University of Northern Iowa, Cedar Falls, IA, USA

Abstract

Integrating a number of theoretical perspectives, this paper examined predictors of Asian

international students sociocultural adjustment. A total of 117 students (aged 1846 years)from 17 Asian countries and regions completed questionnaires about their sociocultural

adjustment, contact with the hosts, ethnic identity, and cross-cultural self-efficacy. As

hypothesized, contact with the hosts partially mediated the effect of cross-cultural self-efficacy

on sociocultural adjustment. The hypothesis that contact with the hosts would mediate the

effect of ethnic identity on sociocultural adjustment was not supported.

r 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Sociocultural adjustment; Ethnic identity; Self-efficacy; Cross-cultural contact

1. Introduction

International mobility has become the hallmark of the 21st century as the world

increasingly becomes a global village. Riding this trend of globalization, a growing

number of international students have crossed their national boundaries to seek

educational experiences in other cultures (Hechanova-Alampay, Beehr, Christian-

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www.elsevier.com/locate/ijintrel

0147-1767/$ - see front matter r 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2005.06.003

Corresponding author. Department of Management and Policy, Eller College of Management,

P.O. Box 210108, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721-0108, USA.

E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Li).
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sen, & Van-Horn, 2002; Lin & Yi, 1997; Sam, 2001). In the United States, the

number of international students attending higher education has increased

dramatically since the end of World War II. According to the 20002001 Open

Doors Annual Report (2001), the total enrollment of international students hasalready exceeded 540,000, accounting for 3.9% of the total college student

population.

Adjusting to a new culture can be a challenging and stressful experience. Rigorous

academic demands along with the challenges to adjust to a new culture may put

international students at a greater risk than students in general. Recently, the

adjustment difficulties experienced by international students have received increasing

scholarly attention (Anderson & Myer, 1985; Hayes & Lin, 1994). In a

comprehensive review of sojourners research, Church (1982) suggested that in

addition to problems similar to what domestic students may have, international

students also experience difficulties that are elicited by the new cultural experiences.

Surveys of international student adjustment in the new culture have indicated that

they expressed apprehension in their language proficiency and academic perfor-

mance during their sojourns (Hayes & Lin, 1994; Kagan & Cohen, 1990; Ying &

Liese, 1994). In addition, international students also reported feeling depressed,

anxious, and lonely due to the loss of their social support network (Sandhu &

Asrabadi, 1994; Yang & Clum, 1995).

In light of the adjustment difficulties reported by international student sojourners,

researchers have attempted to investigate the nature of their adjustment and

variables that predict their effective adjustment. One recent development in theseefforts is the psychological and sociocultural adjustment model (Searle & Ward,

1990). According to this model, sojourners adjustment can be conceptualized as two

distinctive, but intertwining, dimensions: psychological adjustment and sociocultural

adjustment. Psychological adjustment denotes the feelings of well-being and

satisfaction and sociocultural adjustment denotes the ability to fit in and to

negotiate interactive aspects of the new culture (Searle & Ward, 1990, p. 450).

Although these two dimensions are closely related, they should be understood in

different theoretical frameworks. Psychological adjustment is best understood within

a stress and coping framework. Based on this framework, psychological adjustment

is best predicted by personality factors, amount of social support, contact with fellownationals and hosts, life changes, and attitudes towards the hosts. Sociocultural

adjustment, however, is understood based on the social learning model (Befus, 1988;

Furnham & Bochner, 1982). According to the social learning model, sociocultural

adjustment is influenced by cross-cultural contact, cultural distance, cross-cultural

training, previous cross-cultural experiences, and length of residence in the new

culture. The psychological and sociocultural adjustment model (Searle & Ward,

1990) has received support in a number of empirical studies (Ward & Chang, 1997;

Ward & Kennedy, 1992, 1993a,b, 1994, 1999, 2001; Ward, Okura, Kennedy, &

Kojima, 1998).

In the present study, we examined factors that influenced international studentssociocultural adjustment. Furnham and Bochner (1986) suggested that social

adjustment entails the abilities of expressing attitude, feelings, and emotion,

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adopting the appropriate proxemic posture, understanding the gaze patterns of the

people they are interacting with, carrying out ritualized routines such as greetings,

leave taking, self-disclosure, making or refusing requests, and asserting themselves

(pp. 1415). Sojourners who are socioculturally adjusted are well prepared to copewith the challenges in their cross-cultural experiences and to attain the goals of their

sojourn. Searle and Ward (1990) suggest that the process of adjusting to a new

culture socially and culturally entails learning and applying new cultural knowledge;

therefore, a comprehensive model of sociocultural adjustment should be cast in a

social learning-social cognition framework wherein variables that enhance cultural

learning, promote behavioral and social competency, and facilitate a cross-cultural

perspective should be included.

Based on a social learning-social cognition framework, we propose that

sojourners ethnic identity, cross-cultural self-efficacy, and contact with the hosts

are important variables related to sociocultural adjustment. As proposed by Tajfel

(1978), and Tajfel and Turner (1986) in their discussion of social identity theory,

people who are more strongly identified with their in-group are less likely to initiate

and maintain interaction with members of the out-group. In the context of

international students in the US, this suggests that students who hold a greater sense

of ethnic identity will be less likely to interact with the host country nationals. This

reduced contact may hamper their sociocultural adjustment. Similarly, Banduras

(1986, 1992, 1997) social learning theory places great importance on self-efficacy as

an antecedent of many human behaviors. In the context of international students in

the US, students with greater cross-cultural self-efficacy should be more comfortableand more likely to engage in contact with the host-culture nationals, thus enhancing

their sociocultural adjustment (Fan & Mak, 1998). Central to the relationship

between these antecedents and sociocultural adjustment is the amount of contact

with the hosts. As noted by Church (1982), numerous studies have attested to the

importance of contact in improving cross-cultural adjustment. Given the central

focus of contact with the hosts in the conceptualization of sociocultural adjustment,

international students who have more host contact should experience better

adjustment.

Contact with the hosts, ethnic identity, and cross-cultural self-efficacy will be

discussed in more details in the next section. In addition, we develop two mediationmodels that integrate these variables. The proposed models posit that contact with

the hosts mediates the effects of two independent variables (i.e., ethnic identity and

cross-cultural self-efficacy) on international students sociocultural adjustment.

2. Antecedents of sociocultural adjustment

2.1. Cross-cultural contact

One of the most robust findings in the cross-cultural adjustment literature is thatpositive contact between sojourners and host nationals is critical to their effective

adjustment in the new culture (Church, 1982). The theoretical underpinnings of these

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findings were based on the contact hypothesis typically examined in the inter-group

relation literatures. According to the contact hypothesis (Allport, 1954; Amir, 1969),

contact among different social groups may enhance mutual understanding and

reduce inter-group stereotypes and discriminations. Amir (1969) posited that byhaving an opportunity to know the views and beliefs held by the out-group members,

in-group members are able to appreciate and understand their way of life. Inter-

group contact may also improve cross-group perspective taking and promote a

positive re-evaluation of the out-group (Pettigrew, 1997).

This theoretical perspective obviously applies to the cross-cultural context. Stening

(1979) argued that intercultural relations are usually stained by stereotypes,

prejudices, and ethnocentric perspective of the parties involved. In order to remove

these barriers to healthy intercultural communication, it is important that

individuals from one culture have first-hand experiences about others from another

culture. Intercultural interaction affords the opportunities for sojourners to re-

evaluate their erroneous views of others from a different cultural background and

identify the similarities of belief and values that are believed to increase attraction

and liking (Masson & Verkuyten, 1993). In addition, sojourners social interactions

with the hosts may enable them to gain cultural knowledge, establish a local support

network, and increase their language proficiency (Church, 1982; Toyokawa &

Toyokawa, 2002).

Although a causal linkage cannot be inferred, the positive effects derived from

contact with host nationals upon sojourners sociocultural adjustment have been

documented in several correlation studies. Selltiz and Cook (1962) found thatinternational students who have close host friends expressed more positive feelings

towards Americans and were better adjusted than their peers who did not have cross-

cultural contact. Similarly, Sewell and Davidson (1956) found that international

students from Scandinavian countries who engaged in social interactions with the

hosts were less likely to express frustrations, more likely to improve their English

speaking capacities, and report overall satisfactions with their sojourns than those

without such host contact. Using a longitudinal design, Ying and Liese (1994) found

that international students from Taiwan who interacted with Americans reported

better adjustment relative to those who simply formed their social networks among

co-nationals. Given these findings, we expect that cross-cultural contact will be apredictor of sociocultural adjustment.

2.2. Ethnic identity

Church (1982) suggested that sojourners often have to cope with their membership

conflicts between trying to maintain cultural ties with their ethnic groups and

behaving in a way that is consistent with the host cultures expectations. Much of the

research on membership conflicts has been conducted within the framework of social

identity theory (Tajfel, 1978; Tajfel & Turner, 1986). According to social identity

theory, individuals strive to maintain positive self-esteem that is derived from theirgroup membership. As a result, individuals are motivated to see their in-group

members in the most favorable light to maintain positive self-esteem. The motivation

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to maintain positive self-esteem and social identity also leads them to favor in-group

members in comparisons between groups.

Based on social identity theory, sojourners ethnic identity (a self-concept derived

from the ethnic membership that one belongs to) may predict their willingness toengage in contact with members from other ethnic groups, including the hosts

(Piontkowski, Florack, Hoelker, & Obdrzalek, 2000). Those individuals who have a

strong ethnic identity may be more likely to distance themselves from the out-group

members in order to preserve their group distinctiveness conducive for group

comparisons. Moreover, individuals who are strongly identified with their ethnic

group may be more likely to experience threats from the out-group than those who

are indifferent to their group memberships, thus influencing their willingness to

engage in cross-cultural contact (Stephan, Stephan, & Gudykunst, 1999). In a study

of Dutch adolescents attitudes towards ethnic minorities (Masson & Verkuyten,

1993), it was found that ethnic identity was strongly related to in-group preference;

whereas contact with minorities was significantly associated with less prejudice

towards minorities and in-group preference. Moreover, ethnic identity was

negatively related to the amount of contact between Dutch adolescents and

minorities.

Sojourners ethnic identity is also related to their sociocultural adjustment. The

four acculturation strategies model proposed by Berry and colleagues (Berry &

Annis, 1974; Berry, Kim, Power, Young, & Bujaki, 1989) provides a useful

theoretical framework to understand the relation between sojourners ethnic identity

and their sociocultural adjustment. Simply put, the model posited that sojournersacculturation attitudes revolve around two dimensions: (a) maintaining their ethnic

identity and (b) maintaining ties with host nationals and act in the local way. A

taxonomy of four acculturation strategies was developed based on these two

dimensions: separation, integration, assimilation, and marginalization. Individuals

who employ the separation strategy maintain their original ethnic identity and avoid

cross-cultural contact. Individuals who employ the integration strategy try to achieve

a balance between maintaining their ethnic identity and establishing contact with the

hosts. Individuals who take an assimilation approach sever ties with the original

culture and adopt the lifestyle of the new culture. Lastly, marginalization is

characteristic of individuals who lose ties with both their original culture and the newculture.

Scores of studies have been conducted to investigate the differentiating effects of

the four strategies on cross-cultural adjustment (e.g., Ward & Kennedy, 1994; Ward

& Rana-Deuba, 1999). Generally, empirical research has demonstrated that

sojourners social adjustment is facilitated by a stronger association with the host

culture and a dissociation with their own ethnic community (Fugita & OBrien, 1985;

Yao, 1985). Sojourners who are identified with the host culture may establish their

local network, receive social support from the locals, and learn the local cultures.

Eshel and Rosenthal-Sokolov (2000) examined the acculturation attitudes of

Russian students in Israel and their sociocultural adjustment. Their studydemonstrated that successful sociocultural adjustment entailed the relinquishment

of the values and behaviors of their ethnic culture and the adoption of an identity

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that conformed to the expectations of the new culture. Similarly, Ward and Rana-

Deubas (1999) investigation of acculturation strategies of foreign students in Nepal

showed that stronger identification with the hosts was associated with less social

difficulties such as fulfilling social functions and understanding local languages. Allof these studies suggest that ethnic identity should be negatively related to cross-

cultural contact and sociocultural adjustment.

2.3. Cross-cultural self-efficacy

Empirical research has also found that cross-cultural contact is related to

sojourners cross-cultural self-efficacy (Black & Gregersen, 1991; Harrison, Chad-

wick, & Scales, 1996). Self-efficacy is the belief that one can perform certain social

functions to produce a desirable outcome (Bandura, 1986, 1992, 1997). Self-efficacy

is especially important in the cross-cultural interactions. Church (1982) suggested

that there are many barriers to effective interactions between sojourners and host

nationals, such as verbal and non-verbal language, cultural ignorance, and fear of

rejection, which renders cross-cultural interactions more distressing and anxiety-

provoking than within-culture interactions. As a result, sojourners may attempt to

cope with their social anxiety by avoiding contact with the hosts ( Fan & Mak, 1998).

Fan and Mak (1998) contended that inhibitions of cross-cultural contact are a sign

of low social self-efficacy. In the cross-cultural context, high self-efficacy denotes a

positive evaluation that one can successfully perform certain social functions in

another culture and achieve desirable outcomes. Bandura (1986, 1992, 1997), in hissocial cognitive theory, posited that self-efficacy influences human behavior through

four processes: cognitive, affective, motivational, and selection. Taken into cross-

cultural contexts, social cognitive theory predicts that individuals high in cross-

cultural self-efficacy may be more likely to foresee successes in cross-cultural contact

and anticipate positive experiences than their less efficacious peers (cognitive

process). Similarly, individuals with high cross-cultural self-efficacy may be less

anxiety stricken than those with low self-efficacy in cross-cultural interactions

(affective process). Moreover, cross-culturally self-efficacious individuals may be

more motivated to engage in cross-cultural contact and to reap the ensuing benefits

(motivational process). In addition, individuals with high cross-cultural self-efficacymay choose to engage in contact with the hosts even though cross-cultural

communication places a premium on cultural knowledge, language, and tolerance

for ambiguities (selection process).

Self-efficacy for cross-cultural interactions has also been found to be related to

sojourners sociocultural adjustment. Tsang (2001) suggested that self-efficacious

individuals may be more actively seeking new cultural experiences. As a result, they

may receive constant feedback regarding their novel behavior, which enhances their

cultural knowledge and reduces uncertainties in future cross-cultural interactions.

Consistent with this contention, Harrison et al. (1996) found that more cross-

culturally self-efficacious American expatriates reported better adjustment in Europecompared with their less self-efficacious peers. Similarly, using a longitudinal design,

Hechanova-Alampay et al. (2002) found that international students self-efficacy was

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significantly related to their adjustment in the new culture, such that students high in

cross-cultural self-efficacy reported better adjustment and less strains than those low

in self-efficacy. The findings of these studies suggest that self-efficacy should be

positively related to cross-cultural contact and sociocultural adjustment.

3. The present study

In the present study, we examined the relationships between international

students contact with host nationals, their ethnic identity, cross-cultural self-

efficacy, and their sociocultural adjustment. Consistent with the foregoing

discussion, it is hypothesized that international students contact with host nationals

is positively related to their sociocultural adjustment (H1). It is also hypothesized

that their ethnic identity is negatively related to their contact with host nationals

(H2a) and sociocultural adjustment (H2b). We also hypothesize that their cross-

cultural self-efficacy is positively related to their contact with host nationals (H3a)

and sociocultural adjustment (H3b).

Based on these hypotheses, we also examined two mediation models. Model one

posits that the effect of international students ethnic identity on their sociocultural

adjustment is mediated by their contact with host nationals. Model two posits that

the effect of international students cross-cultural self-efficacy on their sociocultural

adjustment is mediated by their contact with host nationals. To examine these two

mediation models, we determine whether the effects of the predictors (ethnic identityand cross-cultural self-efficacy) on sociocultural adjustment are weakened or become

non-significant when host contact is held constant (Cohen, Cohen, West, & Aiken,

2003). A non-significant relation between the predictor and the criterion when the

mediator is held constant signals a fully mediated model, whereas a weakened but

still significant relation indicates a partially mediated model.

The present study focused on international students from Asian countries.

Previous research has suggested that although most international students encounter

difficulties during their adjustment processes, these problems appear to be most

acute among students from Asian countries (Abe, Talbot, & Geelhoed, 1998;

Heikinheimo & Shute, 1986; Henderson, Milhouse, & Cao, 1993). Due to significantdisparities in language, culture, and communication styles between most Asian

countries and America, Asian students appear to experience more difficulties than

students from other parts of the world (Toyokawa & Toyokawa, 2002). Surveys of

Asian international students indicated that they experience considerable difficulties

in language, academic performance, and social interactions in their sojourns (Schram

& Lauver, 1988; Yang, Teraoka, Eichenfield, & Audas, 1994). Given the size of the

Asian international student population in the United States (Asian international

students accounted for over 55% of the total international student population), it is

somewhat surprising that little research effort has been devoted to their adjustment

concerns (Yang & Clum, 1995). Therefore, an important purpose of the presentstudy is to examine their sociocultural adjustment process and variables that

contribute to their effective adjustment.

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4. Method

4.1. Participants

A total of 117 Asian international students from two state universities in the mid

western region voluntarily participated in the present study. The participants

were recruited through a variety of networking sources. The participants were

from 17 countries and regions in Asia. The majority of the students were female

(N 72), single (N 81), and graduate students (N 67). The average age was

26.29 years (SD 5:54) and their average length of stay in the United States was

25.92 months (SD 27:97). Participants reported an average TOEFL score of 578

(SD 48:48).

4.2. Measurements

All participants completed a demographic questionnaire and measures of their

sociocultural adjustment, cross-cultural self-efficacy, their contact with the hosts,

and ethnic identity.

Sociocultural adjustment. A 29-item sociocultural adjustment scale (SCAS)

developed by Ward and Kennedy (1999) was used in the present study. The scale

measured the degree to which participants perceived difficulties in understanding the

local values and cultures, interacting with the hosts, meeting the demands of daily

life, and behaving in a culturally appropriate manner. Sample items includedUnderstanding American jokes and humor, and Adapting to the local norms of

behavior. Respondents used a 4-point likert scale ranging from extreme difficulty

(1) to no difficulty (4). High scores obtained in this measure indicated fewer

difficulties in social activities and better sociocultural adjustment. The a in the

present study was .87.

Ethnic identity. Ethnic identity was assessed using the 19-item multi-group ethnic

identity scale developed by Phinney (1992). This scale measured individuals

perceived ethnic identification, sense of belonging to their ethnic group, attitudes

towards their ethnic group, and levels of involvement in ethnic activities. Sample

items included I am happy that I am a member of my ethnic group, and I have alot of pride in my ethnic group and its accomplishments. Respondents used a 4-

point likert scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (4). High scores

obtained in this measure indicated strong ethnic identification. The a in the present

study was .76.

Contact with host nationals. Contact with host nationals was measured with the 10-

item inter-group contacts scale developed by Islam and Hewstone (1993).

Participants responded to items enquiring about their perceived quantity and

quality of contact with Americans. Sample items included Since you arrived in the

United States, how much contact have you had with the Americans, and Would

you consider your contact with the Americans as generally being pleasant.Respondents used a 5-point likert scale. High scores indicated more frequent and

positive contact with Americans. The a in the present study was .91.

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Cross-cultural self-efficacy. Self-efficacy was assessed using a revised 17-item scale

developed by Fan and Mak (1998). The scale is comprised of four subscales,

including social difficulties, social confidence, sharing interests with others, and

willingness to take initiatives to establish friendships. Sample items included Beproactive in social situations, and Initiate friendships with the locals. Items were

rated on a 4-point likert scale ranging from not confident (1) to very confident (4).

High scores signalled more confidence in social functions. The a in the present study

was .95.

5. Results

5.1. Descriptive statistics

The means, standard deviations, and correlations for the dependent variables are

shown in Table 1. Reliabilities obtained in this study are also reported for all scales

with multiple items.

A multivariate analysis did not find significant differences in the mean level of

their sociocultural adjustment, cross-cultural self-efficacy, and ethnic identity as a

function of gender and academic level (graduate vs. undergraduate). Asian students

who were single reported more identified with their ethnic group than their married

peers.

5.2. Test of hypotheses

Hypothesis H1 posited that Asian international students cross-cultural contact

with their hosts is positively related to their sociocultural adjustment. This

hypothesis was supported. Asian students contact with their hosts was significantly

correlated with their sociocultural adjustment (r :61, p :01).

Hypothesis H2a stated that Asian international students ethnic identity is

negatively related to contact with their hosts. This hypothesis was also supported in

the present study. Asian students ethnic identity was significantly correlated with

their contact with their hosts (r :

19, p :

05). Hypothesis H2b predicted that

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Table 1

Means, standard deviation, reliabilities, and correlations among measured variables

M SD 1 2 3 4

1. Self-efficacy 2.88 .67 (.95)

2. Sociocultural adjustment 3.14 .50 .69** (.87)

3. Ethnic identity 2.64 .37 .10 .04 (.76)

4. Contact 3.67 .81 .73** .61** .19* (.91)

N 117.

Note. Po:05; Po:01.

Coefficient alpha reliabilities are presented on the diagonal.



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Asian international students ethnic identity is negatively related to their socio-

cultural adjustment. This hypothesis was not supported in this study. Asian students

ethnic identity was not significantly correlated with their sociocultural adjustment

(r :

04, ns). Since ethnic identity was not significantly related to the socioculturaladjustment, the first mediation model, which posited that the effects of ethnic

identity on Asian international students sociocultural adjustment would be

mediated by their contact with host nationals, was not supported.

Hypothesis H3a stated that Asian international students self-efficacy is posi-

tively related to contact with their hosts. This hypothesis was supported. Asian

students contact with their hosts was significantly correlated with cross-cultural

self-efficacy (r :73, p :01). Hypothesis H3b posited that Asian interna-

tional students cross-cultural self-efficacy is positively related to their sociocultural

adjustment. This hypothesis was also supported. Asian students cross-cultural

self-efficacy was significantly correlated with sociocultural adjustment (r :

69,

p :01).

5.3. Test of the mediation model

We followed Baron and Kennys procedure (1986) in testing the second mediation

model (for cross-cultural self-efficacy). Specifically, in the first step, the predictor

should be significantly related to the mediator. In the second and third steps, both

the predictor and the mediator should be significantly related to the outcome

variable. In the final step, the effects of the predictor on the outcome variable shouldbe attenuated when the mediator is controlled.

In the second model, we hypothesized that Asian international students contact

with host nationals would mediate the effect of their cross-cultural self-efficacy on

sociocultural adjustment. Contact with the hosts was a significant predictor of

sociocultural adjustment. Cross-cultural self-efficacy was also a significant predictor

of sociocultural adjustment. After partialling out the effect of contact with host

nationals, cross-cultural self-efficacy was still a significant predictor of sociocultural

adjustment, but the effect was attenuated, which indicated that the effect of cross-

cultural self-efficacy on sociocultural adjustment was partially mediated by contact

with the hosts (See Fig. 1).

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Cross-CulturalSelf-Efficacy

Host ContactSocioculturalAdjustment

.61**.73**

.69**/.52**

Fig. 1. Contact with the hosts as a mediator in the relationship between cross-cultural self-efficacy and

sociocultural adjustment. Note. po:05. po:01. The beta after the slash is the effect of cross-cultural

self-efficacy controlling for the effect of contact with the hosts.



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6. Discussion

The present study made two contributions to the cross-cultural adjustment

literature. First, this study examined Asian international students socioculturaladjustment and the factors that influenced their adjustment. The findings from this

study indicated that contact with the hosts and cross-cultural self-efficacy were both

related to Asian students successful sociocultural adjustment. Second, by integrating

a number of theoretical perspectives, the current study formulated and examined two

mediation models in the Asian student sample. The study suggested that Asian

students contact with the hosts partially mediated the relationship between their

cross-cultural self-efficacy and their sociocultural adjustment.

In the present study, we examined two mediation models. The first me-

diation model predicted that contact with host nationals would mediate the

relationship between ethnic identity and sociocultural adjustment. As predicted by

Hypothesis H1, Asian students contact with host nationals facilitated their

sociocultural adjustment process. Consistent with previous research (Church,

1982), the increased amount of contact with the hosts may have enabled them to

develop local networks, understand the local cultures, and acquire social skills

necessary for the effective adjustment to the new culture. The present study

also supported Hypothesis H2a that ethnic identity was negatively correlated

with contact with host nationals. Piontkowski (Piontkowski et al., 2000) argued

that individuals who are strongly identified with their own ethnic group may be

more likely to use their own culture for self-definition and avoid contact withother ethnic groups. The present study replicated this finding and indicated that

Asian students who were more identified with their own ethnic group may be

reluctant to engage in contact with the hosts. This argument, however, was

somewhat tempered by the weak (though still significant) correlation between the

two variables.

The lack of a significant relation between ethnic identity and sociocultural

adjustment was not altogether surprising. Berry (1984) argued that identifying with

the host culture does not entail the relinquishment of ones original cultural identity.

Individuals may maintain their own cultural identity while establishing meaningful

relationships with their hosts. In support of this argument, recent research has foundthat co-national identification is independent from host identification and both

identities may co-exist harmoniously in one individual (Leong & Ward, 2000).

Moreover, the two dimensions of identity were related to different adjustment

outcomes, with co-national identity related to psychological adjustment and host

identity related to sociocultural adjustment (Ward & Kennedy, 1994). In view of

these findings, it is possible that the current sample of Asian students may have

maintained a congruent co-national and host identification and their ethnic identity

did not interfere with their sociocultural adjustment. Alternatively, Church (1982)

suggested that sojourners may benefit from close ties with their co-nationals who

may provide social and emotional support during the adjustment process. Therefore,it is possible that Asian students in the present study received social support from

their ethnic network that protected them from social and cultural difficulties during

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their adjustment process. Future research should further examine this possibility

among Asian students.

The second mediation model predicted that contact with host nationals would

mediate the relationship between cross-cultural self-efficacy and socioculturaladjustment. As predicted by Hypothesis H3a, Asian students cross-cultural self-

efficacy was related to contact with the hosts, which in turn resulted in better

adjustment (Hypothesis H3b). Contact with the hosts was found to partially mediate

the effect of cross-cultural self-efficacy on sociocultural adjustment. Bandura (1986,

1992, 1997) contended that self-efficacy influences individuals decision to initiate an

action, their determination to persist even in the face of difficulties, and the amount

of effort they expend towards the completion of a task. Self-efficacy is especially

important in cross-cultural interactions that are more stressful and entail more

uncertainties than within-culture communication. In support of this argument, Mak

and Tran (2001) found that immigrant students in Australia who had higher cross-

cultural self-efficacy reported better adjustment. In the current study, Asian students

who were more self-efficacious were more likely to report initiating and maintaining

extensive contact with the hosts; as a result, they were more likely to experience

better sociocultural adjustment compared with those who were less efficacious. These

findings were analogous to previous research (Mak & Tran, 2001) and further

provided support to the pivotal role of cross-cultural self-efficacy in Asian

international students sociocultural adjustment process.

The results of the present study have some practical implications for educational

practices. Asian students cross-cultural self-efficacy was found to be significantlyrelated to their contact with the hosts and sociocultural adjustment. Bandura (1986,

1997) suggested that self-efficacy can be enhanced in four ways: master experience,

vicarious experience, social persuasion, and physiological arousal. Mak and Tran

(2001) suggested that the four sources could be incorporated into cross-cultural

trainings and interventions. Specifically, Asian international students cross-cultural

self-efficacy can be enhanced through actively engaging in controlled cross-cultural

social interactions, watching peer performance in social contexts, soliciting feedback

and encouragement for their own performance, and focusing on their own

performance instead of their emotional arousal in social interactions. These

theoretically grounded interventions may be instrumental in building Asian studentscross-cultural self-efficacy in social interactions and enhancing their sociocultural

adjustment.

A significant relationship between Asian students identification with their ethnic

groups and their sociocultural adjustment was not found in the present study.

Indeed, their ethnic identification may insulate them from some difficulties in the

adjustment process (Church, 1982). Likewise, previous studies have also indicated

that newcomers to a culture adjust better with co-national support (Church, 1982).

In this perspective, intervention programs that advocate Asian students dissociation

with their ethnic communities may not achieve the desired effect.

These implications should be taken cautiously in light of the limitations of thisstudy. In discussing the limitations, we also suggest useful directions for future

investigations. First, although our study, like others, treated Asian students as one

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group, there is evidence showing that there is appreciably great within-group

variability among Asian students. Although Asian countries are geographically

adjacent, they are culturally heterogeneous. For example, in Hofstedes values survey

(1980), Singapore and Japan were in the opposite poles of masculinity. Futureresearch should attempt to replicate the findings from the present study in specific

countries in Asia.

Second, common method variance may be a relevant issue in the present study and

most survey studies. Our findings were completely based on students self-reports.

Future research should include data from other sources in addition to the

participants. For example, participants spouses or friends may rate their observed

adjustment of the participants in addition to self-reports.

Third, we were not able to infer causality among the variables in the present study

because of the cross-sectional design. It is recommended that a longitudinal design

be employed in place of a cross-sectional design in future research. Longitudinal

designs allow researchers to further explore causality and to investigate the unfolding

effects of the variables on Asian international students adjustment at different

phases of their sojourns in the new culture.

7. Conclusion

In conclusion, the present study investigated Asian international students

sociocultural adjustment and factors that influenced their adjustment process. Wesuggest that Asian international students adjustment is a dynamic process that is

influenced by a host of factors. Results from this study underscore the critical roles

of host contact and cross-cultural self-efficacy in their adjustment process. This study

adds to the understanding of Asian students adjustment processes and offers many

avenues for future investigations.

Acknowledgements

Both authors contributed equally to the completion of this manuscript. This paperis based on the first authors masters thesis under the supervision of the second

author. We thank Andrew Gilpin and Melvin Gonnerman for serving in the thesis

committee and providing invaluable comments. This study is partly supported by a

research grant from the College of Social & Behavioral Science, University of

Northern Iowa.

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