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Pre-service Teachers’ Reflection:Perception, Preparedness andChallengesDr Rida Blaik Hourani aa Emirates College for Advanced Education, Abu Dhabi, UnitedArab EmiratesVersion of record first published: 22 Oct 2012.

To cite this article: Dr Rida Blaik Hourani (2013): Pre-service Teachers’ Reflection: Perception,Preparedness and Challenges, Reflective Practice: International and Multidisciplinary Perspectives,14:1, 12-30

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Pre-service Teachers’ Reflection: Perception, Preparedness andChallenges

Dr Rida Blaik Hourani*

Emirates College for Advanced Education, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

The research aimed at tracing the perceptions pre-service student teachers hadabout reflection, their preparedness to become reflective practitioners and theconstraints and limitations that hindered them from reflecting on their teaching.The research tools employed in this qualitative exploratory case study are: semi-structured-focused-group-interviews. The findings revolved around dimensionsof various limitations and constraints. This embodied: language barrier, multi-layered tasks, nature and dimension of reflection, lack of reflection skills,absence of post development plan, emotional barrier, external locus of controland socio-cultural context of learning. The means pre-service student teachersused to reflect conveyed a series of limitations and constraints. The findingsaddressed areas which needed improvement. Recommendations were suggestedto enhance critical and practical reflective skills among future teachers in AbuDhabi.

Keywords: Pre-service student teachers; teacher’s education; reflective practiceand teachers’ training

Introduction

Most new teachers develop practices which allow them to adjust with the complexi-ties of their teaching career. They tend to cope with the routines of work, rapidintuitive responses to classroom situations, and the taken for granted assumptions ofpractice and discourse in the classroom, staffroom and other school settings. In themidst of the routine commitments they drift away from being analytical and reflec-tive; thus become mechanical in their performance (Jones, Jenkin, & Lord 2006).

This research investigated the perceptions of the notion of reflection among pre-service student teachers, at the Emirates College for Advanced Education (ECAE).This exploratory study focused on the extent to which ECAE prepared reflectivepractitioners and the constraints and challenges that hindered pre-service studentteachers at ECAE from reflecting on their teaching during their training. Areas forfurther development were proposed. The implications of reflection within the con-text of this study would enable the pre-service student teacher to examine her/ histeaching plans and actions to arrive at new ways of understanding oneself, studentsand classroom events and building more effective models of practice for enhancinglearning. On an institutional level the research aimed at tracing areas ofdevelopment required at ECAE to develop critical reflective skills for betterteaching practice.

*Email: rhourani@ecae.ac.ae

Reflective PracticeVol. 14, No. 1, February 2013, 12–30

ISSN 1462-3943 print/ISSN 1470-1103 online� 2013 Taylor & Francishttp://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14623943.2012.732947http://www.tandfonline.com

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Context of the study

Reforms in education in Abu Dhabi have been taking place since 2006, throughAbu Dhabi Education Council (ADEC) which is a non-federal government author-ity. ADEC is working hard to enable Emirati students to emerge from high qualityschool education to pursue further higher education (Together ADEC Newsletter,2008; Kanaan, 2008).

As part of the school reforms, the New School Model (NSM) was launched inSeptember, 2010. The NSM is claimed as, “a new approach to teaching and learn-ing…to improve student learning experiences and to raise academic outcomes ofAbu Dhabi students to the internationally competitive level necessary to achieve theAbu Dhabi economic vision 2030”1 (ADEC’s Strategic Plan, 2010). The mainobjective of the NSM is to foster a child-centered learning environment and toemphasize higher thinking skills. The NSM adopts bilingual teaching (Arabic andEnglish) and the introduction of English as a medium for instruction in Science andMathematics. The NSM curriculum aims to develop Arabic and English languageliteracy, and requires teachers to give lessons in multiple subjects and be proficientin English (Al Khaili cited by Ahmed, 2012). The NSM has been implementedstarting 2010/2011 across Kindergarten to grade 3 at Abu Dhabi governmentschools and progressively applied to all cycles. It is expected that all grade levelswill be transitioned into the same model by the year 2016 (http://www.ameinfo.com/242007.html).

ECAE, as a partner with ADEC, is the first and only teachers’ training collegein the UAE, is based in Abu Dhabi city and is licensed by the Commission forAcademic Accreditation, Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research. TheCollege was created in 2007 by H.H. Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, Presi-dent of the UAE, and the inspired vision of H.H. Sheikh Mohammad Bin Zayed AlNahyan, Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi and Deputy Supreme Commander of theUAE Armed Forces, to provide world-class teacher education and to train the nextgeneration of teachers for Abu Dhabi and the UAE. The mission of ECAE is toprepare high quality teachers and educational leaders for the Abu Dhabi Emirateand across the UAE through research based, responsive professional training.ECAE’s first graduating cohort of 158 Emirati teachers is in 2012. They will joinADEC’s teaching workforce by the next academic school year 2012/2013. Theteaching graduates are equipped to teach ADEC’s New School Model and theyrepresent the first ever teachers to be trained in the NSM methodology in the UAE(Al-Khaili cited in http://www.ameinfo.com/293997.html).

The College currently offers a four-year Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) degree,training Emirati students to teach in a range of subjects including English, mathand science (http://ecae.ac.ae). In addition to subject knowledge courses and ICT,pre-service-students-teachers are challenged with education studies and curriculumstudies courses. ECAE students experience reflection tasks during practicum andinternship. Reflective tasks are integrated as part of the course-work and summativeassignments. Reflection is not given as a fully-fledged course.

The ECAE teacher education program provides internship and practicum forpre-service teachers under the guidance of college mentors and school mentors. Themajority of practicum takes place in Abu Dhabi-public schools and only few weeksof practicum take place in private schools. Pre-service teachers’ practicum andinternship experiences include class observations, lesson planning and teaching.

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Upon completion, pre-service student teachers would have completed threepracticums and one internship. The practicum takes place during the first three yearsof the B.Ed. study and the internship takes place during the last semester (yearfour). The year one cohort does three weeks’ observations during their secondsemester, the year two cohort does three weeks of observation and teaching part ofa lesson, the year three cohort does five weeks of practicum-observations and teach-ing and the year four cohort does ten weeks of internship, along with an actionresearch project.

ECAE pre-service student teachers provide for each practicum and internship aportfolio that includes reflective tasks based on their observations and teachings.English is the language of writing for the reflections. In small groups, students’practicum and internship is supervised by two mentors: A college mentor and aschool mentor.

The structure of the “Bachelor of Education” program, where reflection isneither taught through a fully-fledged course nor is it explicitly part of the curricu-lum, necessitates tracing the challenges and amendments required for teachers’training to improve reflective practice.

Research questions

• What are ECAE pre-service student teachers’ perceptions of the notion ofreflection as experienced in practicum?

• What reflection instrument tools and means do the pre-service student teachersat ECAE use in their learning and practicum reflection tasks?

• What challenges, barriers and limitation are encountered by ECAE pre-servicestudent teachers that hinder them from being reflective?

• What are perceived areas of development required at ECAE to developreflection?

Methodology

This research is a qualitative, exploratory case study. 30% of the B.Ed (4) populationwas randomly selected. The purpose behind selecting this cohort is that they havedone more reflective tasks. Moreover, they have covered material about teachers asreflective practitioners in an education studies course, so they are more appropriatecandidates. Patton (1990) explains, “the logic and power of purposive sampling liesin selecting information-rich cases for study” (p. 169, italics in the original).

The research tools employed for the study are semi-structured-focused-group-interviews (4–8 students for 40–50 minutes). A total of eight semi-structured-focused-group-interviews were conducted. One semi-structured-focused-group-interview washeld with the only male section enrolled in B.Ed. (4) and the rest of the participantswere females. The total number of participants was 60. The participants were EmiratiArabic native speakers. Interviews took place at ECAE.

Interviews were conducted in small groups because the interviews wereconducted bilingually; thus required more concentration from the researchers tomonitor the responses that were instantly translated.

The major advantage of conducting focused-group-interviews, is that it triggersinteraction among the participants and brings group interaction into the picture

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which enriches the data. Focused-group-interviews provide direct evidence aboutsimilarities and differences in the participants’ opinions and experiences thus givingmore depth to the data collected (Morgan, 1997).

Semi-structured-interviews give the group control over the direction of theinterview, especially in exploratory research like this; moreover it gives the data amulti-dimensional nature which enriches the data (Morgan, 1997). Semi-structured-interviews allowed the researchers to enter the inner world of another person to gainunderstanding from their perspective (Patton, 1990). Interviews afforded depth ofdata because participants were encouraged to reflect, discuss and share theirthoughts, beliefs and experiences (Denzin & Lincoln, 2003). To obtain rich dataand verify the authenticity of data collected, the following measures were under-taken:

• A consent form was signed by the participants.• A bilingual interview guide was given to participants prior to interviewcommencement with reminders that questions were designed to facilitateconversation.

• Participants were given time to read through the questions and encouraged tomake notes and seek clarification.

• Responses were recorded manually by the interviewer conducting the study.

Guidelines for interview questions were used to steer the conversation and coverthe various aspects ascertained in the research questions. These questions probedand covered more than one area. The guideline questions covered the followingdimensions: What tools did students use to help them reflect? What tasks had theycompleted that enhanced their reflection skills? What limitations and constraints didthey face in terms of reflecting on their own teaching? What areas did ECAE needto develop in order to improve reflective skills for better future teaching?

Examples of questions for semi-structured- interviews were as follows:

• What does reflection mean to you? What do you know about reflection?• What means do you use to reflect?• What will help you develop your reflection? How? Why• Do you tape record or video tape your teachings?• Have you experienced reflecting on your classmate’s course work/teaching/micro teaching? How did you find it?

• What elements/features would help you develop or refine writing yourreflections?

Data collected from the semistructured-focused-group-interview were grouped anditemized according to ideas relevant to perceptions, preparedness and challenges,which are the three components to be analyzed.The findings were coded anddecoded in light of the literature review traced and within the context of the study.

Literature review

Cannot teach clearly unless I recognize my own ignorance, unless I identify what Idon’t know, what I have not mastered (Freire, 1996, 2).

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Perceptions and benefits of reflections

Reflection is a threefold process comprising direct experience, analysis of ourbeliefs, values or knowledge about that experience, and consideration of the optionswhich should lead to action as a result of the analysis. Reflective practice can beseen as reconsidering and questioning experiences within a context of learning theo-ries (Whitton, 2004). Pennington (1992) describes reflective teaching as: “a move-ment in teachers’ education in which teachers analyze their own practice and theirunderlying basis and then consider alternative means of achieving their ends.”(p. 48). Al Hazmi (2006) adds that reflection incorporates a critical component,indicating that a reflective approach to teaching embodies that student teacherscollect data about teaching, examine their attitudes, beliefs, assumptions and teach-ing practices, and use the information obtained as a basis for critical reflection aboutteaching, in order to improve their practice. Kahn and Walsh (2006) view reflectionas a means for self-evaluation of one’s practice and place it at the core of the teach-ing-learning cycle.

Marcos and Tillema (2006) and Fendler (2003) emphasized the importance ofreflection to improve the teaching practice. According to Russell (1999), “teachersshould think about what they have learned from their teaching experiences, andreevaluate these experiences to see them in new ways that might suggest newpractices.”

Schön introduced the concept of reflective practice as a critical process in refin-ing one’s artistry or craft in a specific discipline. As defined by Schön (1996),reflective practice involves thoughtfully considering one’s own experiences inapplying knowledge to practice while being coached by professionals in thediscipline.

Research on effective teaching over the past two decades has shown that effec-tive practice is linked to inquiry, critical thinking and reflection that is beneficial forprofessional development. By gaining a better understanding of their own individualteaching styles through reflective practice, teachers can improve their effectivenessin the classroom. Nicole and Crespo (2003, cited in Llinares & Krainer, 2006) sug-gested that introducing analysis and reflection through teaching practice providepre-service teachers with better opportunities to integrate theory and practice, wheretheories consolidated the practice.

Dimensions of reflective practice

In a sense, we reflect constantly as we teach, responding to ongoing situations inthe classroom as they arise. This is sometimes called reflection in-action. Schön(1996) stated: “reflection in-action is a rigorous professional process involvingacknowledgement of and reflection on uncertainty and complexity in one’s practiceleading to a legitimate form of professional knowing” (p.69).

Schön (1996) preached reflection-in-action as the ability of professionals to thinkwhat they are doing while they are doing it. He believes that reflection in-actionperhaps happens intuitively. He states that reflection in-action should take placedirectly after the observation or teaching followed by coach-dialogue thinkingpractice between the mentor and the student teacher. Schön (1996) indicated thatreflection in-action occurs whilst a problem is being addressed, in what he calls the“action-present”. The other type of reflection is reflection-on-action which is usually

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documented after the observation, the task or the teaching has taken place. It is onlyafter a teaching event that there is time for in-depth reflection. This reflection-on-action is also called the post-lesson reflection. The post-lesson reflection cycle goesthrough the following stages: Rapid reflection, repair, and review, restart, retheoriz-ing and reformulating. Schön (1996) argues that both dimensions of reflection arerequired for professional development.

After the concept of reflective practice was introduced by Schön, many schools,colleges, and departments of education began designing teacher education andprofessional development programs based on the concept of reflective skills acquisi-tion and reflective practice. As the concept grew in popularity, some researcherscautioned that reflective practice (both in-action and on-action) in their teacher edu-cation programs were not well consolidated and designed (Boud & Walker, 1998).Many schools and teachers’ colleges tend to embrace the post-lesson reflection.Boud and Walker (1998) noted that shortcomings of reflective practice to theteacher education programs are structural.

Means to facilitate reflection

Danielson (cited in Kahn & Walsh, 2006) states that, in order to enhance goodteaching practice, student teachers need to reflect on their practice and thus educa-tors need to provide the appropriate means of reflective tools for student teachers.Moreover, reflective skills, cognitive and pedagogical tools need to be embedded inthe curriculum design and curriculum organization of teachers’ education (Roe,Smith, & Ross, 2010).

According to Kahn and Walsh (2006), educators need to provide the means ofreflective-cognitive tools for student teachers. This happens through the introductionof four modes of thinking: Technological thinking, situational thinking, deliberatethinking, and dialectical thinking. Coach-thinking and peer involvement are signifi-cant elements for reflective practice. In a study of how student teachers develop theskills necessary for reflective teaching, these two elements were highlighted duringtheir field experiences (Ferraro, 2000).

Ferraro (2000) explores the role of the mentor as a thinking-coach. Teachereducators can most effectively coach student teachers in reflective practice by usingstudents’ personal histories, dialogue journals, and small- and large-group discus-sions about their experiences to help students reflect upon and improve their prac-tices. According to Moore and Ash (2002) the coach or mentor plays a major rolein enhancing reflective practice for in-service teachers. Roe, Smith, and Ross (2010)present coaching as a realistic and systematic approach to ongoing teacher improve-ment through focused reflection on teaching experiences. According to Walkington(2005), reflective practice can be facilitated and modeled by mentor teachers whodemonstrate the skills of critical questioning.

One of the means to facilitate reflection is relevant to the mentor’s role as athinking-coach. In this respect, weaknesses can be addressed in light of the mentors’lack of provision of cognitive tools as means to acquire reflective skills forpre-service student teachers (Boud & Walker, 1998). Research studies, conductedwith pre-service teachers in Turkey, revealed that pre-service teachers were not givenopportunities to dialogue and discuss with their peers and mentors to expressconcerns, fears, worries and areas of development of their teaching practice, hence

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this impacted their reflective practice (Çakıroğlu & Çakıroğlu, 2003; Sahin-Taskin,2006). It has been indicated that many teacher education programs in Turkey haveprovided pre-service teachers with inadequate opportunities to engage them activelyin developing and teaching lessons and to help them connect research and practiceas well as develop research-based teaching strategies; thus action research was notencouraged for better practice and this has impacted negatively the reflective practiceamong pre-service teachers (Çakıroğlu & Çakıroğlu, 2003; Sahin–Taskin, 2006).

The absence of peer- and self-observation, which need to be embedded in theteachers’ training programs, are also considered factors that hinder reflection amongpre-service student teachers (Boud & Walker, 1998; Ferraro, 2000). Kettle and Sel-lars (1996) studied the development of third-year teaching students. They analyzedthe students’ reflective writings and interviewed them extensively about their reflec-tive practices. They found that the use of peer reflective groups encouraged studentteachers to challenge existing theories and their own preconceived views of teach-ing while modeling for them a collaborative style of professional development thatwould be useful throughout their teaching careers.

Licklider (1997) found that self-directness including self-learning from experi-ence in natural settings is an important component of reflection. Reflective skillsshould include activities such as study teams and peer coaching in which studentteachers continuously examine their practices including practices outside the teach-ing context.

Vreugdenhil (2001) and Sivan (2010) indicate that educators need to enhanceguided reflection through developing the student teachers’ ability to reflect on theirwork and on their teaching. This takes place through involving the pre-service studentteachers in enquiry activities and providing them with guided reflection sessions.

Rearick (1997) indicates that action research conducted in teacher educationprograms can be designed to engage the reflective participation of both pre-serviceand in-service teachers. Rearick (1997) describes the benefits of this activity forboth groups, as well as for the teacher educator, as used in a professional develop-ment project at the University of Hartford. In this project, experienced teachersidentified knowledge, thinking, and problem-solving techniques and decision-mak-ing processes they used in designing instruction for language arts curricula. Basedon these discussions, a pre-service course agenda for teaching reading and writingwas developed through portfolios. These student teachers also formed a criticallearning community, developed modes of inquiry, and shared their diverse ways ofvaluing, knowing, and experiencing and thus developed critical reflective skills,through their involvement in action-research.

A review of current research indicates that portfolio development has become afavorite tool used in pre-service teacher education (Roe, Smith, & Ross, 2010).Portfolios encourage beginning teachers to gather in one place significant artifactsrepresenting their professional development. According to Mohamed (2011),reflective skills are acquired gradually through maintaining a teaching journal,recording lessons, obtaining feedback through peer observation and throughobtaining feedback from the student’s journal which acts as a reflection forum.

Language and meta-cognition

As viewed by Al Hazmi (2006) EFL learners in the Arab world have problems inself-reflection; in expressing themselves adequately; and in formulating critical and

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analytical thoughts. Kharma (1985) indicates that EFL learners in the Arab worldare hindered by language to reflect and acquire meta-cognition. Graham and Phelps(2003) invite educators to consider the discourse of reflection in relation to meta-cognition: “meta-cognition is an important skill for tertiary learners, as it cultivatesthe necessary self regulation to activate and sustain cognitions, behaviors andaffects, which are systematically oriented to attainment of their goals” (p.15).

For student teachers, having the skills of meta-cognition means that they can self-monitor and self-evaluate when engaging with in new and complex knowledge; thatis significant yet a complex process that requires careful design of the teachers’ train-ing programs (Rigney & Tur, 2003). According to King and Kitchener (1994), meta-cognitive skills involve planned, informed, deliberate control of: (a) how to thinkand (b) what to think in order to maximize progress and minimize error.

Reflective writing involves evaluating experiences; processing thoughts aboutthe strengths and limitations of theory or practice hence it embodies meta-cognition.Nonetheless, meta-cognition as a stepping stone for reflective writing may beproblematic for Arabic speaking student teachers expressing themselves in a for-eign-second language (Al Hazmi, 2006).

Wade (1995) convincingly argues that writing is an essential ingredient in criti-cal thinking instruction, since it promotes greater self-expression and reflection;nevertheless if student teachers are not equipped with the writing skills needed howwould they be able to reflect in writing? Since language is at the core of the cogni-tion and production of critical thoughts and problem solving (Vygotsky, 1986), it isessential to eliminate the language factor as a barrier hindering critical thought andreflection.

Socio-cultural constraints and reflective practice

Minnis (1999) indicates that reflective practice for teachers in Brunei has been bur-dened and hindered by cultural values, where educational institutions are thoroughlyembedded within a fusion of Malay-Islamic values. Minnis (1999) indicates that ina country like Brunei, where cultural values and ideologies undergird the societyand institutions, education carries within it assumptions about the social world; thusthe nature and features of teaching and learning become incongruent with theunderlying assumptions of reflective practice. Minnis (1999) suggests that reflectionneeds to be initially technical to become meaningful and profitably utilized and thisis a considerable challenge in conservative introvert communities.

Educational reforms and reflective practice: The context of Abu Dhabi

The current ECAE pre-service student teachers have graduated from UAE PublicSchools prior to the school reforms introduced by Abu Dhabi Education Council, in2006. This cohort was subject to teacher-centered learning, where learning revolvedaround rote memorization and recitation, with little room for emphasis on the learn-ing process. In the context of school teaching-learning in Abu Dhabi, Dr. Al Khaili,the Director General of ADEC had this to say in critique of the current status ofeducation: “Abu Dhabi hasn’t gone as far as it should in changing the way weteach and what we teach in our classrooms. Teaching is still very traditional withthe teachers doing most of the talking and students listening passively. Students areviewed as empty vessels that we must fill with content knowledge. We then expect

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them to memorize all they’ve learnt and write it down in exams” (Together ADECNewsletter, 2009, p.1).

The conventional teacher-centered teaching strategies practiced prior to theeducational reforms have impacted the future teachers that are currently enrolled atECAE, in terms of absence of the analytical process of learning; hence lackingmeta-cognitive skills. The current ECAE students were disadvantaged by being partof the old education system. As Dr. Al Khaili notes in light of the newly introducedschool reforms: “Within this New School Model a new curriculum, advanced teach-ing methods and learning materials and resources are introduced in order to enhancestudent performance by developing the student as a communicator, a thinker and aproblem solver” (http://www.ameinfo.com/242007.html). These changes within theNSM necessitated becoming familiar with English as the medium for delivering thecurriculum; hence the presence of English medium teachers (EMTs) became immi-nent. EMTS were employed from countries such as United States, Ireland, England,South Africa, Canada, Australia and New Zealand to teach students in kindergartensand cycle one public schools (ADEC, 2010). The EMTs will eventually be replacedby Emirati Teachers (Al-Khaili cited in http://www.ameinfo.com/293997,html).

ECAE pre-service student teachers are the outcome of the old school systemand thus didn’t experience bilingual learning or English being the medium ofinstruction for Math and science. Though the medium of instruction at ECAE isEnglish and the college had provided English skills courses, ECAE pre-servicestudent teachers continue to face a linguistic challenge.

According to Vygotsky (1986), socio-cultural context of learning impacts learn-ing. In light of the context of this study, Richardson (2004) examined reflectivepractice among pre-service teachers in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and arguedthat “reflective practice is incongruent with the values of Arab-Islamic culture andis therefore not an appropriate approach to promote in teacher education in theUAE”. On the other hand, Clarke and Otaky (2006) denounce this argument anddon’t perceive cultural values as a constraint that Emirati female students face inreflective practice. In fact, Clarke and Otaky (2006) present evidence from pre-ser-vice teachers discourse material indicating that Emirati female pre-service teachersendorse reflections in their practice and that the concept of culture being a factorthat reduces reflective practice is a fallacy.

Likewise within the framework of the Arabian Gulf Countries, including theUnited Arab Emirates, as stated by Blaik Hourani, Diallo, and Said (2011): Islamicvalues and Islamic culture were never religiously speaking constraints to reflectivepractice at the higher education level for students in the UAE. Nevertheless, thelack of equipping students with cognitive tools and the complexity they face inreflecting, is due to the difficulty they face in internalizing their experiences andfears due to social inhibitions and the upbringing where reflecting on actions is notpracticed, and consequently reflective practice is hampered.

Conservatism features in the Emirati community; where female-male segregationcontinues to prevail in the UAE to a large extent. Due to this, ECAE has notstructured peer observation, videotaping and voice recording within the practicumor internship. Nevertheless, college mentors have encouraged it implicitly; hencethese means of reflection took place informally and to a limited extent.

Currently, reflection as witnessed at ECAE continues to be in vacuum without adesigned shape or form. Moreover, it is embedded in the course work and practi-cum, rather than mapped in the curriculum as part of the program. The triangulation

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of complexities of: school reforms, socio-cultural context and the preparation ofreflective practitioners created a challenge in terms of the gap in the learning experi-ences and processes students’ teachers at ECAE encountered, as learners on onehand and their future anticipated role as reflective practitioners, on the other.

The next section sheds light on the findings relevant to: Pre-service studentsteachers’ (PSSTs) perception of reflection, aspects of constraints and limitations thatimpede reflective practice and areas awaiting improvement; bearing in mind thedimensions of reflective practice and the means and instruments that facilitate it.

Perception of the notion of reflection

PSSTs perceived reflection in terms of giving opinion about one’s teaching andevaluating their teachings to improve practice. It involved analysis of actions andexpressing opinions. Reflection was viewed as a self-evaluation tool in terms oftracing weaknesses and strengths; being critical about the teaching experience toimprove and overcome pedagogical mistakes for re-teaching (PSSTs 1, 4, 7 and 8).

Limitations and constraints

The following limitations and constraints were voiced by PSSTs. Some of theselimitations and constraints overlapped. These included: Language barrier, difficultiesin fulfilling multi-layered tasks, nature and dimension of reflection, lack of reflec-tion skills, the absence of post development plan, emotional barrier, and externallocus of control and socio-cultural context of reflection.

Language barrier

Being non-native English speakers, PSSTs viewed language as a constraint. Thiswas categorized into: (a) expressive writing, (b) word limit, (c) language structureand (d) language dilemma. These categories intertwined in some cases, neverthelessthey were conveyed by PSSTs as distinct categories underpinning language barrier.

Expressive writing

PSSTs 3, 4, 7 and 8 stated that they faced expressive writing difficulties and inabil-ity to express ideas in English-writing since they couldn’t find the appropriatevocabulary; thus their reflections were off task and ideas were distorted andexpressed incorrectly.

Word limit

It was noticeable that word limit constrained PSSTs’ reflections as stated: “I can’tbe concise and focused in my reflection because I can’t express/reflect a genuineidea with the number of words assigned; thus my reflection becomes shallow”(PSST 4).

Language structure

As for language structure, it was noticed that PSSTs were aware of their structuraland grammatical errors; the correctness of the language became a priority over thethemes needed to be reflected on (PSST 6).

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Language dilemma

In addition to the above mentioned language barriers, PSSTs were caught betweena rock and a hard place. They could neither find the appropriate jargon to expresstheir ideas because they have limited English vocabulary, nor could they write theirreflection in Arabic (their native language), due to the fact that they weren’tequipped with the education terminologies and theories (the medium of instructionis English), so they were lost between two languages (PSSTs 5 and 7).

Difficulties in fulfilling multi-layered tasks: Linking to theories and providingevidence

PSSTs seemed to struggle if they were asked to perform a multilayered task. It ispedagogically appropriate to ask them to link theory to practice; nevertheless in cer-tain instances they seemed to fail to do so genuinely and successfully. They indi-cated the following: “It is restrictive to reflect and link to theories simultaneously.Covering two dimensions at the same time distracts us from reflection; linking totheory becomes our priority rather than focusing on our reflection” (PSST 1).Another PSST (3) added: “I am involved in two things: the practicum-teachingtasks and reflections. This made it hard to focus on my reflection.” This fact wasalso concurred by PSST 6: “what limits me from reflection is that I am asked tolink my reflection to theories. I start writing my theories first, then I reflect usingimaginary ideas that don’t coincide with my actual experiences or observations,since I am trying to match it with the theories… linking reflections to theory takesaway the real reflective ideas and thoughts.”

Nature and dimension of reflection

Though it is controversial whether reflection should be in-action or post-action,PSSTs collectively voiced that reflection in-action would help them reflect thor-oughly and meticulously. PSSTs 3, 4 and 8 explained: “we usually reflect after awhile, after the action and not during, so we forget what we did and what weobserved. We need to reflect immediately or video tape or voice record ouractions”. They added that time allocated for in-action-reflection is not scheduledwithin the practicum and internship structure. One extract reflected: “we needed toreflect directly after our teaching or observations, but the absence of allocated timehindered our reflection in action” (PSSTs 5). Boredom is another perspective raisedby PSST (8): “reflection was redundant, hollow; thus boring because it didn’t takeplace immediately after the observations and teachings.”

Lack of reflection skills

Reflection incorporates both writing and meta-cognitive skills. PSSTs elaboratedthat the absence of teaching meta-cognitive reflective skills is a missing componentin their training. PSSTs 4, 5, 7 and 8 evidenced this fact by indicating that in yearthree a one-hour reflection workshop (before practicum three) was offered, thoughreflection tasks were integrated in assignments prior to this workshop. They voicedthe need to be taught how to write a reflection, and share examples of reflectivewriting in an extensive manner. One excerpt conveyed: “what contributed to theconstraints was the absence of free reflection which wasn’t necessarily bound topedagogies and teaching practice” (PSST 2).

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The absence of post development plan

The ultimate goal behind reflection is to improve and develop the teaching practice.The mentor’s focused-feedback is one integral element in reflective practice.Accordingly, a professional development plan dialogued, constructed and sharedwith PSSTs. Nevertheless, PSSTs voiced the lack of a professional plan and conti-nuity to monitor their in-practice progress. PSSTs 3, 4 and 5 illustrated that somestudents didn’t want to reflect, because improving or developing themselves profes-sionally without the mentors’ coaching was beyond them; consequently reflectingon their own teaching was meaningless and insignificant (PSSTs 1 and 7).

Emotional barrier

An emotional factor has been associated with the limitations. PSSTs portrayed afear from reflection. The shame element was vivid within the territory of reflection.The following anecdotes described collectively the emotional hardships PSSSTsfaced: First, they think they are correct and they can’t see their shortcomings andthe areas requiring development. Second, they are shy to reflect because self-criti-cism is hard; this leads to the lack of transparency. Third, they are concerned tolose self-confidence due to realizing their weaknesses. Fourth, reflection impactstheir self-esteem negatively; thus they are embarrassed in case someone reads theirpitfalls. Fifth, focusing on their weaknesses is distressful and stressful. Sixth,reflecting on mistakes is disappointing, especially when reflecting on a preparedlesson. Seventh, they encounter dishonesty and ingenuity in reflections, due to thetendency for overlooking their mistakes as a self-defense mechanism.

External locus of control

In some cases, PSSTs practiced the blame game. Some of them perceived the loopsin the system and the gaps embedded in the weak opportunities and instruments pro-vided for reflection at the core of their reflective deficiencies. The following narrates:“I always blame my weaknesses on the school system, school administration andcollege and school mentors… It is hard to face my weaknesses” (PSSTs 2 and 5).

Socio-cultural context of reflection

The socio-cultural context of reflection revolves around whether the theories taughtat ECAE are contextualized within the PSSTs’ teaching observations and practicesat Abu Dhabi Public Schools. A dilemma was experienced as a result of the globaltheories taught at ECAE, on one hand and the educational and pedagogical theoriesemerging as an outcome of the PSSTs practice, on the other hand. Two dimensionsfeatured the socio-cultural context leading to perplexity on the reflection front: (a)Inconsistencies between theories and practice, (b) context of upbringing and (c)context of learning.

Inconsistencies between theories and practice

In light of the constraints caused by the context of learning theories, PSSTsexplained the vicious circle they are caught in. During their observations andteachings, PSSTs encountered reflective substance and content that emerged from

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organic situations and local-socio-cultural context of teaching-learning that doesn’tmatch the ECAE global syllabus embodying Western theories. Nevertheless, PSSTsstill needed to link their reflections to the Western theories covered in the course-work, therefore their reflections become fake and irrelevant to the context of teach-ing-learning in Abu Dhabi, which defeated the purpose (PSSTs 3, 4 and 7).

Context of upbringing

PSST 4 narrated the following in light of their context as learners: “we are not areflective community (UAE). Reflection is not rooted in our norms. Reflection isnot practiced at home and is not part of our upbringing. If a child does a mistakewe punish him we don’t ask him why? Or ask him to explain? Or request a correc-tive measure. We were never given the opportunity as children to reflect on ourbehavior or actions … our actions are either good or bad”. Another excerptexplains: “It is difficult to reflect on our teaching, because we were not brought upto see our mistakes or admit them, so our reflection is not genuine or transparent”(PSSTs 6). Another concurs: “as UAE students we are not critical thinkers. Atschool, we were never given the opportunity to think or evaluate” (PSST 4).

Context of learning

The context of learning was another area triggering constraints as PSSTs 5 and 8noted that they face difficulty in analyzing their weaknesses. This stems from thelack of developed experiences resulting from the absence of “the culture of read-ing”, generally speaking and specifically speaking in relation to their specializationdomain. “We don’t read… reading gives us depth and knowledge and helps us becritical. We lack the depth and this restricts us from reflecting. Lack of readingmakes us superficial; it impacts our reflection” (PSST 5).

Causes behind limitationsNumber of PSSTs’

Responses

Correctness and the structure of the language 25Linking reflection to theories 30Providing evidence for my reflection 9Word count 34Reflecting in my non-native language impacts my criticalreflection

11

Not sharing my reflections with peers 19Languages dilemma 14

The table below sheds light on some figures of what PSSTs perceived as limitationsimpacting critical and in-depth reflection.

Instruments and means

PSSTs used a variety of reflective means and instruments. These means andinstruments were not equally viewed as effective and beneficial.

Written Reflection

In most cases the only means used to present reflection was in writing. This under-pinned complexities in expressing clear, genuine and transparent ideas. Written

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reflections were associated with language barriers and addressed as a limitation. Asnoted by PSSTs 1 and 7, reflecting in writing and retrieving notes from mobileswere the major means for reflection.

Videotaping and recording

Due to socio-cultural inhibitions, videotaping and voice recording were not meansfor reflection; nevertheless some PSSTs favored it and practiced it as a personalchoice; provided it was not prohibited by their schools. PSSTs (1) stated: “videotapes facilitate our reflection. When we record we are more aware of our mistakes.We recorded though we were not asked to do so”. To concur with this, PSST 8voiced: “I use video recording and voice recording for self-evaluation; this helps…I do oral reflection prior to writing my reflections”. In contrast, PSST 3 stated thebenefits of videotaping; simultaneously voicing their concern in terms of the socio-cultural inhibition associated with voice recording and videotaping: “videotapinghelps me reflect, so I don’t forget what I did, but we are not allowed to videotapefor socio-cultural reasons… families don’t allow the girls to be videotaped.”

Translating

Translation wasn’t an agreeable means, though some PSSTs preferred to write inclassical Arabic or colloquial Arabic (mother tongue) to facilitate their reflection.Others noted that translation was inaccurate and hard. “Due to language difficulties,I usually write my reflections in Arabic then translate it” (PSST 1). PSSTs indi-cated: “I usually write my reflection in colloquial-Arabic (Emirati) and then trans-late it to English” (PSSTs 3). In contradiction, though some PSSTs are challengedlinguistically, they still preferred to write in English, since translation is hard andlacks precision (PSSTs 2 and 5). With respect to this, linguistic dualism was raised,first the thinking-language and second, the writing-language. This was evidenced:“we think in Arabic, we discuss and share ideas with our peers in Arabic, but wewrite in English” (PSST 7). This dualism of expressing verbally in their mothertongue and then writing in English was noted as beneficial since it facilitatedreflective writing (PSSTs 2 and 5).

Peer-observation

The significance of peer observation was controversial. Though peer observationwasn’t required in the practicum some students took a personal initiative to practiceit. An example of the inefficiency of peer observation was claimed by PSST 2:“peer observation doesn’t help us, because we know ourselves better than othersknow us”. On the other hand, PSST 7 indicated: “peer observation helps us thinkabout our actions, though it is not part of our practicum tasks.”

Role of mentor

PSSTs identified the mentor as a thinking coach. PSST 2 claimed: “written and oralfeedbacks from school and college mentors were beneficial”. It was viewedcollectively that the insufficient observations conducted by some college mentorsand the feedbacks they get from some school and college mentors were too general

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and lacked pedagogical specifications. Moreover, dialogue between the mentors andPSSTs wasn’t evident in some instances. Consequently, the feedback as means ofreflections impacted the reflection content. Another concern was raised in relationto the frequency, quality and depth of feedback and guidance provided by theschool and college mentors (PSSTs 1, 2, 3 and 7).

The table below explains the instruments used by pre-service teachers to reflect.

Means used for reflectingNumber of PSSTs’

responses

I reflect in Arabic then translate. 9I videotape, then write my reflections. 10I tape record then write my reflections. 5I reflect through peer observation. 20I do coach thinking with my peers to share verbally andinformally, then I write my reflections.

21

I use college-mentor feedback to reflect. 8

Areas that need improvement

Based on PSSTs’ responses, areas awaiting improvement revolved around: (a)improving the means and instruments used to facilitate reflection and (b) enhancingdialogue among peers and between the college mentors and PSSTs. These areaswere embedded in: peer and mentor sharing, mitigating language barrier, logisticsand dimensions of reflection and free reflections.

Peer and mentor sharing

Post-observation, dialoguing and discussing ideas were voiced by PSSTs as an areaneeding improvement. The following means were suggested to promote betterreflective practice:

• Voice recording and videotaping observations (PSSTs 1 and 4).• Organizing and facilitating the logistics for peer observations and peer feedbackto be embedded in the practicum and training structure (PSSTs 1, 2, 4,5and 8).

• Constructing an e-portfolio for students to share reflections (PSSTs 2 and 4).• Designing forum and group discussions prior to writing reflections. This needsto be assigned as a task and allocated time within practicum as a postobservation and post teaching task (PSSTs 3, 4 and 5).

• Writing and publishing students’ reflective journals and constructing areflection blog (PSSTs 7 and 8).

• Designing follow up support plans to track progress and development(PSSTs 3).

Mitigating language barrier

Language barrier was regarded by PSSTs as a limitation on various structural andexpressive writing levels. The following were proposed accordingly: (a) designingguided questions to improve English reading comprehension drills (PSSTs 1, 5 and8 and (b) practicing and conducting verbal/oral reflection with mentors prior towritten reflections (PSSTs 3 and 8).

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Logistics and dimensions

Reflections were taken for granted to be situated as post-observation and post-teach-ing tasks and no specific design or structure was customized. In this respect PSST2 noted: “we need to be allocated time to reflect on the spot (reflection in-action).”PSST 3 conveyed the urge for designing reflective skills courses through which thepractice of various levels of reflection such as technical, practical, critical reflectionare enhanced.

Free reflections

According to PSSTs, free reflection practice need to be promoted prior to contextu-alizing it within the pedagogical and curricular framework. It was observed byPSSTs that initially free reflections- such as reflecting on art work, drama, music orliterary pieces will be constructive in terms of acquiring and demonstrating reflec-tive skills and techniques, where students can reflect freely demonstrate pair orgroup reflections(PSSTs 2, 4 and 5). As evidenced, PSST 5 elaborated: “reflectionneeds to be less specific and not narrowed down to certain areas and topics”.

The following section illustrates further analysis in light of the PSSTs’ reflectivepractice within the context of education in Abu Dhabi.

Discussion

PSSTs perceived reflection as evaluating one’s teaching for improving the teachingpractice. There have been social and emotional elements interwoven with the limita-tions presented by the PSSTs. These barriers stem from their upbringing generallyspeaking or are based on the extent to which individuals are brought up to beextroverts. This perspective of social inhibition was also vivid in terms of sharingexperiences by means of videotaping, tape recording and peer observation.

The practicum reflection tasks were written tasks (using English as a medium ofwriting). Given the premise that PSSTs were non-native English speakers, thewriting component of the reflection tasks underpinned their limitations. Languagebarrier as a limitation was proactively addressed. In this respect, Wade’s (1995) argu-ment about language impacting reflection is valid. As conveyed in the findings, thecore means of reflection was through writing; where language being intertwined withthe thinking process has hampered the production of critical thoughts. Mixed ideaswere presented on the students’ language preference and how comfortable they werein using English or Arabic language as a reflection means. Some PSSTs initiallybased their written reflection on their familiarity with expressing their ideas in Arabicand then translated it into English. Others chose to stick to English, based on theirpreference to tighten the gap between the linguistic and expressive-language barrierthey are facing, on one hand and the links to Western theories, on the other hand.

Due to the language barrier, oral reflection which is not integrated in thestructure of the practicum and internship program has been voiced as an easier toolto facilitate reflective practice. Oral reflection ought to be practiced as a preliminaryto written reflections; hence more dialogue between PSSTs and their mentors(school and college) needs to take place primarily, as an integral component of thefocused feedback communicated orally.

The findings conveyed that post-action rather than in-action reflection wascommonly practiced as a basis for reflections; in this perspective, the absence of astructured form for the reflection logistics was addressed. PSSTs have noted the

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need for reflection in-action and this brings Schön’s (1996) standpoint to thesurface, where both reflection in-action and post- reflection are required for betterpractice. Changes in the logistics and dimension of reflection tasks in terms ofreflection in-action and post-reflection ought be modeled and shaped through peer-and self-observations, forums and blogs of discussions.

Enhancing self-observation and meta-cognitive skills needs to be integrated inthe course work to equip students with means to reflect on their own learning. Peerobservation as a form of social learning, shaped by dialogue, consolidates thereflection with depth and inquisition of one’s pitfalls. This necessitates the incorpo-ration of meta-cognitive practice in the coursework to escalate reflection from thedescriptive level to the critical and practical levels, for better teaching practice.

Though action research at ECAE is offered along with the internship in the lastyear of the program, the notion of action research needs to be sequentially and gradu-ally introduced across the practicum years to instill self-observation and evaluation ofpractice and strengthen the reflective component embedded and intertwined within it.Action research encompasses: (a) reflection and (b) the construction of a developmentplan as part of its cycle; both elements were addressed as areas requiring improve-ment to promote and solidify reflective practice. In coherence with this, Şahin-Taşkın(2006) indicates that increased attention should be given on action research toimprove reflection and eventually practices in teacher education programs.

Restructuring and redesigning reflective practice within the teachers’ collegeprogram needs to be organic and culturally-based. The anticipated challenges withinthe school reforms framework need to be aligned with the professional standardsexpected of future Emirati teachers. Hence, the findings proposed to improve thequality of school teaching-learning through reflective practice are in line withADEC’s school vision of creating a qualified Emirati teacher to cater for the NSM.The existence of EMTs is a transitional period until Emirati teachers are readyto form the infrastructure of the school system (ADEC, 2010). Abu Dhabi’s plan isto staff schools with more Emirati teachers: “one of ADEC’s highest priorities is toemploy qualified teachers. The Emiratisation2 plan announced by ADEC outlinedtheir intention to hire as many Emirati graduates as possible to fill open positions inthe 2011–2012 academic year.” (Al Khaili cited by Ahmed, 2012).

The challenges involve developing the quality of education at the school level bymeans of teachers’ training both in-service and pre-service (Al Khaili cited in Kanaan,2008). Conclusively, reflective practice renders teachers’ training significant.

Conclusion

Professional reflective practice is complex. The implemented means, dimensionsand logistics of reflection embodied multilayered and intertwined limitations andconstraints that need to be addressed through redesigning and restructuring thereflective tasks required for better practice. Teachers’ colleges need to structure andmodel the teachers’ training practices on the basis of the appropriate linguistic,cognitive and pedagogical means to promote reflective skills for better practice.

Notes1. A long-term plan for the transformation of the Emirate’s economy, including a reduced

reliance on the oil sector as a source of economic activity over time and a greater focuson knowledge-based industries in the future.

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2. Emiratization is an initiative by the government of the United Arab Emirates to employits citizens in a meaningful and efficient manner in the public and private sectors. Whilethere is general agreement over the importance of Emiratization for social, economicand political reasons, there is also some contention as to the impact of localization onorganizational efficiency, effectiveness and quality.

Notes on contributorRida Blaik Hourani holds a PhD from The University of Melbourne in Education. She iscurrently an assistant professor at the Emirates College for Advanced Education, Abu Dhabi,United Arab Emirates. She is involved in teaching at both the BEd level and postgraduatediploma level. Her teaching experience embodies teaching classroom management,curriculum and instructions and methods of teaching social studies. Her research focus is inteaching–learning, curriculum, teaching social studies, sociology of education and schoolreforms in a post-colonial context.

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